Age anatomy physiology human hygiene. Training program in the discipline “Age Physiology and School Hygiene” for the group of specialties “Education” Pavlodar

Brief lecture notes on the discipline "Age-related anatomy, physiology and hygiene» in the field of training special (defectological education) in the profile of “speech therapy”, “special psychology”, “preschool defectology” 1 year, 1 semester

Teacher: Minullina A.F., Ph.D., Associate Professor

Topic 1. Introduction to age-related anatomy, physiology and hygiene

Lecture 1.

1.Definitions

Anatomy is the science of the form and structure of living organisms, in particular the structure of the human body and its organs.

The name “anatomy” comes from the Greek word anatome - dissection, dismemberment, which indicates one of the main methods of anatomy - dissection (dissection).

Physiology – the science of processes occurring in living organisms, it studies the functions of the body, the activities of various organs. The term “physiology” is derived from two Greek words physis - nature, logos - teaching.

Anatomy and physiology are closely related, since form and function are mutually determined.

Age-related anatomy and physiology - an independent branch of biological science that studies changes in the structure and functions of the body that arise in the process of its development.

School hygiene (hygiene of children and adolescents) is medical science. It studies the interaction of the child’s body with the external environment in order to develop, on this basis, hygienic standards and requirements aimed at protecting and promoting health, harmonious development and improving the functional capabilities of the body of children and adolescents.

Hygiene of children and adolescents how science develops on the basis of age-related physiology and morphology. It widely uses general biological laws of development. It is closely connected with all medical disciplines, as well as with technical and pedagogical sciences.

School hygiene and age physiology are closely interconnected, since the development of hygienic standards for regimes for children of different ages, the organization of their work and rest, food and clothing are based on knowledge of the functional characteristics of the schoolchild’s body at different age periods.

2. Objectives of the course on age-related anatomy, physiology and hygiene:

study the anatomical and physiological characteristics of the body of children and adolescents;

to acquaint students with the physiological foundations of the processes of learning and education;

teach to use knowledge about the morpho-functional characteristics of the body of children and adolescents for the proper organization of the educational process in school and preschool institutions.

3. Practical significance for speech therapists :

in order to notice a deviation in the functioning of one or another organ and return it to its previous function, you need to know what it should be at a given age stage,

a specialist must know exactly the structure of a particular organ in order to accurately eliminate certain problems.

have a clear understanding of structural and functional disorders leading to defects in speech, hearing, vision, and intelligence.

For speech therapists working with children of preschool and primary school age, knowledge of the morphofunctional characteristics of the child’s body is especially important, because It is during the period of its formation, with improper organization of living conditions, that various pathological dysfunctions of the nervous system, musculoskeletal system, cardiovascular system, etc.

3. History of development and formation

Issues of age-related physiology were posed in the works of Hippocrates, Aristotle, and in the writings of the ancient Hindus.

The scientific study of issues of age-related human anatomy and physiology was started in our country by professor of the St. Petersburg Military Medical Academy N.P. Gundobin (1860-1908). He and his students studied the anatomical and physiological characteristics of all organs and systems of the child’s body.

In the former USSR, especially great importance has traditionally been given to the study of the mechanisms of higher nervous activity of children, as this is necessary to increase the effectiveness of various educational activities. A lot has been done in this direction by V.M. Bekhterev, A.G. Ivanov-Smolensky, N.I. Krasnogorsky, L.A. Orbeli, P.K. Anokhin, M.M. Koltsova, I.A. Arshavsky and others.

Currently, issues of age-related anatomy and physiology are being studied at the molecular level. The leading center is the Research Institute of Physiology of Children and Adolescents of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences in Moscow, as well as the Institute of Developmental Physiology of the Russian Academy of Education in Moscow.

School hygiene as a science arose in the 19th century and studied the issues of protecting the health of schoolchildren. The founders of school hygiene were Russian scientists F.F. Erisman (1842-1915) and A.P. Dobroslavin (1842-1889). F.F. Erisman created the Department of Hygiene at Moscow State University. He developed hygienic requirements for the selection of a site for school construction and the design of a school building.

Subsequently, the tasks of this branch of medical science expanded - it began to study issues of protecting, promoting health and improving the physical development of children and adolescents of all age groups.

Many domestic scientists played a significant role in the creation and development of hygiene for children and adolescents: N.A. Semashko developed the basic theoretical principles of school hygiene and physical education, V.V. Gorinevsky created major works on hardening the child’s body and physical education, P.M. Ivanovsky dealt with issues of physical education, hygienic justification for the daily routine of schoolchildren, planning and improvement of children's institutions, S.E. Sovetov organized the first department of school hygiene at the Moscow State Pedagogical Institute named after V.I. Lenin and is the author of the first textbooks on hygiene for students of pedagogical institutes.

4. Research methods

Physiology has its own specific research methods.

a) the main thing is experiment. The meaning of a scientific experiment is that the study of physiological functions is carried out on experimental animals in which the conditions of interest to the scientist are simulated. and laboratory experiment.

b) observation method, which a speech therapist must also be proficient in.

V) functional load method, actively used in age-related physiology, is a type of laboratory experiment. The study of functions in this case is carried out using dosed functional loads by changing the intensity or duration of a particular effect (orthostatic test, physical and mental stress).

For the tasks of age-related anatomy and physiology, it is of great importance assessment of physical development children and adolescents, which is carried out with the help following methods:

individual method (longitudinal section method) - used for systematic observation of the physical development of the same child over a long period of time necessary for an individual assessment of his development. Assessment of physical development in this case is carried out by comparing the found measurements with indicators of standard (average) values;

generalizing (mass) method (cross-sectional method) - used for mass examination of the physical development of children and adolescents in a relatively short time in order to obtain average indicators of physical development in each age and sex group. This is achieved through statistical processing of the results obtained. They are age standards and reflect the level of physical development of certain groups of children and adolescents. In this case, at least 100 people are examined, taking into account age. gender, nationality and region of residence. It is recommended to create standard tables at least every 10-15 years.

Topic 2. General patterns of growth and development of the body

Lecture 2. Growth and development of the body

Physical development, as one of the main criteria of health, is characterized by the intensification of growth processes and their slowdown, the onset of puberty and the formation of definitive body sizes, and is closely related to the adaptive reserve of the child’s body, which is spent over a fairly long period of ontogenesis.

In anthropological terms, physical development is understood as a complex of morphofunctional properties that determine the body’s reserve of physical strength. In the hygienic interpretation, physical development acts as an integral result of the impact of environmental factors on the body, reflecting the comfort of its existence in this environment. Moreover, the concept of the environment undoubtedly includes social factors, united by the concept of “lifestyle” of an individual. Considering the biological nature of the concept of “physical development,” the latter also reflects biological risk factors for its deviations (ethnic differences). Today, the generally accepted definition of physical development should be considered the following. Physical development is a set of morphological and functional characteristics in their interrelation and dependence on environmental conditions that characterize the process of maturation and functioning of the body at any given moment in time.

This definition covers both meanings of the concept “Physical development”. On the one hand, it characterizes the development process, its correspondence to biological age, on the other, the morpho-functional state.

The physical development of children and adolescents is subject to biological laws and determines the general patterns of growth and development of the body:

the younger the child’s body, the more intense the processes of growth and development occur in it;

the processes of growth and development proceed unevenly and each age period is characterized by certain anatomical and physiological characteristics;

There are gender differences in the processes of growth and development.

The main patterns of growth and development are:

endogeneity - the growth and development of an organism is not determined by external influences, but occurs according to internal laws inherent in the organism itself and imprinted in the hereditary program. Growth is the realization of the body’s natural need to achieve an adult state, when procreation becomes possible;

irreversibility - a person cannot return to the structural features that he had in childhood;

cyclicality - there are periods of activation and inhibition of growth. The first is observed in the period before birth and in the first months of life, then intensification of growth occurs at 6-7 years and 11-14 years;

gradualism - a person in his development goes through a number of stages that occur sequentially one after another;

synchronicity - the processes of growth and aging occur relatively simultaneously in different organs and systems of the body. In the process of age-related development, changes in the proportions of the body occur due to different growth rates of its individual parts. The main characteristic of the growth process is its speed. Since the growth of different body sizes does not proceed uniformly, at certain stages of age development they speak of prodynamy (the similarity of growth processes) and heterodynamy (their inconsistency). Total body dimensions (length, weight, chest circumference), characterizing the processes of human growth and physical development, make it possible to obtain a summary description of growth patterns.

There are two types of morphological studies of the growth process in humans: longitudinal and transverse. Longitudinal (individualizing) and generalizing method (transverse), when children of different ages are examined in a short period of time. Unlike the longitudinal generalizing method, it does not reveal individual differences in growth dynamics, but allows us to identify the relationship between morphological and functional indicators and understand the role of endo- and exogenous factors in the regulation of growth.

The advantage of the generalizing method is that it reflects the characteristics that characterize children of a certain generation. Physical development is considered as a very complex phenomenon associated with a variety of social, economic and geographical factors. Dynamic observation of the same people is called “longitudinal”. When studying growth patterns using this method, one can limit oneself to a much smaller group of children, but it requires much more time. The “longitudinal observation” method is promising for improving the organization of medical care for children and specifying measures to improve the health of children under the supervision of a children's clinic.

The human body is a complex system of numerous and closely interconnected elements, combined into several structural levels. The concept of growth and development of an organism is one of the fundamental concepts in biology. The term “growth” currently refers to an increase in the length, volume and weight of the body of children and adolescents associated with an increase in the number of cells and their number. Development is understood as qualitative changes in the child’s body, consisting in the complication of its organization, i.e. in the complication of the structure and function of all tissues and organs, the complication of their relationships and the processes of their regulation.

Child growth and development, i.e. quantitative and qualitative changes are closely interrelated with each other. Gradual quantitative and qualitative changes that occur during the growth of the body lead to the appearance of new qualitative characteristics in the child.

The entire period of development of a living being, from the moment of fertilization to the natural end of individual life, is called ontogenesis. In ontogenesis, two relative stages of development are distinguished:

Prenatal – begins from the moment of conception until the birth of the child.

Postnatal – from the moment of birth to death of a person.

