What is Marco Polo famous for? Marco Polo - the great traveler from old Venice

Marco Polo is an Italian merchant and traveler who, after his trip to Asia, wrote “The Book of the Diversity of the World.”

Marco Polo was born in 1254. In 1260, Marco's father and uncle, the Venetian merchants Niccolò and Maffeo Polo, set out from Constantinople, where they had been trading for several years, to Asia. They visited the Crimea, Bukhara, and the farthest point of their journey was the residence of the great Mongol Khan Kublai Khan. After negotiations with the Venetians, Kublai decided to enter into relations with the West and decided to send an embassy to the pope, instructing both Polo brothers to be his representatives before the pope. In 1266, the Polo brothers set off for Europe. In 1269 they reached the fortress of Akka on the Mediterranean Sea and there learned that Pope Clement IV, to whom they had a message from Kublai Kublai, had died and a new pope had not yet been elected. The papal legate who was in Akka ordered them to wait for the election of the pope. And then the brothers decided to spend their waiting time in Venice, where they had not been for fifteen years. They lived in their homeland for two years, and the election of the pope was still postponed. Then the Polo brothers went to Akka again, taking with them young Marco, who was then no more than seventeen years old. In Akka they received from the papal legate a letter to Kublai, in which they reported the death of Pope Clement IV. But as soon as they set off, they learned that the papal legate had himself been elected pope under the name of Gregory X. The new pope ordered the messengers to return the travelers from the road and presented them with letters to the Great Khan, after which the Venetians set off on their long journey again.

Returning to Mongolia, the Polo brothers did not follow the same path that they followed to the Great Khan the first time. If before they traveled along the foothills of the northern Tien Shan, which significantly lengthened the road, now they took a shorter route - through what is now Afghanistan. But despite this, their journey to the residence of Kublai Khan lasted about three and a half years.

2 Armenia

Marco Polo, together with his father and uncle, began the journey from Lesser Armenia, which is characterized in his book as “a very unhealthy country.” The Venetians were greatly impressed by the trading city of Layas (Ayas), located on the seashore - a storage point for valuable Asian goods and a meeting place for merchants from all countries. From Lesser Armenia, Marco Polo went to the Turkmen land. Greater Armenia, which Marco Polo then visited, was a convenient base for the Tatar army. From Greater Armenia the Venetians went northeast, to Georgia, which stretched along the southern slope of the Caucasus.

3 Tabriz

The travelers then descended to the kingdom of Mosul. Then they visited Baghdad, where “the caliph of all the Saracens in the world lives.” From Baghdad, Venetian travelers reached Tabriz (Tabriz), a Persian city in the province of Azerbaijan. Tabriz is a large trading city, lying among beautiful gardens. Merchants there trade in precious stones and make great profits. The main trade of the country is horses and donkeys, which the inhabitants send to Kizi and Kurmaz (Hormuz), and from there to India.

From Tabriz, the travelers again descended south, to the Persian city of Yazdi (Yezd), and then, after traveling for seven days through magnificent forests teeming with game, they arrived in the province of Kerman. There, in the mountains, miners mined turquoise and iron. Leaving the city of Kerman, Marco Polo and his companions arrived nine days later in the city of Kamadi, surrounded by beautiful groves of date palms and pistachio trees.

4 Hormuz

Continuing their journey to the south, the travelers reached the fertile valley of Kurmaz, present-day Hormuz, and then arrived on the shores of the Persian Gulf, in the city of Hormuz. This area, rich in dates and spices, seemed very hot and unhealthy to the Venetians. Hormuz was a major trading city. They were delivered there from different places for sale precious stones, silk and gold fabrics, ivory, date wine and bread, and then exported all these goods on ships. “Their ships are bad,” noted Marco Polo, “and many of them perish because they are not nailed together with iron nails, but are sewn together with ropes from the bark of Indian nuts.”

From Hormuz, Marco Polo and his companions, rising to the northeast, set out on a dangerous road through a barren desert, in which only bitter, standing water was found, and seven days later reached the city of Kobinan (Kuhbenan). Further, Marco Polo's path ran through the cities of Sapurgan (Shibargan) and Taikan (Talikan - in the northeast of Afghanistan).

Next, the travelers entered the Shesmur region (Kashmir). If Marco Polo had kept his course, he would have come to India. But he rose from here to the north and twelve days later arrived in the land of Wakhan. Then, through the mountainous deserts of the Pamirs, after a forty-day journey, the travelers reached the province of Kashgar. Now they found themselves in a country where Maffeo and Niccolo Polo had already been, during their journey from Bukhara to the residence of the Great Khan. From Kashgar, Marco Polo turned west to visit Samarkand. Then, returning again to Kashgar, he headed to Yarkan, then to Khotan, and then reached the border of the great Taklamakan desert. After a five-day journey across a sandy plain, the Venetians arrived at the city of Lob, where they rested for eight days in preparation for crossing the desert stretching to the east.

5 Kanpichion

In a month, the travelers crossed the desert and arrived in the province of Tangut, in the city of Shazhou (now Dun-hua), built on western border Chinese Empire. Then the travelers went to the city of Suktan (now Jiuquan), in the vicinity of which rhubarb is grown in large quantities, and then to the city of Kanpichion (now Zhangye, in the central part Chinese province Gansu) was the then capital of the Tanguts. “This is a large, majestic city, in which noble and rich idolaters live, having many wives,” wrote Marco Polo. Three Venetians lived whole year in this city. From there, Marco Polo traveled to the Karakoram, for which he had to cross the Gobi Desert twice.

6 Meeting with the Khan

The Venetians traveled through the province of Senduk (Tenduk) and, having climbed over the Great Wall of China, arrived at Chiagannor (in inner Mongolia), where one of the summer palaces of the Great Khan was located. Having left Chiagannor, they arrived three days later in Chianda (Shandu), and there the travelers were received by the great Khan Kublai Khan, who lived in his summer residence located beyond the " Great Wall» north of Khanbalik (Beijing).