Along with the harmonious development, there are special stages of the most dramatic spasmodic atom-physiological transformations.

In postnatal development, three such “critical periods” or “age crises” are distinguished.

	Changing Factors	Consequences
from 2x to 4x	Development of the sphere of communication with the outside world. Development of speech form. Development of a form of consciousness.	Increasing educational requirements. Increased motor activity
from 6 to 8 years	New people New friends New responsibilities	Decreased motor activity
from 11 to 15 years	Changes in hormonal balance with maturation and restructuring of the endocrine glands. Expanding your social circle	Conflicts in the family and at school Hot temper

An important biological feature in the development of a child is that the formation of their functional systems occurs much earlier than they need it.

The principle of accelerated development of organs and functional systems in children and adolescents is a kind of “insurance” that nature gives to humans in case of unforeseen circumstances.

Indicators of physical development and methods of their research

Anthropometric studies are carried out according to the generally accepted unified Aron-Slavitskaya method.

The scope of mandatory anthropometric studies is differentiated depending on the age of the child: up to 3 years - standing height, body weight, circumference of the difficult cell at rest; over 7 years - standing height, body weight, chest circumference at rest, at maximum inspiration and exhalation .

The leading anthropometric signs that carry evaluative information to determine the degree of physical development of a child are height, body weight and resting chest circumference. As for such indicators included in the anthropometric examination program as head circumference (in children under 3 years of age) and thoracic perimeter during inhalation and exhalation (in schoolchildren), they carry non-therapeutic information and have no relation to assessing the degree and harmony of physical development have.

Somatometry includes determining body lengths, diameters, circumferences and weighing body weight.

Body length is measured in children under 1 year of age while lying down with a wooden stadiometer. The child is placed on his back so that the head tightly touches the apical point to the vertical fixed bar of the stadiometer. The head is placed in a position in which the lower edge of the orbit and the upper edge of the tragus of the ear are in the same vertical plane. The child's legs should be straightened by lightly pressing the left hand on the knees; With your right hand, bring the movable bar of the stadiometer tightly to your heels, bending your feet to a right angle. The report is carried out on a stadiometer scale with an accuracy of 0.5 cm.

When measuring the height of children over 1 year old, a wooden vertical stadiometer is used. The child stands with his back to his vertical stand, touching the latter with his heels, buttocks and interscapular area (but not the back of the head!); the child's head is in a position in which the lower edge of the orbit and the upper edge of the tragus of the ear are located in the same horizontal plane, perpendicular to the vertical post of the stadiometer. The movable bar of the stadiometer is lowered until it comes into full contact with the apex of the head (without pressure) and readings are taken with an accuracy of 0.5 cm. It should be remembered that anthropometric studies in children and, above all, height measurements should be carried out in the first half of the day, i.e. Because under the weight of the body due to compression of the intervertebral discs and flattening of the arch of the foot, the child’s body length changes significantly by the end of the day.

Determination of the body weight (mass) of young children is carried out on a cup scale (with an accuracy of 10 g). Children after 1 year are weighed on lever medical scales (accurate to 50 g). During weighing, the child must stand in the middle of the scale platform. Weighing children must be done on an empty stomach or no earlier than 1.5-2 hours after eating.

The chest circumference is measured with a rubberized measuring tape, which should be replaced with a new one from time to time, as it quickly wears out and stretches. It is recommended to replace it after 450-500 studies. The tape is applied from behind under the lower angles of the shoulder blades (they are clearly visible when you raise your arms up), from the front it covers the lower segments of the isola (for high school girls in puberty, the tape in front passes along the upper edge of the root of the mammary gland at the level of the fourth intercostal space). When measuring, it is necessary to stretch the tape and lightly press the soft tissue. The end of the tape with the starting point should always be on the right.

When measuring the thoracic perimeter, during a pause the subject is asked to count loudly or talk. After measuring in a pause, without lifting the tape, the subject is asked to take a maximum breath and hold his breath to take a reading, and then exhale as much as possible. Measurement accuracy - 0.5 cm.

Head circumference is measured by placing a tape on the back of the occipital protuberance, and in front - through the frontal tubercles along the brow ridges. Measurement accuracy - 0.5 cm.

With correct posture, indicators of the depth of the cervical and lumbar curves are close in value and fluctuate within 3-4 cm in younger and 4-4.5 cm in middle and older age, the body is held straight, the head is raised, the shoulders are at the same level, the stomach pulled up, legs straight.

With a stooped posture, the depth of the cervical curve increases, but the lumbar curve is smoothed out, the head is tilted forward, and the shoulders are lowered.

With lordotic posture, the lumbar curve increases and the cervical curve is smoothed. the stomach is protruded, the upper part of the body is slightly tilted back. With kyphotic posture, there is an increase in the cervical and lumbar curves, the back is round, the shoulders are lowered, the head is tilted forward, and the stomach is protruded. Straightened posture is characterized by smoothing of both curves, the back is straight, the stomach is tucked.

Foot: normal, flattened and flat. The condition of the arch of the foot is determined visually and by palpation. In unclear cases, the planography method is used. The planograph is a wooden frame 2 cm high and 40x40 cm in size, on which a canvas is stretched, and a plastic film is placed on top of it. The canvas from below is moistened with fountain pen ink in a 1:1 dilution. A sheet of clean paper is placed on the floor under the painted side of the planograph. To obtain foot prints, the subject places one or both feet on the plantograph's plastic film, the dyed fabric bends and leaves a foot print on the paper. On the resulting print, lines are drawn from the middle of the heel to the second interdigital space and to the middle of the base of the first toe. If the contour of the foot print in the middle part does not overlap the lines, the foot is normal; if it overlaps the first line, it is flattened; if the second line, it is flat-footed. Children with flat feet and flat feet should be referred to a podiatrist.

The degree of sexual development is an integral part of the characteristics of physical development and is determined by the totality of the development of secondary sexual characteristics: pubic hair and armpit hair. In addition, in girls - by the development of the mammary gland and the time of the appearance of menstruation, and in boys - by the development of facial hair, Adam's apple and voice mutation.

The level of puberty is indicated by a formula that records the stages of expression of secondary sexual characteristics in points.

Pubic hair development:

Lack of hair Po

Single short hair P1

Hair is long and thick in the center of the pubis P2

Hair is long, curly, thick, throughout the entire pubic triangle P3

Hair is located throughout the pubic area; pass to the hips, along the white line of the abdomen, forming a diamond shape P4

Hair development in the armpit

Lack of hair AXo

Introduction to the specialty"; " Age physiology and school hygiene"; biology... Anatomy, physiology, pathology of the organs of vision, hearing and speech - M.: Vlados, 2001 Selected lectures By age physiology and school hygiene ...

"Developmental and developmental psychology"

Textbook

Basics age psychology, contains introduction in the main... childbirth, in feeding, in hygiene and baby care. ... ethnography, pedagogy, anatomy, physiology etc. Practically... . LECTURE № 2. Age human development Age psychology...

Training program in the discipline “Age Physiology and School Hygiene” for the group of specialties “Education” Pavlodar

Program

By anatomy, physiology and school hygiene. -Novosibirsk, 2010. Additional literature 7. Khripkova A.G., Antropova M.V., Farber D.A. Age physiology and school...

Basic educational program of higher professional education for specialist training 050102. 65 Geography with an additional specialty

Main educational program

General questions physiology and then questions are asked age anatomy And physiology. The present... of individual development The concept of anatomy, physiology And hygiene as about sciences, ... graphs, diagrams, etc.); Introduction. Introductory lecture. Goals and objectives of the course. ...

The main sections of the course "Age Anatomy and Physiology" are discussed in detail. Particular attention is paid to the formation and development of the physiological functions of the body at each age stage. The terminological apparatus corresponds to international anatomical and histological nomenclatures. A significant number of illustrations makes the educational material easier to understand. An index of terms allows you to use the manual as a reference book.
For students of non-biological specialties ("Psychology", "Speech Therapy", "Defectology", "Social Pedagogy", "Social Work", "Preschool Education", etc.), teachers of pedagogical and medical universities, colleges and schools. May be useful for teachers, practical psychologists and social workers.

Age-related anatomy and physiology as a science, its tasks and significance.
Anatomy is a science that studies the structure of the human body and explores the patterns of development in connection with function and the environment. Anatomy studies the human body as an integral system that is in unity with the conditions of existence, therefore it examines how the human body developed in its historical development - phylogenesis. This study uses data from comparative anatomy and takes into account the principles of evolutionary morphology, which reveals the driving forces of evolution and changes in the process of adaptation of the organism to specific environmental conditions. Much attention is paid to the process of human formation and development in connection with the development of society - anthropogenesis.

Anatomy accumulates facts, describes and explains them. It is a complex science, which includes: systematic anatomy, which studies individual systems of the human body; topographic, or surgical, anatomy, which examines the spatial relationship of organs in various areas of the body; dynamic anatomy, which studies the structure of the musculoskeletal system and the dynamics of movements; plastic anatomy, which is applied anatomy for artists and sculptors and studies only the external forms and proportions of the body; age anatomy.