Marco Polo says little about the reception given to the Venetians by Kublai Kublai, but describes in great detail the palace of the Great Khan, built of stone and marble and all gilded inside. The palace was located in a park surrounded by a wall; All kinds of animals and birds were gathered there, fountains flowed, and bamboo gazebos stood everywhere. Kublai Khan lived in the summer palace for three months a year.

7 Khanbalik

Together with the court of Kublai Khan, the travelers then moved to the capital of the empire, Khanbalik (Beijing), where the magnificent palace of the khan was located. Marco Polo described this khan’s palace in detail in his book: “For three months a year, December, January and February, the great khan lives in the main city of China, Khanbalik; there it is Grand Palace, and here it is: first of all, a square wall; each side is a mile long, and in the area, that means four miles; the wall is thick, a good ten steps high, white and jagged all around; in every corner there is a beautiful, rich palace; they contain the harness of the Great Khan; there is also a palace at each wall, the same as the coal ones; in total there are eight palaces along the walls. Behind this wall there is another, smaller in diameter than in length; and here are eight palaces, the same as the first ones, and the harness of the Great Khan is also kept in them. In the middle is the palace of the Great Khan, it is built like this: this has never been seen anywhere else; there is no second floor, and the foundation is ten spans above the ground; the roof is high. The walls in the large and small chambers are covered with gold and silver, and dragons, birds, horses and all kinds of animals are painted on them, and the walls are so covered that nothing is visible except gold and painting. The hall is so spacious, more than six thousand people can be there. You’re amazed at how many rooms there are, spacious and beautifully arranged. And the roof is red, green, blue, yellow, of all colors, thinly and skillfully laid out, glitters like crystal and glows from afar.”

Marco Polo lived in Khanbalik for quite a long time. The Great Khan liked him very much for his lively mind, sharpness and ability to easily learn local dialects. As a result, Khubilai gave Marco Polo various instructions and sent him not only to different areas China, but also in Indian seas, to the island of Ceylon, to the Coromandel and Malabar Islands and to Cochin China (Indo-China). In 1280, Marco Polo was appointed ruler of the city of Yangui (Yangzhou) and twenty-seven other cities in this region. Carrying out orders from the Great Khan, Marco Polo traveled throughout most of China and conveyed in his book a lot of information that was valuable both ethnographically and geographically.

8 First trip to China

The Great Khan gave Marco Polo an assignment and sent him as a messenger to the west. Leaving Khanbalik, he walked in this direction for four months. On a beautiful stone bridge with twenty-four arches, three hundred steps long, Marco Polo crossed the Yellow River. Having traveled thirty miles, the traveler entered a large and beautiful city Zhigi (Zhuoxian), where silk and gold fabrics are made and sandalwood is processed with great skill. Moving further west, Marco Polo ten days later reached the region of Taian Fu (Taiyuan), abounding in vineyards and mulberry trees.

Finally, having traveled through all of China, the traveler reached Tibet. According to Marco Polo, Tibet is a very large region whose people speak their own special dialect and worship idols. There are good harvests of cinnamon and “many spices that have never been seen in our countries.”

Having left Tibet, Marco Polo headed to the region of Gaindu (Qiondzi) and from there, crossing big river Jinshajiang (apparently Yangtze) - reached Karazhan (now Yunnan province). From there, heading south, Polo entered the province of Zerdendan, whose capital Nochian was located on the site of the present city of Yongchang-fu. Next, following high road, serving as a trade route between India and Indo-China, he passed through the Baoshan region (in Yunnan province) and after traveling on horseback for fifteen days through forests teeming with elephants and other wild animals, he reached the city of Mian (Mianning). The city of Mian, long since destroyed, was famous at that time for a miracle of architectural art: two towers made of beautiful stone. One was covered with gold sheets as thick as a finger, and the other with silver. Both of these towers were supposed to serve as a tombstone for King Mian, but his kingdom fell and became part of the domain of the Great Khan.

Marco Polo then descended to Bangala, present-day Bengal, which at that time, in 1290, had not yet been captured by Kublai Khan. From there the traveler headed east to the city of Kangigu (apparently in Northern Laos). Residents there tattooed their bodies, pricking images of lions, dragons and birds with needles on their faces, necks, stomachs, arms and legs. Marco Polo did not go further south than Cangigu during this journey. From here he ascended to the northeast and after fifteen days of travel he arrived in Toloman Province (on the border of the current provinces of Yunnan and Guizhou).

Having left Toloman, Marco Polo followed twelve days along the river, on the banks of which they often met big cities and villages, and arrived in the province of Kungui, which was located within the boundaries of the possessions of the Great Khan; In this country, Marco Polo was amazed by the abundance of wild animals, especially bloodthirsty lions. From this province, Marco Polo headed to Kachian-fu (Hejiang), from where he took the road he was already familiar with, which led him back to Kublai Khan.

9 Second trip to China

After some time, Marco Polo, with a new assignment from the Great Khan, made another trip to the south of China. First of all, he visited large area Manzi, where he visited the city of Koigangui (Huai'an), located on the banks of the Yellow River. The inhabitants of this city were engaged in extracting salt from salt lakes. Then, moving further and further south, the traveler visited several trading cities one after another: Panshin (Baoying), Kaiu (Gaoyu), Tigui (Taizhou) and, finally, Yangui (Yangzhou). In the city of Yangui, Marco Polo was governor for three years. However, even during this period he did not remain in one place for long. Continuing to travel around the country, he carefully studied the coastal and inland cities.

Marco Polo described in his book the city of Sainfu (Yangfen), located in the northern part of Hebei province. It was last city Manzi region, who resisted Kublai Kublai after the entire region had been conquered. The Great Khan besieged the city for three years and captured it thanks to the assistance of the Venetians Polo. They advised the khan to build throwing machines - ballistas. As a result, the city was destroyed by a hail of stones, many of which reached three hundred pounds.

From all cities southern China Marco Polo made the greatest impression on Kinsai (Hangzhou), located on the navigable Qiantanjiang River. In the words of Marco Polo, "twelve thousand stone bridges in it, and under the arches of each bridge or most of the bridges, ships can pass, and under the arches of others - smaller ships. Don't be surprised that there are a lot of bridges here; the city, I tell you, is all in water, and there is water all around; you need a lot of bridges here to get everywhere.”

Marco Polo then went to the city of Fugi (Fujian). According to him, there were often revolts of the population against Mongol rule. Located not far from Fuga big port Cayton, conducting a brisk trade with India. From there, after five days of travel, Marco Polo arrived in the city of Zaitong (Quanzhou), the farthest point on his journey through southeastern China.

Marco Polo, having successfully completed his journey, returned again to the court of Kublai Khan. After that, he continued to carry out his various instructions, using his knowledge of Mongolian, Turkish, Manchu and Chinese languages. He took part in an expedition to the Indian Islands and subsequently wrote a report on the voyage through these, then little-known, seas.

10 Leaving China

For eleven years, not counting the time spent traveling from Europe to China, Marco Polo, his father Niccolo and uncle Maffeo remained in the service of the Great Khan. They were homesick and wanted to return to Europe, but Kublai did not agree to let them go. The Venetians rendered him many valuable services, and he offered them all kinds of gifts and honors in order to keep them at his court. However, the Venetians continued to insist on their position. Unexpectedly, a happy accident helped them.

The Mongol Khan Arhun, who reigned in Persia, sent envoys to the Great Khan, who were instructed to ask Kublai Kublai's daughter for Arhun as his wife. Kublai agreed to give his daughter for him and decided to send the bride with a large retinue and a rich dowry to Persia, to Arhun. But the countries lying on the way from China to Persia were in the grip of a rebellion against Mongol rule and it was not safe to travel through them. After some time, the caravan was forced to turn back.

The ambassadors of the Persian Khan, having learned that the Venetians were skilled navigators, began to ask Kublai to entrust them with the “princess”: the ambassadors wanted the Venetians to deliver her to Persia in a roundabout way, by sea, which was not so dangerous.

Kublai Khan, after much hesitation, acquiesced to this request and ordered a fleet of fourteen four-masted ships to be equipped. Maffeo, Niccolo and Marco Polo led the expedition, which was on the road for more than three years.

In 1291, the Mongol fleet left the port of Zaitong (Quanzhou). From here he headed to the vast country of Chianba (Chamba, one of the regions of present-day Vietnam), which was subordinate to the Great Khan. Next, the Khan's fleet headed to the island of Java, which Kublai could not capture.

11 Sumatra

After stopping on the islands of Sendur and Condor (off the coast of Cambodia), Marco Polo reached the island of Sumatra, which he called Lesser Java. “This island extends so far to the south that polar Star completely invisible, neither less nor more,” he said. And this is true for the residents of southern Sumatra. The land there is surprisingly fertile; wild elephants and rhinoceroses, which Marco Polo called unicorns, are found on the island.

Bad weather delayed the fleet for five months, and the traveler took advantage of the opportunity to visit the main provinces of the island. He was especially struck by sago trees: “Their bark is thin, but inside there is only flour; They make delicious dough from it.” Finally, the winds allowed the ships to leave Java Lesser.

12 Ceylon

The fleet headed southwest and soon reached Ceylon. This island, Polo said, was once much larger, but the north wind blew there with such force that the sea flooded part of the land. In Ceylon, according to Marco Polo, the most expensive and most beautiful rubies, sapphires, topazes, amethysts, garnets, opals and other precious stones were mined.

Sixty miles east of Ceylon, the sailors encountered the large Maabar region (Coromandel coast of the Hindustan Peninsula). She was famous for pearl fishing. Marco Polo's journey through India continued along the Coromandel Coast.

From the coast of India, Marco Polo's fleet returned to Ceylon again, and then went to the city of Kail (Kayal) - at that time a busy port where ships from many eastern countries called. Further, rounding Cape Comorin, the southernmost point of Hindustan, the sailors saw Coillon (present-day Quilon), a harbor on the Malabar coast, which in the Middle Ages was one of the main points of trade with Western Asia.

Leaving Coillon and continuing to sail north along the Malabar coast, Marco Polo's fleet reached the shores of the country of Eli. Having then visited Melibar (Malabar), Gozurat (Gujarat) and Makoran (Makran) - the last city in the northwestern part of India - Marco Polo, instead of ascending to Persia, where the groom of the Mongol princess was waiting for him, headed west across the Gulf of Oman.

13 Madagascar

Marco Polo's desire to see new countries was so strong that he deviated five hundred miles to the side, to the shores of Arabia. The Polo flotilla headed to the island of Skotra (Socotra), which lies at the entrance to the Gulf of Aden. Then descending a thousand miles to the south, he sent his fleet to the shores of Madagascar.

According to the traveler, Madagascar is one of the largest and most beautiful islands in the whole world. The residents here were engaged in crafts and traded in ivory. Merchants who arrived here from the coast of India took only twenty days to travel by sea, but the return journey took them at least three months, since the current in the Mozambique Channel carried their ships to the south. Nevertheless, Indian merchants willingly visited this island, selling gold and silk fabrics here with great profit and receiving sandalwood and ambergris in return.

14 Hormuz

Rising from Madagascar to the northwest, Marco Polo sailed to the island of Zanzibar, and then to the African coast. Marco Polo visited primarily Abasia or Abyssinia, very rich country, where they grow a lot of cotton and make good fabrics from it; then the fleet reached the port of Zeila, almost at the entrance to the Bab el-Mandeb Strait, and then, following the shores of the Gulf of Aden, stopped successively in Aden, Qalhat (Qalhat), Dufar (Zafar) and, finally, Kurmoz (Hormuz).