Table of contents
From the author 9
Introduction to developmental anatomy and physiology 10
1. Age-related anatomy and physiology as a science, its tasks and significance 10
2. Research methods in anatomy and physiology 12
3. Brief outline of the development of anatomy and physiology 15
4. Development of anatomy and physiology in Belarus 22
5. Main stages of development of age-related anatomy and physiology 25
6. Development of age-related anatomy and physiology in Belarus 29
7. Anatomical terminology 30
1. The human body and its constituent structures 32
1.1. Cell 32
Cell structure 32
Cell division 41
Chemical organization of the cell 45
1.2. Fabric 46
Epithelial tissue 47
Connective tissue. 49
Muscle tissue 67
Nervous tissue. 69
1.3. Organs, systems and apparatuses of organs 73
1.4. Features of human development, growth and structure 75
Prenatal period 75
Extrauterine period 77
2. Structure, functions and age-related features of the skeleton 80
2.1. Structure and classification of bones 80
2.2. Connection of skeleton bones 83
2.3. Skeletal structure 86
Spine 87
Chest 92
Upper limb skeleton 93
Skeleton of the lower limb 97
Skull 103
2.4. Skeletal development in ontogenesis 114
3. Structure, functions and age characteristics of muscles 116
3.1. Muscle structure 116
3.2. Muscle classification 117
3.3. Muscle types 119
3.4. Muscle accessory apparatus 120
3.5. Muscles of the trunk 121
Back muscles 121
Chest muscles 123
Abdominal muscles 124
3.6. Neck muscles 126
3.7. Head muscles 127
3.8. Muscles of the upper limb 129
3.9. Muscles of the lower limb 131
3.10. Muscle work and strength 133
3.11. Muscle fatigue 134
3.12. Development of the muscular system in ontogenesis 136
4. Structure, functions and age-related characteristics of the respiratory system 140
4.1. Airways 141
Nasal cavity 142
Larynx 143
Trachea 144
Bronchi 145
4.2. Lungs 145
Tidal volumes 148
Exchange of gases in the lungs 149
Exchange of gases in tissues 150
4.3. Breathing regulation 151
4.4. Development of respiration in ontogenesis 153
5. Structure, functions and age-related characteristics of the digestive system 154
5.1. The structure of the digestive tube 155
5.2. Oral cavity 158
Digestion in the oral cavity 163
5.3. Throat 165
5.4. Esophagus 166
5.5. Stomach 167
Digestion in the stomach 169
5.6. Small intestine 171
Digestion in the intestine 174
5.7. Pancreas 175
5.8. Liver 177
5.9. Large intestine 179
Digestion in the large intestine 181
6. Metabolism and energy and their age-related characteristics 182
6.1. Protein metabolism 182
6.2. Fat metabolism 184
6.3. Carbohydrate metabolism 185
6.4. Water exchange 186
6.5. Mineral metabolism 187
Macroelements 188
Microelements 191
6.6. Vitamins 195
Water-soluble vitamins 197
Fat-soluble vitamins 202
Vitamin-like substances 204
Quasivitamins 205
6.7. Energy exchange 206
Metabolic processes in ontogenesis 207
6.8. Thermoregulation 208
Changes in thermoregulation in ontogenesis 210
7. Structure, functions and age-related characteristics of the excretory system 212
7.1. Kidneys 212
Mechanism of formation and excretion of urine 216
Physico-chemical properties of urine 217
7.2. Urinary tract 218
Ureters 218
Bladder 219
Urethra 220
7.3. Isolation in ontogenesis 221
8. Structure, functions and age-related characteristics of the reproductive system 222
8.1. Internal male genital organs 224
8.2. External male genitalia 227
8.3. Spermatogenesis 227
8.4. Internal female genital organs 228
8.5. External female genitalia 232
8.6. Oogenesis 233
8.7. Placenta 235
8.8. Puberty of girls 236
8.9. Puberty of boys 239
9. Structure, functions and age-related characteristics of the vascular system 242
9.1. Structure of blood vessels 242
Circulation circles 245
9.2. Heart 247
Pumping function of the heart 251
9.3. Arteries 254
9.4. Vienna 259
9.5. Fetal blood supply 262
9.6. Hemodynamics 264
9.7. Blood circulation in ontogenesis 265
9.8. Lymphatic system 266
10. Immune system 271
10.1. Central organs of the immune system 275
10.2. Peripheral organs of the immune system 276
10.3. Immunity 277
10.4. Development of immunity in ontogenesis 280
11. Hormonal regulation of body functions and its age-related characteristics 281
11.1. Features of hormonal regulation of functions 281
11.2. Classification of glands 284
11.3. Structure and functions of the endocrine glands 287
Pituitary gland 287
Thyroid gland 290
Parathyroid glands 291
Adrenal gland 292
Paraganglia 294
Gonads 295
Pineal gland 296
Pancreas 296
Diffuse endocrine system (APUD system) 298
11.4. Hormonal status of the newborn 298
12. Nervous regulation of body functions and its age-related characteristics 299
12.1. Structural and functional organization and significance of the nervous system 299
12.2. Structure, functions and age-related characteristics of parts of the central nervous system 301
Spinal cord. 301
Brain. 306
Cerebral cortex 315
Electrical activity of the brain and its age-related characteristics 324
Dream 325
Brain development in ontogenesis 327
12.3. Structure, functions and age-related characteristics of the peripheral nervous system 329
Cranial nerves 329
Spinal nerves 332
12.4. Conducting pathways of the brain and spinal cord 334
12.5. Autonomic nervous system 338
Central part of the autonomic nervous system 339
Peripheral part of the autonomic nervous system 339
Metasympathetic nervous system 343
The influence of the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems on the activity of internal organs 343
Autonomic nervous system in ontogenesis 344
13. Higher nervous activity and its age-related characteristics 345
13.1. Types of conditioned reflexes 345
13.2. The mechanism of closure of the conditioned reflex 346
13.3. Conditioned reflex activity in ontogenesis 347
13.4. Types and mechanisms of memory 348
13.5. Inhibition of conditioned reflexes 350
13.6. Coordination of reflexes in the cerebral cortex 352
13.7. Types of higher nervous activity 355
13.8. Higher nervous activity of a child 356
14. Structure, functions and age characteristics of analyzers 359
14.1. Functions of 360 analyzers
14.2. Visual analyzer 366
The mechanism of visual image formation 371
Optical system of the eye 373
Indicators of spatial perception 375
Color vision 375
Vision in ontogenesis 377
Auxiliary apparatus of the organ of vision 378
14.3. Hearing analyzer 379
Mechanism of sound formation 382
Hearing in ontogenesis 384
14.4. Vestibular analyzer 385
Development of the vestibular analyzer in ontogenesis 387
14.5. Taste analyzer 387
Mechanism of taste formation 389
Taste in ontogenesis 391
14.6. Olfactory analyzer 391
Olfaction in ontogenesis 394
14.7. Chemosensory analyzer 395
14.8. Somatosensory analyzer 396
Skin sensitivity 400
Somatosensory analyzer in ontogenesis 403
14.9. Engine analyzer 404
Proprioception in ontogenesis 405
14.10. Visceral analyzer 405
Visceral analyzer in ontogenesis 407
14.11. Interaction of analyzers 407
Literature 409
Index of anatomical and physiological terms 411.

Biology is one of the largest and largest sciences in the modern world. It includes a number of different sciences and sections, each of which deals with the study of certain mechanisms in the operation of living systems, their vital functions, structure, molecular structure, and so on.

One of these sciences is the interesting, very ancient, but still relevant science of anatomy.

What does he study?

Anatomy is a science that studies the internal structure and morphological characteristics of the human body, as well as human development in the process of phylogenesis, ontogenesis and anthropogenesis.

The subject of studying anatomy is:

• the shape of the human body and all its organs;
• structure of human organs and body;
• origin of people;
• individual development of each organism (ontogenesis).

The object of study of this science is man and all his external and internal structural features.

Anatomy itself as a science developed a very long time ago, since interest in the structure and functioning of internal organs has always been relevant for humans. However, modern anatomy includes a number of related sections that are closely related to it and are considered, as a rule, comprehensively. These are such sections of anatomy as:

1. Systematic anatomy.
2. Topographical or surgical.
3. Dynamic.
4. Plastic.
5. Age.
6. Comparative.
7. Pathological.
8. Clinical.

Thus, human anatomy is a science that studies everything that in any way relates to the structure of the human body and its physiological processes. In addition, this science is closely connected and interacts with such sciences that have spun off from it and have become independent, such as:

• Anthropology is the study of man as such, his position in the system of the organic world and interaction with society and the environment. Social and biological characteristics of a human being, consciousness, psyche, character, behavior.
• Physiology is the science of all processes occurring inside the human body (mechanisms of sleep and wakefulness, inhibition and excitation, nerve impulses and their conduction, humoral and nervous regulation, and so on).
• Comparative anatomy - studies the embryonic development and structure of various organs, as well as their systems, while comparing animal embryos of different classes and taxa.
• Evolutionary doctrine is the doctrine of the origin and formation of man from the time of his appearance on the planet to the present day (phylogeny), as well as proof of the unity of all the biomass of our planet.
• Genetics - the study of the human genetic code, the mechanisms of storage and transmission of hereditary information from generation to generation.

As a result, we see that human anatomy is a completely harmonious, complex combination of many sciences. Thanks to their work, people know a lot about the human body and all its mechanisms.

History of the development of anatomy

Anatomy finds its roots in ancient times. After all, from the very appearance of man, he was interested in knowing what was inside him, why, if he gets hurt, blood comes out, what it is, why a person breathes, sleeps, eats. All these questions have haunted many representatives of the human race since ancient times.

However, answers to them did not come immediately. It took more than one century to accumulate a sufficient amount of theoretical and practical knowledge and to give a complete and detailed answer to most questions about the functioning of the human body.

The history of the development of anatomy is conventionally divided into three main periods:

• anatomy of the ancient world;
• anatomy of the Middle Ages;
• new time.

Let's look at each stage in more detail.

Ancient world

The peoples who became the founders of the science of anatomy, the first people interested in and describing the structure of human internal organs, were the ancient Greeks, Romans, Egyptians and Persians. Representatives of these very civilizations gave rise to anatomy as a science, comparative anatomy and embryology, as well as evolution and psychology. Let's look at their contribution in detail in the form of a table.