Marco Polo's voyage ended in Hormuz. The Mongol princess finally reached the Persian border. By the time of her arrival, Khan Arhun had already died and internecine wars began in the Persian kingdom. Marco Polo gave the Mongol princess under the protection of Arhun's son Hassan, who was just at that time fighting with his uncle, Arhun's brother, who was trying to seize the vacated throne. In 1295, Ghassan's rival was strangled, and Ghassan became the Persian Khan. The further fate of the Mongolian princess is unknown. Marco Polo, together with his father and uncle, hurried to his fatherland. Their path lay to Trebizond, Constantinople and Negropont (Chalkis), where they boarded a ship and sailed to Venice.

15 Return to Venice

In 1295, after an absence of twenty-four years, Marco Polo returned to hometown. Three travelers, scorched by the sultry rays of the sun, in rough Tatar clothes, with Mongolian manners, almost forgotten native speech, were not recognized even by their closest relatives. In addition, rumors about their death had long been circulating in Venice, and everyone considered the three Polos to have died in Mongolia.

Historical reference

Marco Polo was born on September 15, 1254 in the large Italian trading city of Venice. He came from a merchant family, which partly determined him future fate. Medieval trade was based on trips to other countries for valuable goods, which can partly be considered a journey. Father Marco, returning in 1269 from Mongolia, Crimea and the lands of modern Uzbekistan, spoke about large and little-explored countries that are rich in strange goods. The commercial orientation became the basis of a new campaign that lasted 24 years, on which young Marco Polo set out in 1271.

Life in China, where the merchants arrived in 1275, was successful, except for the excessive guardianship of Kublai Khan over them. According to historians, the older Polo brothers were good advisers on technical re-equipment Chinese army. Marco was also quite smart, and the khan entrusted him with diplomatic work. With instructions from Kublai Kublai, Marco Polo traveled almost all of China, becoming acquainted with the history of the country and its culture. Foreigners were probably beneficial to the khan, so until 1292 they lived as if in a golden cage.

Only chance helped them leave China. To escort princesses to Persia, who were given as wives to the ruler of this country, the khan needed especially trusted persons. There were no better candidates than the Polo brothers. The travelers decided to go by sea: by land it was quite dangerous due to the strife between the princes within the country. The sea voyage ended successfully both for the future wives in the harem of the Persian ruler, and for Marco Polo, the traveler and writer. The road home did not only pass through Persia, where the fleet with the royals was actually heading. Along the way, Marco Polo described the new lands he saw. Sumatra, Ceylon, Madagascar, Malaysia and a number of other islands, the African coast, India and many other lands were included in the stories of Marco Polo.

Significance for modern times

Arriving home, Marco Polo was imprisoned as a participant in the civil war, but was soon released. Death overtook him in 1324, when he was known and respected for the book he wrote and the stories of his own adventures. Despite many inaccuracies in his narrative, it was from the pages of the initially handwritten (and from 1477 printed) edition that Europeans first learned about Japan, Indonesia, and Indochina. Today, this campaign of Marco Polo, his story about what he saw, makes it possible to spend a vacation in Bali, travel to Sumatra, Java, Borneo and many other islands. These places are loved by many lovers of beach holidays, diving, and surfing. The nature of the region is untouched by civilization, and fans of ecotourism will appreciate the pristine flora of the Indonesian islands.

The description of Chipingu Island opened up Japan to readers, and modern tourists the opportunity to visit this island country. Although this island is one of the 3922 that make up Japan, the information received about it then has turned into a powerful tourism industry today, offering tours to the most technologically advanced state in the world. Traveling in the spring, during the cherry blossom period, is most popular among Russian tourists. Also favorite places for vacationers in Japan are thermal springs and a variety of natural parks. And, of course, the culture that is unusual for Europeans attracts people.

Despite the fame of China at the time of Polo, his popularization of this country, and the abundance of information received during his 17 years in China attracted many Europeans to these places. Today, tours to China are becoming increasingly popular, and the Chinese themselves, as a sign of gratitude to Marco Polo for his achievements in the development of their country, erected a monument to him.

Conclusion

Christopher Columbus used The Diversity of the World as an authoritative reference in his search for India. Despite the apparent fame of Columbus's biography, many facts from his fate will be of interest to readers.

Marco Polo - famous Italian traveler, Venetian merchant, writer.

Documents about Marco’s birth have not been preserved, so all information is approximate and inaccurate. It is well known that he was born into a merchant family that was engaged in trade jewelry and spices. He was a nobleman, had a coat of arms and belonged to the Venetian nobility. Polo became a merchant by inheritance: his father’s name was Nicolo, and it was he who introduced his son to travel in order to discover new trade routes. Marco did not know his mother, since she died during childbirth, and this event happened when Nicolo Polo was far from Venice, on his next trip. His paternal aunt raised the boy until Nicolo returned from a long journey with his brother Maffeo.

Education

There are no documents surviving about whether Marco studied anywhere. But it is a known fact that he dictated his book to his cellmate, the Pisan Rusticiano, while he was a prisoner of the Genoese. It is known that he later learned many languages ​​during his travels, but whether he knew how to read and write is still a controversial question.

Life path

Marco made his first trip with his father to Jerusalem in 1271. After this, his father sent his ships to China, to Kublai Khan, at whose court the Polo family lived for 15 years. The Khan liked Marco Polo for his fearlessness, independence and good memory. He, according to his information own book, was close to the khan, participated in many decisions government issues. Together with the khan, he recruited the great Chinese army and suggested that the ruler use catapults in military operations. Kublai appreciated the agile and intelligent Venetian youth beyond his years. Marco traveled to many Chinese cities, carrying out the most difficult diplomatic assignments of the khan. Possessing a good memory and powers of observation, he delved into the life and way of life of the Chinese, studied their language, and never tired of marveling at their achievements, which sometimes surpassed even European discoveries in their level. Everything that Marco saw in China over the years he lived in this amazing country, he described in his book. Shortly before leaving for Venice, Marco was appointed ruler of one of the Chinese provinces - Jiangnan.

Kublai never agreed to let his favorite go home, but in 1291 he sent the entire Polo family to accompany one of the Mongol princesses married to Persian ruler, to Hormuz, an Iranian island. During this trip, Marco visited Ceylon and Sumatra. In 1294, while they were still on the road, they received news of the death of Kublai Khan. Polo no longer had any reason to return to China, so it was decided to go home to Venice. A dangerous and difficult path lay through Indian Ocean. Of the 600 people who sailed from China, only a few managed to reach their final destination.

In his homeland, Marco Polo participates in the war with Genoa, with which Venice competed for the right to maritime trade routes. Marco, participating in one of naval battles, is captured, where he spends several months. It was here that he dictated his famous book to his fellow sufferer, the Pisan Rusticiano, who found himself in the same cell with him.

Nicolo Polo was not sure that his son would return alive from captivity and was very worried that their family line could be interrupted. Therefore, the prudent merchant married again, and in this marriage he had 3 more sons - Stefano, Maffio, Giovanni. Meanwhile, his eldest son, Marco, returns from captivity.

Upon his return, things are going great for Marco: he marries successfully, buys big house, he is called in the city Mr. Million. However, the townspeople mocked their compatriot, considering this eccentric merchant a liar who tells tales about distant lands. Despite material well-being recent years In his life, Marco yearns for travel and in particular for China. He was never able to get used to Venice, until the end of his days remembering the love and hospitality of Kublai Kublai. The only thing that made him happy in Venice were the carnivals, which he attended with great pleasure, as they reminded him of the splendor of Chinese palaces and the luxury of the khan’s outfits.

Personal life

Returning from captivity in 1299, Marco Polo married a rich, noble Venetian Donata, and in this marriage they had three lovely daughters: Bellela, Fantina, Maretta. However, it is known that Marco was very sorry that he did not have a son who could inherit his merchant property.

Death

Marco Polo was ill and died in 1324, leaving a prudent will. He was buried in the Church of San Lorenzo, which was demolished in the 19th century. The luxurious house of Marco Polo burned down in end of the 14th century century.

Polo's main achievements

• Marco Polo is the author of the famous “Book of the Diversity of the World,” about which controversy still does not subside: many question the reliability of the facts described in it. However, it does a very masterful job of telling the story of Polo's journey through Asia. This book has become an invaluable source on the ethnography, geography and history of Iran, Armenia, China, India, Mongolia, and Indonesia in the Middle Ages. She became reference book such great travelers as Christopher Columbus, Ferdinand Magellan, Vasco da Gama.

Important dates in Polo's biography

• 1254 - birth
• 1271 - first trip with father to Jerusalem
• 1275–1290 - life in China
• 1291–1295 - return to Venice
• 1298–1299 - war with Genoa, captivity, “Book of the Diversity of the World”
• 1299 - marriage
• 1324 - death

• Croatia and Poland claim the right to be called the Homeland of Marco Polo: the Croats found documents according to which the family of the Venetian merchant lived on the territory of their state until 1430, and the Poles claim that “Polo” is not a surname at all, but nationality great traveler.
• By the end of his life, Marco Polo turned into a rather stingy, stingy man who sued his own relatives over money. However, it still remains mysterious to historians why Marco, shortly before his death, set one of his slaves free and bequeathed to him a fairly large sum of money from his inheritance. According to one version, the slave Peter was a Tatar, and Marco did this in memory of his friendship with the Mongol Khan Kublai Khan. Perhaps Peter accompanied him to famous journey and knew that most of The stories in his owner's book are far from fiction.
• In 1888, a butterfly, Marco Polo's Jaundice, was named in honor of the great explorer.

And the traveler who presented the story of his journey through Asia in the famous “Book on the Diversity of the World.” Despite doubts about the reliability of the facts presented in this book, expressed from the moment of its appearance to the present time, it serves as a valuable source on geography, ethnography, history of Armenia, Iran, China, Mongolia, India, Indonesia and other countries in the Middle Ages. This book had a significant influence on sailors, cartographers, and writers of the 14th-16th centuries. In particular, she was on the ship of Christopher Columbus during his search for a route to India; According to researchers, Columbus made 70 marks on it. In his honor, in 1888, a butterfly from the genus Jaundice was named - Marco Polo Jaundice ( Colias marcopolo).

Origin

Marco Polo was born into the family of a Venetian merchant, Nicolo Polo, whose family was involved in the jewelry and spice trade. Since there are no surviving birth certificates for Marco Polo, the traditional version of his birth in Venice was challenged in the 19th century by Croatian researchers, who argue that the first evidence of the Polo family in Venice dates back to the second half of the 13th century, where they are referred to as Poli di Dalmazia , while up until 1430 the Polo family owned a house in Korcula, now in Croatia.

In addition, there is a version, unrecognized by most researchers, according to which Marco Polo was a Pole. In this case, “polo” is written with a small letter and indicates not the surname, but the nationality.

The first voyage of Marco Polo's father and uncle

Venetian and Genoese merchants, who had achieved trading power in the Mediterranean in the thirteenth century, could not remain indifferent to the exploration undertaken by brave travelers in Central Asia, India and China. They understood that these travels opened up new markets for them and that trade with the East promised them innumerable benefits. Thus, the interests of trade were bound to lead to the exploration of new countries. It was for this reason that two major Venetian merchants undertook a journey to East Asia.