Time frame	Scientist	Discovery (contribution)
Ancient Egypt and Ancient China XXX - III centuries. BC e.	Doctor Imhotep	He was the first to describe the brain, heart, and the movement of blood through the vessels. He made his discoveries based on autopsies during the mummification of the corpses of pharaohs.
	Chinese book "Neijing"	Human organs such as liver, lungs, kidneys, heart, stomach, skin, and brain are described.
	Indian scripture "Ayurveda"	A fairly detailed description of the muscles of the human body, descriptions of the brain, spinal cord and canal, types of temperaments are defined, and types of figures (physiques) are characterized.
Ancient Rome 300-130 BC e.	Herophilus	The first who dissected corpses to study the structure of the body. He created a descriptive and morphological work "Anatomy". Considered the father of the science of anatomy.
	Erasistratus	He believed that everything consists of small particles, not liquids. He studied the nervous system by dissecting the corpses of criminals.
	Doctor Rufiy	He described many organs and gave them names, studied the optic nerves, and drew a direct relationship between the brain and nerves.
	Marin	He created descriptions of the palatine, auditory, vocal and facial nerves, and some parts of the gastrointestinal tract. In total he wrote about 20 essays, the originals of which have not survived.
	Galen	He created more than 400 works, 83 of which were devoted to descriptive and comparative anatomy. He studied wounds and the internal structure of the body on the corpses of gladiators and animals. Doctors were trained on his works for about 13 centuries. The main mistake was in theological views on medicine.
	Celsus	He introduced medical terminology, invented a ligature for ligating blood vessels, studied and described the basics of pathology, diet, hygiene, and surgery.
Persia (908-1037)	Avicenna	The human body is controlled by four main organs: the heart, testicle, liver and brain. He created a great work, “The Canon of Medical Science.”
Ancient Greece VIII-III centuries. BC e.	Euripides	Using animals and corpses of criminals, he was able to study the portal vein of the liver and describe it.
	Anaxagoras	Described the lateral ventricles of the brain
	Aristophanes	Discovered the presence of two meninges
	Empedocles	Described the ear labyrinth
	Alcmaeon	Described the ear tube and optic nerve
	Diogenes	Described many organs and parts of the circulatory system
	Hippocrates	He created the doctrine of blood, mucus, yellow and black bile as the four fundamental fluids of the human body. A great doctor, his works are still used today. Recognized observation and experience, denied theology.
	Aristotle	400 works from various branches of biology, including anatomy. He created many works, considered the soul to be the basis of all living things, and spoke about the similarities of all animals. Drew a conclusion about the hierarchy in the origin of animals and humans.

Middle Ages

This period is characterized by devastation and decline in the development of any sciences, as well as the dominance of the church, which prohibited dissections, research and the study of anatomy on animals, considering it a sin. Therefore, no significant changes and discoveries were made at this time.

But the Renaissance, on the contrary, gave many impetus to the modern state of medicine and anatomy. The main contributions were made by three scientists:

1. Leonardo da Vinci. He can be considered the founder of his artistic talents for the benefit of anatomy, created over 700 drawings accurately depicting muscles and skeleton. The anatomy of organs and their topography are shown to them clearly and correctly. I studied for work
2. Jacob Silvius. Teacher of many anatomists of his time. He opened grooves in the structure of the brain.
3. Andeas Vesalius. A very talented doctor who has devoted many years to a thorough study of anatomy. He made his observations based on autopsies of corpses, and learned a lot about the bones from materials collected at the cemetery. The work of his entire life is the seven-volume book “On the Structure of the Human Body.” His works caused opposition among the masses, since in his understanding anatomy is a science that should be studied in practice. This contradicted the works of Galen, which were held in high esteem at that time.
4. His main work was the treatise “Anatomical study of the movement of the heart and blood in animals.” He was the first to prove that blood moves through a closed circle of vessels, from large to small through tiny tubes. He also made the first statement that every animal develops from an egg and in the process of its development repeats the entire historical development of living things as a whole (modern biogenetic law).
5. Fallopius, Eustachius, Willis, Glisson, Azelli, Pequet, Bertolini are the names of those scientists of this era who, through their works, gave a complete understanding of what human anatomy is. This is an invaluable contribution that gave rise to a modern start in the development of this science.

New time

This period dates back to the 19th - 20th centuries and is characterized by a number of very important discoveries. All of them could be accomplished thanks to the invention of the microscope. Marcello Malpighi supplemented and substantiated practically what Harvey had predicted in his time - the presence of capillaries. The scientist Shumlyansky confirmed this with his work, and also proved the cyclicality and closedness of the circulatory system.

Also, a number of discoveries made it possible to reveal the concept of “anatomy” in more detail. These were the following works:

• Galvani Luigi. This man made a huge contribution to the development of physics, since he discovered electricity. However, he was also able to examine the presence of electrical impulses in animal tissues. Thus he became the founder of electrophysiology.
• Kaspar Wolf. He refuted the theory of preformationism, which stated that all organs exist in a reduced form in the reproductive cell, and then simply grow. Became the founder of embryogenesis.
• Louis Pasteur. As a result of many years of experiments, he proved the existence of bacteria. Developed vaccination methods.
• Jean Baptiste Lamarck. He made a huge contribution to evolutionary teachings. He was the first to express the idea that man, like all living things, develops under the influence of the environment.
• Karl Baer. He discovered the reproductive cell of the female body, described it and gave rise to the development of knowledge about ontogenesis.
• Charles Darwin. He made a huge contribution to the development of evolutionary teachings and explained the origin of man. He also proved the unity of all life on the planet.
• Pirogov, Mechnikov, Sechenov, Pavlov, Botkin, Ukhtomsky, Burdenko are the names of Russian scientists of the 19th-20th centuries who gave a complete understanding that anatomy is a whole science, complex, multifaceted and all-encompassing. Medicine owes their work in many respects. It was they who became the discoverers of the mechanisms of immunity, higher nervous activity, the spinal cord and nervous regulation, as well as many issues of genetics. Severtsov founded a direction in anatomy - evolutionary morphology, which was based on the basis (authors - Haeckel, Darwin, Kovalevsky, Baer, ​​Muller).

Anatomy owes its development to all these people. Biology is a whole complex of sciences, but anatomy is the oldest and most valuable of them, since it affects the most important thing - human health.

What is clinical anatomy

Clinical anatomy is an intermediate section between topographic and surgical anatomy. It considers the issues of the general plan structure of any specific organ. For example, if we are talking about the larynx, then before the operation the doctor needs to know the general position of this organ in the body, what it is connected to and how it interacts with other organs.

Today, clinical anatomy is very widespread. You can often find the expression clinical anatomy of the nose, pharynx, throat or any other organ. Clinical anatomy will tell you what components a given organ is made of, where it is located, what it borders on, what role it plays, and so on.

Each specialist doctor knows the full clinical anatomy of the organ he is working on. This is the key to successful treatment.

Age anatomy

Age anatomy is a section of this science that studies human ontogenesis. That is, it considers all the processes that accompany it from the moment of conception and the stage of the embryo until the end of the life cycle - death. At the same time, the main foundation for age-related anatomy is gerontology and embryology.

Karl Bar can be considered the founder of this section of anatomy. It was he who first suggested the individual development of each living being. Later this process was called ontogeny.

Age-related anatomy provides insight into the mechanisms of aging, which is important for medicine.

Comparative anatomy

Comparative anatomy is a science whose main task is to prove the unity of all life on the planet. Specifically, this science is concerned with comparing embryos of different animal species (not only species, but also classes and taxa) and identifying general patterns in development.

Comparative anatomy and physiology are closely related entities that study one common question: how do embryos of different creatures look and function in comparison to each other?

Pathological anatomy

Pathological anatomy is a scientific discipline that deals with the study of pathological processes in the cells and tissues of a human being. This makes it possible to study various diseases, view the impact of their course on the body and, accordingly, find treatment methods.

The tasks of pathological anatomy are as follows:

• study the causes of various diseases in humans;
• consider the mechanisms of their occurrence and progression at the cellular level;
• identify all possible complications of pathologies and variants of disease outcome;
• study the mechanisms of death from diseases;
• consider the reasons for the ineffectiveness of treatment of pathologies.

The founder of this discipline is the one who created the cellular theory, which speaks about the development of diseases at the level of cells and tissues of the human body.

Topographic anatomy

Topographic anatomy is a scientific discipline, otherwise called surgical. It is based on the division of the human body into anatomical regions, each of which is located in a specific part of the body: the head, torso or limbs.

The main objectives of this science are:

• detailed structure of each area;
• syntopy of organs (their location relative to each other);
• connection of organs with skin (holotopia);
• blood supply to each anatomical region;
• lymphatic drainage;
• nervous regulation;
• skeletotopia (in relation to the skeleton).

All these tasks are formed in terms of the principles: study taking into account diseases, pathologies, age and individual characteristics of organisms.

Short description:

Sazonov V.F. Age-related anatomy and physiology (a manual for general education) [Electronic resource] // Kinesiologist, 2009-2018: [website]. Update date: 01/17/2018..__.201_).

Attention! This material is in the process of regular updating and improvement. Therefore, we apologize for any minor deviations from the curriculum of previous years.

1. General information about the structure of the human body. Organ systems

Man, with his anatomical structure, physiological and mental characteristics, represents the highest stage in the evolution of the organic world. Accordingly, it has the most evolutionarily developed organs and organ systems.

Anatomy studies the structure of the body and its individual parts and organs. Knowledge of anatomy is necessary for the study of physiology, therefore the study of anatomy should precede the study of physiology.

Anatomy is a science that studies the structure of the body and its parts at the supracellular level in statics.

Physiology is a science that studies the life processes of an organism and its parts in dynamics.

Physiology studies the course of life processes at the level of the entire organism, individual organs and organ systems, as well as at the level of individual cells and molecules. At the present stage of development of physiology, it is again united with the sciences that were once separated from it: biochemistry, molecular biology, cytology and histology.

Differences between anatomy and physiology

Anatomy describes the structures (structure) of the body in static condition.

Physiology describes the processes and phenomena of the body in dynamics (i.e. in motion, in change).

Terminology

Anatomy and physiology use general terms to describe the structure and functioning of the body. Most of them are of Latin or Greek origin.

Basic terms ():

Dorsal(dorsal) - located on the dorsal side.

Ventral- located on the ventral side.

Lateral- located on the side.

Medial- located in the middle, occupying a central position. Remember the median from mathematics? She's also in the middle.

Distal- distant from the center of the body. Are you familiar with the word "distance"? One root.

Proximal- close to the center of the body.

Video:Structure of the human body

Cells and tissues

Characteristic of every organism is a certain organization of its structures.
During the evolution of multicellular organisms, cell differentiation occurred, i.e. Cells of various sizes, shapes, structures and functions appeared. From equally differentiated cells, tissues are formed, the characteristic properties of which are structural unification, morphological and functional community and cell interaction. Different tissues are specialized in function. Thus, a characteristic property of muscle tissue is contractility; nervous tissue - transmission of excitation, etc.

Cytology studies the structure of cells. Histology - structure of tissues.