In 1260, Nicolo, Marco's father, together with his brother Maffeo, went to the Crimea (to Sudak), where their third brother, also named Marco, had his own trading house. Then they moved along the same route along which Guillaume de Rubruk passed in 1253. After spending a year in Saray-Batu, the brothers moved on to Bukhara. Due to the danger of hostilities waged by Khan Berke (Batu’s brother) in this region, the brothers were forced to postpone their return home. Having stayed in Bukhara for three years and unable to return home, they joined the Persian caravan, which Khan sent Hulagu to Khanbalik (modern Beijing) to his brother, Mongol Khan Kublai Khan, who by that time had practically completed the defeat of the Chinese Song Dynasty and soon became the sole ruler of the Mongol Empire and China.

In the winter of 1266, the brothers reached Beijing and were received by Kublai Kublai, who, according to the brothers, gave them a golden paiza for a free journey back and asked them to convey a message to the Pope asking him to send him oils from the tomb of Christ in Jerusalem and preachers of Christianity. The Mongolian ambassador went to the Vatican with his brothers, however, he fell ill on the way and fell behind. On the way, Niccolò learned about the death of his wife and the birth of a son, who was born a few days after his departure, in 1254, and named Marco. Arriving in Venice in 1269, the brothers discovered that Pope Clement IV had died and a new one had never been appointed. Wanting to quickly fulfill Kublai's instructions, they decided not to wait for the appointment of a new pope, and in 1271 they went to Jerusalem, taking Marco with them.

The Journey of Marco Polo

Road to China

The new journey to China passed through Mesopotamia, Pamir and Kashgaria.

Travels 1271-1295

Life in China

First Chinese city, to which the Polo family reached in 1275, was Shazha (modern Dunhuang). That same year they reached Kublai Kublai's summer residence in Shangdu (in modern Gansu province of China). According to Polo, the khan admired him, gave him various instructions, did not allow him to return to Venice, and even three years held him governor of the city of Yangzhou (Chapter CXLIV, Book 2). In addition, the Polo family (according to the book) participated in the development of the khan's army and taught him to use catapults in the siege of fortresses.

Descriptions of Polo's life in China are rarely followed chronological order, which poses a problem in determining the exact route of his travels. But its description is quite accurate geographically; it gives orientation by cardinal directions and distances in terms of days of the route: “To the south of Panshin, one day’s journey away, is the large and noble city of Kaiu”. In addition, Polo describes the daily life of the Chinese, mentioning the use of paper money, typical crafts and culinary traditions of various areas. He stayed in China for fifteen years.

Return to Venice

Marco Polo in China

Despite numerous requests from the Polo family, Khan did not want to let them go, but in 1291 he married one of the Mongol princesses to the Persian Ilkhan Arghun. To organize her safe journey, he equipped a detachment of fourteen ships, allowed the Polo family to join as official representatives of the khan, and sent a flotilla to Hormuz. During the voyage, the Polos visited Sumatra and Ceylon and returned to Venice in 1295 through Iran and the Black Sea.

Life after returning

Very little is known about his life after returning from China. According to some reports, he took part in the war with Genoa. Around 1298, Polo was captured by the Genoese and remained there until May 1299. His travel stories were recorded by another prisoner, Rustichello (Rusticiano), who also wrote chivalric romances. According to some sources, the text was dictated in the Venetian dialect, according to others, it was written in Old French with inserts in Italian. Due to the fact that the original manuscript has not survived, it is not possible to establish the truth.

After his release from Genoese captivity, he returned to Venice, got married and from this marriage he had three daughters (two were married to merchants from Dalmatia, which, according to some researchers, confirms the hypothesis of his Croatian origin, but the wife herself was from the famous Venetian family, which rather speaks of the well-established connections of the Polo family in Venice). He also had a house on the corner of Rio di San Giovanni Crisostomo and Rio di San Lio. There are documents showing that he was involved in two minor trials.

In 1324, already an ill man, Polo wrote his will, which mentioned the golden paiza received from Tatar Khan(he received it from his uncle Maffeo, who in turn bequeathed it to Marco in 1310). Also in 1324, Marco died and was buried in the church of San Lorenzo. In 1596, his house (where, according to legend, the things he brought from the Chinese campaign were kept) burned down. The church in which he was buried was demolished in the 19th century.

Researchers about the book

Il milione

Marco Polo's book is one of the most popular objects historical research. The bibliography, compiled in 1986, contains more than 2,300 scientific works in European languages ​​alone.

From the moment he returned to the city, stories from the trip were viewed with disbelief. Peter Jackson mentions as one of the reasons for mistrust reluctance to accept his description of a well-ordered and hospitable Mongol Empire, which contradicted the traditional Western view of barbarians. In turn, in 1995, Francis Wood, curator of the Chinese collection British Museum, published a popular book in which she questioned the very fact of Polo's travel to China, suggesting that the Venetian did not travel beyond Asia Minor and the Black Sea, but simply used descriptions of the travels of Persian merchants known to him. For example, in his book, Marco Polo writes that he helped the Mongols during the siege of the Song base in Sanyang, but the siege of this base ended in 1273, that is, two years before his arrival in China. There are other shortcomings in his book, raising questions researchers.

Previous contacts with China

One of the myths surrounding this book is the idea of ​​Polo as the first contact between Europe and China. Even without considering the assumption of contacts between the Roman Empire and the Han Dynasty, Mongol conquests The 13th century eased the route between Europe and Asia (since it now passed through the territory of almost one state).

In Khubilai's archives from 1261 there is a reference to European merchants from Lands of the Midnight Sun, probably Scandinavian or Novgorod. On their first journey, Nicolo and Maffeo Polo followed the same route as Guillaume de Rubruck, actually sent by Pope Innocent IV, who reached the then Mongolian capital Karakoram and returned in 1255. The description of his route was known in medieval Europe and could have been known to the Polo brothers on their first journey.

During Polo's stay in China, a native of Beijing, Rabban Sauma, came to Europe, and the missionary Giovanni Montecorvino, on the contrary, went to China. Published in 1997 by David Selbourne, the text of the Italian Jew James of Ancona, who allegedly visited China in 1270-1271, shortly before Polo, is, according to most Hebraists and Sinologists, a hoax.

Unlike previous travelers, Marco Polo created a book that gained great popularity and throughout the Middle Ages competed in public success with the fantastic journey of John Mandeville (the prototype of which was Odorico Pordenone).

Book versions

Little is known about Marco Polo's literacy rate. It is likely that he could keep commercial records, but it is unknown whether he could write text. The text of the book was dictated by him to Rustichello, probably in his native language, Venetian, or in Latin, but Rustichello could also write it in French, in which he wrote novels. The process of writing a book could significantly affect the reliability and completeness of its content: Marco excluded from his description those memories that were of no interest to him as a merchant (or were obvious to him), and Rustichello could omit or interpret at his own discretion memories that were not of interest to him. interest or already incomprehensible to him. It can also be assumed that Rustichello was related only to some of four books, and Polo could have other “co-authors”.

Soon after its appearance, the book was translated into Venetian, Latin ( different translations from the Venetian and French versions), back to French from the Latin version. During the process of translation and rewriting, the books were changed, text fragments were added or deleted. The oldest surviving manuscript (Manuscript F) is significantly shorter than the others, but textual evidence suggests that the other surviving manuscripts are based on more complete original texts.

Fragments that raise doubts

Significant omissions

Francis Wood notes that neither hieroglyphs, printing, tea, porcelain, the practice of footbinding of women, nor the Great Wall of China are mentioned in Polo's book. The arguments put forward by proponents of travel authenticity are based on the specific process of the book's creation and Polo's purpose in conveying his memories.

Polo knew Persian (the language of international communication at that time), while living in China, he learned Mongolian (the language of the Chinese administration during this period), but did not need to learn Chinese. As a member of the Mongol administration, he lived at a distance from Chinese society (which, according to his testimony, had a negative attitude towards European barbarians), had little interaction with his everyday life, and did not have the opportunity to observe many of the traditions evident only in the household.

To a man who had not received a formal education and was a stranger to literature, local books represented “Chinese literacy,” but Polo describes in detail the production of paper money, which differs little from the printing of books.

Tea was by that time widely known in Persia, so it was of no interest to the author; similarly, it is not mentioned in Arabic and Persian descriptions that time.

Porcelain was mentioned briefly in the book.

Regarding foot binding, one of the manuscripts (Z) mentions that Chinese women walk in very small steps, but this is not explained more fully.

The Great Wall as we know it today was built during the Ming Dynasty. In the time of Marco Polo these were mostly earthworks, which did not constitute a continuous wall, but were limited to the most militarily vulnerable areas. For the Venetian, fortifications of this kind may not have been of significant interest.

Inaccurate descriptions

Descriptions of Marco Polo are full of inaccuracies. This applies to the names of individual cities and provinces, their relative locations, as well as descriptions of objects in these cities. A famous example is the description of the bridge near Beijing (now named after Marco Polo), which actually has half as many arches as described in the book.

In defense of Marco Polo, it can be said that he described the description from memory, he was familiar with Persian and used Persian names, who were often also inconsistent in their transmission Chinese names. Some inaccuracies were introduced when translating or rewriting the book, so some surviving manuscripts are more accurate than others. In addition, in many cases Polo did use second-hand information (especially when describing historical or fantastic events that happened before his journey). Many other contemporary descriptions also suffer from this kind of inaccuracy, which cannot be blamed on the fact that their authors were not in that place at that time.

Role at court

The honor shown by Kublai to the young Polo, his appointment as governor of Yangzhou, the absence of Chinese or Mongolian official records about the presence of merchants in China for almost twenty years, according to Frances Wood, look unreliable. Evidence of Polo's presence in China includes, for example, a single reference from 1271 in which Pagba Lama, a close advisor to Kublai Kublai, mentions in his diary a foreigner in friendly relations with the Khan, but it does not indicate the name, nationality, or length of stay of this foreigner in China.

However, in his book, Polo demonstrates such awareness of events at the court of the khan, which is difficult to acquire without proximity to the court. Thus, in Chapter LXXXV (On the treacherous plan to revolt the city of Kambala), he, emphasizing his personal presence at the events, describes in detail the various abuses of Minister Ahmad and the circumstances of his murder, naming the name of the killer (Wanzhu), which exactly corresponds to Chinese sources.

This episode is especially important because the Chinese dynastic chronicle Yuan-shi mentions the name of Po-Lo as a person who was part of the commission investigating the murder and stood out for sincerely telling the emperor about Ahmad's abuses.

It was common practice to use Chinese nicknames for foreigners, making it difficult to find references to Polo's name in other Chinese sources. Many Europeans who officially visited the center of the Mongol empire during this period, such as de Rubruk, received no mention at all in Chinese annals.

Return from China

The description of the return journey is the most convincing evidence that the Polo family was indeed in China and was on fairly friendly relations with the Khan's court. Polo in his book describes in detail the preparation of the trip, the route and the number of participants, which are confirmed by Chinese archival records. He also gives the names of three ambassadors, two of whom died on the road to Hormuz, and whose names were not known outside China.

Evaluation of the book by modern researchers

Majority modern researchers rejects Frances Wood's opinion about the complete fabrication of the entire trip, considering it an unsubstantiated attempt to make money on a sensation.

A more productive (and generally accepted) point of view is to look at this book as a source of merchant records about places to buy goods, routes for their movement and the circumstances of life in these countries. Even the second-hand information in this account (for example, about travel to Russia) is quite accurate, and most of the information about the geography of China and other countries along the travel route is also quite consistent with modern knowledge about the history and geography of China. In turn, these notes of the merchant were supplemented with fragments about life in exotic countries that were interesting to the general public.