Organs

Several tissues, combined into a specific complex, form an organ (kidney, eye, stomach, etc.). An organ is a part of the body that occupies a permanent position in it, has a certain structure and shape, and performs one or more functions.

An organ consists of several types of tissues, but one of them predominates and determines its main, leading function. In a muscle, for example, such tissue is muscle tissue.

Organs are working apparatus of the body, specialized to perform complex activities necessary for the existence of a complete organism. The heart, for example, functions as a pump, pumping blood from the veins to the arteries; kidneys - the function of excreting metabolic end products and water from the body; bone marrow - hematopoietic function, etc. There are many organs in the human body, but each of them is part of a complete organism.

Organ systems
Several organs that jointly perform a specific function form an organ system.

Organ systems are anatomical and functional associations of several organs involved in the performance of any complex type of activity.

Organ systems:
1. Digestive (oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, duodenum, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, digestive glands).
2. Respiratory (lungs, airways - mouth, larynx, trachea, bronchi).
3. Blood (cardiovascular).
4. Nervous (Central nervous system, outgoing nerve fibers, autonomic nervous system, sensory organs).
5. Excretory (kidneys, bladder).
6. Endocrine (endocrine glands - thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, pancreas (insulin), adrenal glands, gonads, pituitary gland, pineal gland).
7. Musculoskeletal (musculoskeletal - skeleton, muscles attached to it, ligaments).
8. Lymphatic (lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels, thymus gland - thymus, spleen).
9. Reproductive (internal and external genital organs - ovaries (ovum), uterus, vagina, mammary glands, testicles, prostate gland, penis).
10. Immune (red bone marrow at the ends of long bones + lymph nodes + spleen + thymus (thymus gland) - the main organs of the immune system).
11. Integumentary (body coverings).

2. General ideas about the processes of growth and development. The main differences between a child’s body and an adult’s

Definition of the concept

Development is the process of increasing the complexity of the structure and functions of a system over time, increasing its stability and adaptability (adaptive capabilities). Development is also understood as maturation, the achievement of the usefulness of a phenomenon. © 2017 Sazonov V.F. 22\02\2017

Development includes the following processes:

1. Height.
2. Differentiation.
3. Formation.

Fundamental differences between a child and an adult:

1) immaturity of the body, its cells, organs and organ systems;
2) reduced height (reduced body size and body weight);
3) intensive metabolic processes with a predominance of anabolism;
4) intensive growth processes;
5) reduced resistance to harmful environmental factors;
6) improved adaptation (adjustment) to the new environment;
7) underdeveloped reproductive system - children cannot reproduce.

Age periodization
1. Infancy (up to 1 year).
2. Pre-school period (1-3 years).
3. Preschool (3-7 years old).
4. Junior school (7-11-12 years old).
5. Secondary school (11-12-15 years old).
6. Senior school (15-17-18 years old).
7. Maturity. At the age of 18, physiological maturity begins; biological maturity begins at age 13 (the ability to have children); Full physical maturity in women occurs at 20 years old, and in men at 21-25 years old. Civil (social) maturity in our country occurs at 18 years old, and in Western countries - at 21 years old. Mental (spiritual) maturity occurs after 40 years.

Age-related changes, development indicators

1. Body length

This is the most stable indicator characterizing the state of plastic processes in the body and, to some extent, the level of its maturity.

The body length of a newborn child ranges from 46 to 56 cm. It is generally accepted that if a newborn child has a body length of 45 cm or less, then he is premature.

Body length in children of the first year of life is determined taking into account its monthly increase. In the first quarter of life, the monthly increase in body length is 3 cm, in the second - 2.5, in the third - 1.5, in the fourth - 1 cm. The total increase in body length for the 1st year is 25 cm.

During the 2nd and 3rd years of life, increases in body length are 12-13 and 7-8 cm, respectively.

Body length in children from 2 to 15 years old is also calculated using the formulas proposed by I.M. Vorontsov, A.V. Mazurin (1977). The body length of children at 8 years old is taken to be 130 cm, for each missing year 7 cm is subtracted from 130 cm, and for each year exceeding 5 cm is added.

2. Body weight

Body weight, unlike length, is a more variable indicator that reacts relatively quickly and changes under the influence of various exo- (external) and endogenous (internal) causes. Body weight reflects the degree of development of the skeletal and muscular systems, internal organs, and subcutaneous fat.

The body weight of a newborn is on average about 3.5 kg. Newborns weighing 2500 g or less are considered premature or born with intrauterine malnutrition. Children born with a body weight of 4000 g or more are considered large.

The weight-height coefficient is used as a criterion for the maturity of a newborn child, which is normally 60-80. If its value is below 60, this indicates congenital malnutrition, and if it is above 80, congenital paratrophy.

After birth, within 4-5 days of life, the child experiences a loss of body weight within 5-8% of the original, that is, 150-300 g (physiological drop in body weight). Then body weight begins to increase and reaches its initial level around the 8-10th day. A decrease in body weight of more than 300 g cannot be considered physiological. The main reason for the physiological drop in body weight is, first of all, insufficient introduction of water and food in the first days after the birth of the baby. Loss of body weight is important due to the release of water through the skin and lungs, as well as original feces and urine.

It should be taken into account that in children of the 1st year of life, an increase in body length by 1 cm is usually accompanied by an increase in body weight of 280-320 g. When calculating the body weight of children of the 1st year of life with a birth weight of 2500-3000 g per the initial indicator is taken to be 3000 g. The rate of increase in body weight of children after a year slows down significantly.

Body weight in children older than one year is determined according to the formulas proposed by I. M. Vorontsov, A. V. Mazurin (1977).
The body weight of a child at 5 years old is taken to be 19 kg; For each missing year up to 5 years, 2 kg are deducted, and for each subsequent year 3 kg are added. To assess the body weight of children of preschool and school age, two-dimensional centile scales of body weight at different body lengths, based on the assessment of body weight by body length within age-sex groups, are increasingly being used as age norms.

3. Head circumference

The average head circumference of a child at birth is 34-36 cm.

It increases especially intensively in the first year of life, amounting to 46-47 cm by the year. In the first 3 months of life, the monthly increase in head circumference is 2 cm, at the age of 3-6 months - 1 cm, during the second half of life - 0.5 cm .

By the age of 6, the head circumference increases to 50.5-51 cm, by the age of 14-15 - to 53-56 cm. In boys, its size is slightly larger than in girls.
The size of the head circumference is determined according to the formulas of I. M. Vorontsov, A. V. Mazurin (1985). 1. Children of the first year of life: the head circumference of a 6-month-old child is taken as 43 cm, for each missing month from 43 one should subtract 1.5 cm, for each subsequent month add 0.5 cm.

2. Children from 2 to 15 years old: head circumference at 5 years old is taken as 50 cm; For each missing year, 1 cm should be subtracted, and for each year exceeding, 0.6 cm should be added.

Monitoring changes in the head circumference of children in the first three years of life is an important component of medical practice when assessing the physical development of a child. Changes in head circumference reflect the general patterns of biological development of the child, in particular the cerebral type of growth, as well as the development of a number of pathological conditions (micro- and hydrocephalus).

Why is such importance attached to the circumference of a child’s head? The fact is that a child is born with a full set of neurons, the same as an adult. But the weight of his brain is only 1/4 of that of an adult. We can conclude that the increase in brain weight occurs due to the formation of new connections between neurons, as well as due to an increase in the number of glial cells. Head growth reflects these important brain development processes.

4. Chest circumference

The average chest circumference at birth is 32-35 cm.

In the first year of life, it increases monthly by 1.2-1.3 cm, reaching 47-48 cm by the year.

By the age of 5, the chest circumference increases to 55 cm, by 10 - to 65 cm.

The chest circumference is also determined using the formulas proposed by I.M. Vorontsov, A.V. Mazurin (1985).
1. Children of the 1st year of life: the chest circumference of a 6-month-old child is taken as 45 cm, for each missing month from 45 one should subtract 2 cm, for each subsequent month add 0.5 cm.
2. Children from 2 to 15 years old: chest circumference at 10 years old is taken as 63 cm, for children under 10 years old the formula 63 - 1.5 (10 - n) is used, for children over 10 years old - 63 + 3 cm (n - 10), where n is the number of years of the child. For a more accurate assessment of the chest circumference, centile tables are used, based on the assessment of chest circumference by body length within the age-sex group.

Chest circumference is an important indicator that reflects the degree of development of the chest, muscular system, and subcutaneous fat layer on the chest, which closely correlates with the functional indicators of the respiratory system.

5. Body surface

Body surface is one of the most important indicators of physical development. This sign helps to assess not only the morphological, but also the functional state of the body. It has a close correlation with a number of physiological functions of the body. Indicators of the functional state of blood circulation, external respiration, and kidneys are closely related to such indicators as body surface. Individual medications should also be prescribed according to this factor.

The body surface is usually calculated using a nomogram taking into account body length and weight. It is known that the surface area of ​​a child’s body per 1 kg of his weight is three times greater in a newborn, and twice as large in a one-year-old child, than in an adult.

6. Puberty

Assessing the degree of puberty is important to determine the child's developmental level.

The degree of puberty of a child is one of the most reliable indicators of biological maturity. In everyday practice, it is most often assessed by the severity of secondary sexual characteristics.

In girls, this is the growth of pubic hair (P) and in the armpits (A), the development of the mammary glands (Ma) and the age of first menstruation (Me).

In boys, in addition to the growth of pubic and armpit hair, voice mutation (V), facial hair growth (F) and the formation of the Adam's apple (L) are assessed.

Puberty assessments should be carried out by a doctor, not a teacher. When assessing the degree of puberty, it is recommended to expose children, especially girls, in parts due to an increased sense of modesty. If necessary, the child should be completely undressed.