It is possible that Polo's role in China is greatly exaggerated in his book, but this error may be attributed to the author's boasting, the embellishment of the copyists, or problems of the translators, as a result of which the role of adviser may have been transformed into the post of governor.

see also

• Ali Ekber Hatay - Ottoman traveler to China

Notes

Literature

• A book about the diversity of the world. Edition: Giovanni del Plano Carpini. History of the Mongals., Guillaume de Rubruk. Travel to eastern countries., Book of Marco Polo. M. Thought. 1997, translation: I. M. Minaev
• The Book of Marco Polo, trans. from Old French text, intro. Art. I. P. Magidovich, M., 1955 (literature available).
• Same. Alma-Ata, 1990.
• Hart G., The Venetian Marco Polo, trans. from English, M.: Foreign Publishing House. literature, 1956;
• Hart G. Venetian Marco Polo = Henry H. Hart, Venetian Adventurer Messer Marko Polo / Trans. from English N.V. Bannikova; preface and editing by I. P. Magidovich. - M.: Tsentrpoligraf, 2001. - 368 p. - 6,000 copies. - ISBN 5-227-01492-2 (Reprint of 1956 book)
• Yurchenko A. G. The Book of Marco Polo: Notes of a Traveler or Imperial Cosmography / Translations from Latin and Persian languages S. V. Aksyonova (PhD). - St. Petersburg. : Eurasia, 2007. - 864 p. - 2,000 copies. - ISBN 978-5-8071-0226-6(in translation)
• The book of sir Marco Polo, the Venetian..., 3 ed., v. 1-2, L., 1921.
• Magidovich I. P., Magidovich V. I. Essays on history geographical discoveries. M., 1982. T. 1. P. 231-235.
• Drege, J.-P., Marco Polo and the Silk Road, Moscow, 2006, ISBN 5-17-026151-9.
• Dubrovskaya D.V., Marco Polo: the presumption of innocence, magazine “Around the World” No. 3, 2007.

Links

• Polo, Marco. Eastern Literature. Archived from the original on August 24, 2011. Retrieved April 16, 2011.

	in Wikisource
	Polo, Marco on Wikimedia Commons

• Polo, Marco in the library of Maxim Moshkov: A book about the diversity of the world. Translation by I. P. Minaev.
• V. Dubovitsky Venetians. In the land of rubies, or what Marco Polo wrote about Badakhshan

Not much is known about the biography of Marco Polo. It is interesting to note that there is not a single reliable portrait of him. In the 16th century, a certain John Baptist Ramucio made an attempt to collect and organize information about life famous traveler. In other words, three hundred years passed from the moment of his birth to the appearance of the first mentions of him. Hence the inaccuracy and approximateness of facts and descriptions.

Marco Polo was born around September 15, 1254 in Venice. His family belonged to noble class, the so-called Venetian nobility, and had a coat of arms. His father, Niccolo Polo, was a successful trader in jewelry and spices. The famous traveler’s mother died during childbirth, so his father and aunt were involved in his upbringing.

First travels

The largest source of income for the Venetian state was trade with distant countries. It was believed that the more risk, the higher the profit. Therefore, it is not surprising that Marco Polo’s father traveled a lot in search of new trade routes. The son did not lag behind his father: the love of travel and adventure is in his blood. In 1271 he went with his father on his first trip to Jerusalem.

China

That same year, the newly elected Pope appointed Niccolo Polo, his brother Morfeo and his own son Marco as his official representatives to China. The Polo family immediately sets off on a long journey to the main ruler of China - the Mongol Khan. Asia Minor, Armenia, Mosul, Baghdad, Persia, Pamir, Kashmir - this is their approximate route. In 1275, that is, five years after leaving the Italian port, the merchants found themselves at the residence of Kublai Khan. The latter receives them cordially. He especially liked young Marco. In him he valued independence, fearlessness and good memory. He repeatedly invited him to participate in state life, entrusted important assignments. In gratitude, the youngest of the Polo family helps the khan recruit an army, talks about the use of military catapults and much more. So 15 years passed.

Return

In 1291, the Chinese Emperor decides to give his daughter to the Persian Shah Arghun. The transition by land was impossible, so a flotilla of 14 ships was equipped. The Polo family is in the first positions: they accompany and protect the Mongolian princess. However, even during the journey, sad news comes about the sudden death of the khan. And the Polos immediately decide to immediately return to their native land. But the journey home turned out to be long and unsafe.

The book and its contents

In 1295, Marco Polo returns to Venice. Exactly two years later he is sent to prison for participating in the war between Genoa and Venice. The few months that he spent in custody cannot be called empty and fruitless. There he meets Rustichello, an Italian writer originally from Pisa. It is he who denounces Marco Polo's stories about amazing lands, their nature, population, culture, customs and new discoveries. The book was called “The Book of the Diversity of the World,” which later became a reference book for many discoverers, including Christopher Columbus.

Death of a Traveler

Marco Polo died in his homeland, Venice. At that time he lived long life– 69 years old. The traveler died on January 8, 1324.

Other biography options

• The famous “Book” of Marco Polo was not taken seriously by readers at first. It was not used as a source invaluable information about China and other distant countries, but as an easy, entertaining read with a completely fictional plot.
• Christopher Columbus took the “Book” with him on his first expedition to the “shores of India.” He made a lot of notes in its margins. Today, the “Columbus” copy is carefully stored in one of the museums in Seville.
• Towards the end of his life, Marco Polo was indecently stingy and sued his relatives more than once.
• In a short biography of Marco Polo, it is interesting to note that Poland and Croatia also claim to be his small homeland. The Polish side claims that the surname Polo literally translates as “Pole.” The Croats are confident that he was not born in Venice, but on their land - in Korcula.