Generally accepted schemes for assessing the degree of development of secondary sexual characteristics in children by body region:

Development of pubic hair: absence of hair - P0; single hair - P1; hair on the central area of ​​the pubis is thicker, longer - P2; the hair on the entire pubic triangle is long, curly, thick - P3; the hair is located throughout the pubic area, extends to the hips and extends along the white line of the abdomen -P4t.
Development of hair in the armpit: absence of hair - A0; single hair - A1; sparse hair in the central area of ​​the cavity - A2; hair is thick, curly throughout the cavity - A3.
Development of the mammary glands: the glands do not protrude above the surface of the chest - Ma0; the glands protrude somewhat, the isola, together with the nipple, forms a single cone - Ma1; the glands protrude significantly, together with the nipple and areola they have the shape of a cone - Ma2; the body of the gland takes on a rounded shape, the nipples rise above the isola - Ma3.
Development of facial hair: lack of hair growth - F0; beginning hair growth on the upper lip - F1; coarse hair above the upper lip and on the chin - F2; widespread hair growth on the upper lip and chin with a tendency to merge, the beginning of the growth of sideburns - F3; merging of hair growth zones above the lip and in the chin area, pronounced growth of sideburns - F4.
Changing the timbre of the voice: children's voice - V0; mutation (breaking) of the voice - V1; male voice timbre - V2.

Growth of the thyroid cartilage (Adam's apple): no signs of growth - L0; beginning protrusion of cartilage - L1; distinct protrusion (Adam's apple) - L2.

When assessing the degree of puberty in children, the main attention is paid to the severity of indicators Ma, Me, P as more stable. Other indicators (A, F, L) are more variable and less reliable. The state of sexual development is usually denoted by the general formula: A, P, Ma, Me, which respectively indicates the stages of maturation of each characteristic and the age of the first menstruation in girls; for example A2, P3, Ma3, Me13. When assessing the degree of puberty by the development of secondary sexual characteristics, a deviation from average age norms is considered to be an advance or lag in shifts in sexual formula indicators of a year or more.

7. Physical development (assessment methods)

The physical development of a child is one of the most important criteria in assessing his health status.
From a large number of morphological and functional characteristics, different criteria are used to assess the physical development of children and adolescents at each age.

In addition to the characteristics of the morphofunctional state of the body, when assessing physical development, it is currently customary to use such a concept as biological age.

It is known that individual indicators of the biological development of children at different age periods can be leading or auxiliary.

For children of primary school age, the leading indicators of biological development are the number of permanent teeth, skeletal maturity, and body length.

When assessing the level of biological development of middle-aged and older children, the degree of expression of secondary sexual characteristics, bone ossification, and the nature of growth processes are of greater importance; body length and the development of the dental system are of less importance.

To assess the physical development of children, various methods are used: the method of indices, sigma deviations, assessment tables-regression scales and, more recently, the centile method. Anthropometric indices are the ratio of individual anthropometric characteristics expressed in the form of formulas. The inaccuracy and fallacy of using indices to assess the physical development of a growing organism has been proven, since studies of age-related morphology have shown that individual body sizes of a child increase unevenly (heterochronicity of development), which means that anthropometric indicators change disproportionately. The method of sigma deviations and regression scales, currently widely used to assess the physical development of children, are based on the assumption that the sample under study corresponds to the law of normal distribution. Meanwhile, a study of the shape of the distribution of a number of anthropometric characteristics (body weight, chest circumference, muscle strength of the arms, etc.) indicates an asymmetry of their distribution, often right-sided. Because of this, the boundaries of sigma deviations can be artificially high or low, distorting the true nature of the assessment.

Centile methodphysical development assessments

Based on nonparametric statistical analysis, these disadvantages are absent. centile method, which has recently been increasingly used in pediatric literature. Since the centile method is not limited by the nature of the distribution, it is acceptable for assessing any indicators. The method is easy to use, due to the fact that when using centile tables or graphs, any calculations are eliminated. Two-dimensional centile scales - “body length - body weight”, “body length - chest circumference”, in which the values ​​of body weight and chest circumference are calculated for the proper body length, allow one to judge the harmoniousness of development.

Typically, the 3rd, 10th, 25th, 50th, 75th, 90th, and 97th centiles are used to characterize the sample. The 3rd centile is the value of the indicator below which it is observed in 3% of the sample members; the value of the indicator is less than the 10th centile - for 10% of the sample members, etc. The intervals between the centiles are named centile corridors. When individually assessing indicators of physical development, the level of the trait is determined by its position in one of the 7 centile corridors. Indicators that fall into the 4th-5th corridors (25-75th centiles) should be considered average, in the 3rd (10-25th centiles) - below average, in the 6th (75-90th centiles) ) - above average, in the 2nd (3-10th centile) - low, in the 7th (90-97th centile) - high, in the 1st (up to 3rd centile) - very low, in the 8th (above the 97th centile) - very high.

Harmonious is physical development in which body weight and chest circumference correspond to body length, that is, they fall into the 4-5th centile corridors (25-75th centiles).

Disharmonious physical development is considered to be in which body weight and chest circumference are behind what should be (3rd corridor, 10-25th centiles) or more than they should be (6th corridor, 75-90th centiles) due to increased fat deposition.

Severely disharmonious physical development should be considered in which body weight and chest circumference lag behind the required values ​​(2nd corridor, 3-10th centiles) or exceed the required value (7th corridor, 90-97th centiles) due to increased fat deposition.

"Square of Harmony" (Auxiliary table for assessing physical development)

		Percentage (Centile) series
		3,00%	10,00%	25,00%	50,00%	75,00%	90,00%	97,00%
Body weight by age	97,00%						Harmonious development ahead of age
	90,00%
	75,00%			Harmonious development appropriate to age
	50,00%
	25,00%
	10,00%	Harmonious development below age norms
	3,00%
Body length by age

Currently, the physical development of a child is assessed in a certain sequence.

The correspondence of calendar age to the level of biological development is established. The level of biological development corresponds to calendar age if most indicators of biological development are within the average age range (M±b). If indicators of biological development lag behind calendar age or are ahead of it, this indicates a delay (retardation) or acceleration (acceleration) of the rate of biological development.

After determining whether the biological age corresponds to the passport age, the morphofunctional state of the organism is assessed. Centile tables are used to assess anthropometric indicators depending on age and gender.

The use of centile tables makes it possible to determine physical development as average, above or below average, high or low, as well as harmonious, disharmonious, and sharply disharmonious. The selection of children with deviations in physical development (disharmonious, severely disharmonious) into the group is due to the fact that they often have disturbances in the functioning of the cardiovascular, endocrine, nervous and other systems, on this basis they are subject to a special in-depth examination. In children with disharmonious and sharply disharmonious development, functional indicators are, as a rule, below the age norm. For such children, taking into account the reasons for deviations in physical development from age indicators, individual health and treatment plans are developed.

3. The main stages of human development are fertilization, embryonic and fetal periods. Critical periods of embryo development. Causes of congenital deformities and defects

Ontogenesis is the process of development of an organism from the moment of conception (zygote formation) to death.

Ontogenesis is divided into prenatal development (antenatal - from conception to birth) and postnatal (postnatal).

Fertilization is the fusion of male and female reproductive cells, which results in a zygote (fertilized egg) with a diploid (double) set of chromosomes.

Fertilization occurs in the upper third of the woman's oviduct. The best conditions for this are usually within 12 hours after the release of the egg from the ovary (ovulation). Numerous sperm approach the egg, surround it, and come into contact with its membrane. However, only one penetrates the egg, after which a dense fertilization membrane forms around the egg, preventing the penetration of other sperm. As a result of the fusion of two nuclei with haploid sets of chromosomes, a diploid zygote is formed. This is a cell that is actually a single-celled organism of a new daughter generation). It is capable of developing into a full-fledged multicellular human organism. But can she be called a full-fledged person? A person and a human fertilized egg have 46 chromosomes, i.e. 23 pairs are a full-fledged diploid set of chromosomes in the human body.

Prenatal period lasts from the moment of conception to birth and consists of two phases: embryonic (first 2 months) And fetal (3-9 months). In humans, the intrauterine period lasts on average 280 days, or 10 lunar months (approximately 9 calendar months). In obstetric practice germ (embryo) called the developing organism during the first two months of intrauterine life, and from 3 to 9 months - fruit (foetus) Therefore, this period of development is called fetal, or fetal.

Fertilization

Fertilization most often occurs in the dilation of the female oviduct (in the fallopian tubes). Spermatozoa, released as sperm into the vagina, due to their exceptional mobility and activity, move into the uterine cavity, pass through it to the oviducts and in one of them meet a mature egg. Here the sperm penetrates the egg and fertilizes it. The sperm introduces into the egg the hereditary properties characteristic of the male body, contained in packaged form in the chromosomes of the male reproductive cell.

Splitting up

Cleavage is the process of cell division that the zygote undergoes. The size of the resulting cells does not increase, because they do not have time to grow, but only divide.

Once a fertilized egg begins to divide, it is called an embryo. The zygote is activated; its fragmentation begins. Crushing is slow. On the 4th day, the embryo consists of 8-12 blastomeres (blastomeres are cells formed as a result of fragmentation, they become smaller and smaller after the next division).

Drawing: Initial stages of embryogenesis of mammals

I – stage of 2 blastomeres; II – stage of 4 blastomeres; III – morula; IV–V – trophoblast formation; VI – blastocyst and first phase of gastrulation:
1 – dark blastomeres; 2 – light blastomeres; 3 – trophoblast;
4 – embryoblast; 5 – ectoderm; 6 – endoderm.

Morula

Morula (“mulberry”) is a group of blastomeres formed as a result of fragmentation of the zygote.

Blastula

The blastula (vesicle) is a single-layer embryo. The cells are located in one layer.

The blastula is formed from the morula due to the fact that a cavity appears in it. The cavity is called primary body cavity. It contains liquid. Subsequently, the cavity is filled with internal organs and turns into the abdominal and thoracic cavities.

Gastrula
The gastrula is a two-layer embryo. The cells in this “germinal vesicle” form walls in two layers.

Gastrulation (formation of a two-layer embryo) is the next stage of embryonic development. The outer layer of the gastrula is called ectoderm. He further forms the skin of the body and the nervous system. It is very important to remember that the nervous system comes fromectoderm (outer germ layer, first), therefore it is closer in its characteristics to the skin than to such internal organs as the stomach and intestines. The inner layer is called endoderm. It gives rise to the digestive and respiratory systems. It is also important to remember that the respiratory and digestive systems are connected by a common origin.In fish, the gill slits are openings in the intestine, and the lungs are outgrowths of the intestine.

Neyrula

A neurula is an embryo at the stage of neural tube formation.

The gastrula vesicle is elongated, and a groove is formed on top. This groove of depressed ectoderm folds into a tube - this is the neural tube. A cord is formed under it - this is a chord. Over time, bone tissue will form around it and form a spine. Remnants of the notochord can be found between the vertebrae of the fish. Below the notochord, the endoderm extends into the intestinal tube.

The complex of axial organs is the neural tube, notochord and intestinal tube.

Histo- and organogenesis
After neurulation, the next stage in the development of the embryo begins - histogenesis and organogenesis, i.e. formation of tissues (“histo-” is tissue) and organs. At this stage, the formation of the third germ layer occurs - mesoderm.
It should be noted that from the moment the organs and nervous system are formed, the embryo is called fruit.

The fetus developing in the uterus is located in special membranes that form a kind of bag filled with amniotic fluid. These waters enable the fetus to move freely in the sac, protect the fetus from external damage and infections, and also contribute to the normal course of labor.

Critical periods of development

A normal pregnancy lasts 9 months. During this time, a child weighing about 3 kg or more and 50-52 cm tall develops from a fertilized egg of microscopic size.
The most damaged stages of embryo development relate to the time when their connection with the maternal body is formed - this is the stage implantation(embryo implantation into the uterine wall) and stage formation of the placenta.
1. First critical period in the development of the human embryo refers to the 1st and beginning of the 2nd week after conception.
2. Second critical period - this is the 3-5th week of development. The formation of individual organs of the human embryo is associated with this period.

During these periods, along with increased mortality of embryos, local deformities and malformations occur.

3. Third critical period - this is the formation of a child’s place (placenta), which occurs in humans between the 8th and 11th weeks of embryonic development. During this period, the fetus may exhibit general abnormalities, including a number of congenital diseases.
During critical periods of development, the sensitivity of the embryo to insufficient supply of oxygen and nutrients, to cooling, overheating, and ionizing radiation is increased. The entry into the blood of certain substances harmful to the child (medicines, alcohol and other toxic substances formed in the body due to illnesses of the mother, etc.) can cause serious disturbances in the development of the child. Which? Slowing or stopping development, the appearance of various deformities, high mortality of embryos.
It has been noted that hunger or a lack of components such as vitamins and amino acids in the mother’s food leads to the death of the embryos or to abnormalities in their development.
Infectious diseases of the mother pose a serious danger to the development of the fetus. The effect on the fetus of such viral diseases as measles, smallpox, rubella, influenza, poliomyelitis, mumps, manifests itself predominantly in the first months pregnancy.
Another group of diseases, for example, dysentery, cholera, anthrax, tuberculosis, syphilis, malaria, mostly affects the fetus in the second and last third of pregnancy.
One of the factors that has a particularly harmful and strong effect on a developing organism is ionizing radiation (radiation).

The indirect, indirect, effect of radiation on the fetus (through the mother’s body) is associated with general disturbances in the physiological functions of the mother, as well as with changes that have occurred in the tissues and vessels of the placenta. Cells are most sensitive to radiation exposure nervous system and hematopoietic organs of the embryo.
Thus, the embryo is extremely sensitive to changes in environmental conditions, primarily to changes that occur in the maternal body.
Embryonic development is often disrupted in cases where the father or mother suffers from alcoholism. Children of chronic alcoholics are often born with weakened mental abilities. The most typical thing is that babies behave restlessly and the excitability of their nervous system is increased. Alcohol has a detrimental effect on reproductive cells. Thus, it causes harm to future offspring both before fertilization and during the development of the embryo and fetus.

4. Periods of postnatal development. Factors influencing development. Acceleration.
After birth, a child’s body continuously grows and develops. In the process of ontogenesis, specific anatomical and functional features arise, called age. Accordingly, a person’s life cycle can be divided into periods or stages. There are no clearly defined boundaries between these periods, and they are largely arbitrary. However, the identification of such periods is necessary, since children of the same calendar (passport) age, but different biological ages, react differently to sports and work loads; at the same time, their performance may be greater or less, which is important for solving a number of practical issues of organizing the educational process at school.
The postnatal period of development is the period of life from birth to death.

Periodization of age in the postnatal period:

Infancy (up to 1 year);
- pre-school (1-3 years);
- preschool (3-7 years);
- junior school (7-11-12 years old);
- secondary school (11-12-15 years);
- senior school (15-17-18 years old);
- maturity (18-25)

At the age of 18, physiological maturity begins.

Biological maturity - the ability to have offspring (from 13 years of age). Full physical maturity occurs at 20 years of age, and for men at 21-25 years of age. Physical maturity is indicated by the completion of growth and ossification of the skeleton.

The criteria for such periodization included a complex of characteristics - body and organ size, weight, skeletal ossification, teething, development of endocrine glands, degree of puberty, muscle strength.
The child’s body develops in specific environmental conditions, which continuously influence the body and largely determine the course of its development. The course of morphological and functional changes in a child’s body at different age periods is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. Depending on specific environmental conditions, the development process can be accelerated or slowed down, and its age periods can occur earlier or later and have different durations. The qualitative uniqueness of the child’s body, which changes at each stage of individual development, is manifested in everything, and above all in the nature of its interaction with the environment. Under the influence of the external environment, especially its social side, certain hereditary qualities can be realized and developed if the environment contributes to this, or, conversely, suppressed.

Acceleration

Acceleration (acceleration) is the accelerated growth of an entire generation of people over any historical period of time.

Acceleration is the acceleration of age-related development by shifting morphogenesis to earlier stages of ontogenesis.

There are two types of acceleration - epochal (secular trend, i.e. "tendency of the century", it is inherent in the entire current generation) and intragroup, or individual - this is the accelerated development of individual children and adolescents in certain age groups.

Retardation is a delay in physical development and formation of functional systems of the body. It is the opposite of acceleration.

The term “acceleration” (from the Latin word acceleratio - acceleration) was proposed by the German doctor Koch in 1935. The essence of acceleration is in an earlier reaching certain stages of biological development and completing the maturation of the organism.

There is evidence that due to intrauterine acceleration of the fetus, full-fledged mature newborns with a weight of over 2500 g and a body length of more than 47 cm can be born at a gestation period of less than 36 weeks.

The doubling of body weight in infants (compared to birth weight) now occurs by 4, and not by 6 months, as was the case at the beginning of the 20th century. If the “cross” of the chest and head circumference values ​​at the beginning of the twentieth century was recorded at the 10-12th month, in 1937 - already at the 6th month, in 1949 - at the 5th month, then at present the chest circumference becomes equal to the head circumference between the 2nd and 3rd months of life. Modern infants start teething earlier. By the age of one year, modern children have a body length of 5-6 cm and a weight of 2.0-2.5 kg higher than they were at the beginning of the century. The chest circumference increased by 2.0-2.5 cm, and the head circumference by 1.0-1.5 cm.
Acceleration of development is also noticeable in children of toddler and preschool age. The development of modern 7-year-old children corresponds to 8.5-9 years in children of the late 19th century.
On average, preschool children's body length has increased by 10-12 cm over 100 years. Permanent teeth also erupt earlier.

In preschool age, acceleration can be harmonious. This is the name for those cases when there is a correspondence of the level of development not only in the mental and somatic spheres, but also in relation to the development of individual mental functions. But harmonious acceleration is extremely rare. More often, along with the acceleration of mental and physical development, pronounced somatovegetative dysfunctions (at an early age) and endocrine disorders (at an older age) are noted. In the mental sphere itself, there is disharmony, manifested by the acceleration of the development of some mental functions (for example, speech) and the immaturity of others (for example, motor skills and social skills), and sometimes somatic (bodily) acceleration is ahead of the mental one. In all these cases, disharmonious acceleration is meant. A typical example of disharmonious acceleration is a complex clinical picture, reflecting a combination of signs of acceleration and infantilism (“childishness”).

Acceleration in early childhood has a number of features. Acceleration of mental development compared to the age norm, even at0.5-1 year always makes a child “difficult”, vulnerable to stressful, especially psychological situations that are not always perceived by adults.

During puberty, which begins in modern girls at 10-12 years old, and in boys at 12-14 years old, the growth rate increases greatly. Puberty occurs earlier.

In big cities, adolescents reach puberty somewhat earlier than in rural areas. The rate of acceleration of rural children is also lower than in cities.

During acceleration, the average height of an adult per decade increases by approximately 0.7-1.2 cm, and weight by 1.5-2.5 kg.

Concerns have been raised that the reduction in growth period and accelerated puberty associated with acceleration may lead to earlier decline and a reduction in life expectancy. These fears were not confirmed. The life expectancy of modern people has increased, and their ability to work remains longer. In women, menopause moved back to the 48-50th year of life (at the beginning of the twentieth century, menstruation stopped at 43-45 years). Consequently, the childbearing period has lengthened, which can also be attributed to manifestations of acceleration. Due to the later onset of menopause and senile changes, metabolic diseases, atherosclerosis and cancer have “moved” to older ages. It is believed that the milder course of diseases such as scarlet fever and diphtheria is associated not only with advances in medicine, but also with acceleration due to changes in the body’s reactivity. As a result of acceleration, the reactivity of young children acquired features that were previously characteristic of older children (adolescents).
In connection with the acceleration of physical and sexual maturation, problems associated with early sexual activity and early marriage have become of particular importance.

Main manifestations of acceleration according to Yu. E. Veltishchev and G. S. Gracheva (1979):

• increased length and body weight of newborns compared to similar values ​​in the 20-30s of our century; Currently, the height of one-year-old children is on average 4-5 cm, and body weight is 1-2 kg more than 50 years ago
• earlier eruption of the first teeth, their replacement with permanent ones occurs 1-2 years earlier than in children of the last century;
• earlier appearance of ossification nuclei in boys and girls, and in general, ossification of the skeleton in girls ends at 3 years, and in boys - 2 years earlier than in the 20-30s of our century;
• an earlier increase in the length and body weight of children of preschool and school age, and the older the child, the more he differs in body size from children of the last century;
• an increase in body length in the current generation by 8-10 cm compared to the previous one;
• sexual development of boys and girls ends 1.5-2 years earlier than at the beginning of the 20th century; for every 10 years, the onset of menstruation in girls accelerates by 4-6 months.

True acceleration is accompanied by an increase in life expectancy and reproductive period of the adult population(I.M. Vorontsov, A.V. Mazurin, 1985).

Based on taking into account the relationships between anthropometric indicators and the level of biological maturity, harmonic and disharmonic types of acceleration are distinguished. The harmonious type includes those children whose anthropometric indicators and level of biological maturity are above the average values ​​for this age group; the disharmonic type includes children who have increased body growth in length without simultaneous acceleration of sexual development or early puberty without increased growth in length. length.

Theories of the causes of acceleration

1. Physico-chemical:
1) heliogenic (the influence of solar radiation), it was put forward by the German school doctor E. Koch, who introduced it in the early 30s. the term "acceleration";
2) radio wave, magnetic (influence of the magnetic field);
3) cosmic radiation;
4) increased concentration of carbon dioxide caused by increased production;

5) lengthening daylight hours due to artificial lighting of premises.

2. Theories of individual factors of living conditions:
1) nutritional (improved nutrition);
2) nutraceutical (improving nutritional structure);

3) the influence of hormonal growth stimulants supplied along with the meat of animals raised on these stimulants (hormones to accelerate the growth of animals began to be used in the 1960s);
4) increased flow of information, increased sensory impact on the psyche.

3. Genetic:
1) cyclical biological changes;
2) heterosis (mixing of populations).

4. Theories of a complex of living conditions factors:
1) urban (city) influence;
2) a complex of socio-biological factors.

Thus, a generally accepted point of view has not yet been formed regarding the reasons for acceleration. Many hypotheses have been put forward. Most scientists consider changes in nutrition to be the determining factor in all developmental shifts. This is due to an increase in the amount of complete proteins and natural fats consumed per capita.

Accelerating the physical development of a child requires rationalization of work activity and physical activity. In connection with acceleration, the regional standards that we use to assess the physical development of children must be periodically reviewed.

Deceleration

The acceleration process has begun to decline, the average body size of the new generation of people is decreasing again.

Deceleration is the process of canceling acceleration, i.e. slowing down the processes of biological maturation of all organs and systems of the body. Deceleration is now replacing acceleration.

Currently emerging deceleration is a consequence of the influence of a complex of natural and social factors on the biology of modern man, as well as acceleration.

Over the past 20 years, the following changes in the physical development of all segments of the population and all age groups have begun to be recorded: chest circumference has decreased, muscle strength has sharply decreased. But there are two extreme trends in changes in body weight: insufficient, leading to malnutrition and dystrophy; and excessive, leading to obesity. All this is regarded as negative phenomena.

Reasons for deceleration:

Environmental factor;

Gene mutations;

Deterioration of social living conditions and, above all, food structure;

The same growth of information technology, which began to lead to overexcitation of the nervous system and, in response to this, to its inhibition;

Decreased physical activity.

A reflex is the body’s response to irritation from the external or internal environment, carried out through the nervous system (CNS) and having adaptive significance.

For example, irritation of the skin of the plantar part of a person’s foot causes reflex flexion of the foot and toes. This is the plantar reflex. Touching the lips of an infant causes sucking movements in him - the sucking reflex. Illumination of the eye with bright light causes constriction of the pupil - the pupillary reflex.
Thanks to reflex activity, the body is able to quickly respond to various changes in the external or internal environment.
Reflex reactions are very diverse. They can be conditional or unconditional.
All organs of the body contain nerve endings that are sensitive to stimuli. These are receptors. Receptors vary in structure, location and function.
The executive organ whose activity changes as a result of the reflex is called an effector. The path along which impulses travel from the receptor to the executive organ is called a reflex arc. This is the material basis of the reflex.
Speaking about the reflex arc, we must keep in mind that any reflex act is carried out with the participation of a large number of neurons. A two- or three-neuron reflex arc is just a diagram. In fact, the reflex occurs when not one, but many receptors located in one or another area of ​​the body are irritated. Nerve impulses during any reflex act, arriving at the central nervous system, spread widely throughout it, reaching its different parts. Therefore, it is more correct to say that the structural basis of reflex reactions is made up of neural chains of centripetal, central, or intercalary, and centrifugal neurons.
Due to the fact that in any reflex act groups of neurons take part, transmitting impulses to various parts of the brain, the whole organism is involved in the reflex reaction. And indeed, if you were unexpectedly pricked in the arm with a pin, you would immediately pull it away. This is a reflex reaction. But this will not only reduce the arm muscles. Breathing and the activity of the cardiovascular system will change. You will react with words to an unexpected injection. Almost the entire body was involved in the response. A reflex act is a coordinated reaction of the entire organism.

7. Differences between conditioned (acquired) reflexes and unconditioned ones. Conditions for the formation of conditioned reflexes

Table. Differences between unconditioned and conditioned reflexes

№	Reflexes
	Unconditional	Conditional
1	Congenital	Purchased
2	Inherited	Are being produced
3	Species	Individual
4	Neural connections are permanent	Neural connections are temporary
5	Stronger	Weaker
6	Faster	Slower
7	Difficult to brake	Easy to brake

The implementation of unconditioned reflexes involves mainly the subcortical parts of the central nervous system (we also call them "lower nerve centers" . Therefore, these reflexes can be carried out in higher animals even after the removal of their cerebral cortex. However, it was possible to show that after removal of the cerebral cortex, the nature of the course of unconditioned reflex reactions changes. This gave grounds to talk about the cortical representation of the unconditioned reflex.
The number of unconditioned reflexes is relatively small. They themselves cannot ensure the body’s adaptation to constantly changing living conditions. A great variety of conditioned reflexes are developed during the life of an organism, many of them lose their biological significance when living conditions change, fade away, and new conditioned reflexes are developed. This enables animals and humans to best adapt to changing environmental conditions.
Conditioned reflexes are developed on the basis of unconditioned ones. First of all, you need a conditioned stimulus, or signal. A conditioned stimulus can be any stimulus from the external environment or a certain change in the internal state of the body. If you feed a dog every day at a certain hour, then by this hour the secretion of gastric juice begins even before feeding. Here time became the conditioned stimulus. Conditioned reflexes are temporarily developed in a person by observing a work schedule, eating at the same time, and a constant bedtime.
In order for a conditioned reflex to develop, the conditioned stimulus must be reinforced with an unconditioned stimulus, i.e. one that evokes an unconditioned reflex. The ringing of knives in the nightingale will cause salivation in a person only if this ringing is reinforced with food one or more times. The ringing of knives and forks in our case is a conditioned stimulus, and the unconditioned stimulus that causes the salivary unconditioned reflex is food.
When a conditioned reflex is formed, the conditioned stimulus must precede the action of the unconditioned stimulus.

8. Patterns of processes of excitation and inhibition in the central nervous system. Their role in the activity of the nervous system. Mediators of excitation and inhibition. Inhibition of conditioned reflexes and its types

According to the ideas of I.P. Pavlov, the formation of a conditioned reflex is associated with the establishment of a temporary connection between two groups of cortical cells - between those who perceive conditioned and those who perceive unconditional stimulation.
When a conditioned stimulus acts, excitement occurs in the corresponding receptive zone of the cerebral hemispheres. When a conditioned stimulus is reinforced by an unconditioned one, a second, stronger focus of excitation appears in the corresponding zone of the cerebral hemispheres, which apparently takes on the character of a dominant focus. Due to the attraction of excitation from a focus of lesser strength to a focus of greater strength, a neural path is blazed, a summation of excitation occurs. A temporary nerve connection is formed between both foci of excitation. This connection becomes stronger the more often both areas of the cortex are simultaneously excited. After several combinations, the connection turns out to be so strong that under the influence of only one conditioned stimulus, excitation also occurs in the second focus.
Thus, due to the establishment of a temporary connection, a conditioned stimulus initially indifferent to the body becomes a signal of a certain innate activity. If the dog hears the bell for the first time, it will give a general approximate reaction to it, but will not salivate. Now let's back up the sound of the bell with food. In this case, two foci of excitation will appear in the cerebral cortex - one in the auditory zone, and the other in the food center. After several reinforcements of the bell with food, a temporary connection appears in the cerebral cortex between the two foci of excitation
Conditioned reflexes can be inhibited. This happens in cases where in the cerebral cortex, during the implementation of a conditioned reflex, a new, sufficiently strong focus of excitation arises, not associated with this conditioned reflex.
There are:
external inhibition (unconditional);
internal (conditional).

External
Internal
Unconditional brake - a new biologically strong signal that inhibits the implementation of the reflex
Extinction inhibition with repeated repetition of the SD without reinforcement, the reflex fades away
Approximate; a new stimulus precedes stimulation of the reflex
Differentiation - when a similar stimulus is repeated without reinforcement, the reflex fades away
Extreme inhibition (extremely strong stimuli inhibit the implementation of the reflex)
Delayed
Fatigue - inhibits the implementation of the reflex
Conditioned inhibition - when a combination of stimuli does not provide reinforcement, one stimulus serves as a brake for the other

In the central nervous system, unilateral conduction of excitation is noted. This is due to the characteristics of synapses; transmission of excitation in them is possible only in one direction - from the nerve ending, where the transmitter is released upon excitation, to the postsynaptic membrane. The excitatory postsynaptic potential does not propagate in the opposite direction.
What is the mechanism of excitation transmission in synapses? The arrival of a nerve impulse at the presynaptic terminal is accompanied by the synchronous release of a transmitter into the synaptic cleft from synaptic vesicles located in close proximity to it. A series of impulses arrive at the presynaptic ending; their frequency increases with increasing strength of the stimulus, leading to an increase in the release of the transmitter into the synaptic cleft. The dimensions of the synaptic cleft are very small, and the transmitter, quickly reaching the postsynaptic membrane, interacts with its substance. As a result of this interaction, the structure of the postsynaptic membrane temporarily changes, its permeability to sodium ions increases, which leads to the movement of ions and, as a consequence, the appearance of an excitatory postsynaptic potential. When this potential reaches a certain value, a spreading excitation occurs - an action potential.
After a few milliseconds, the mediator is destroyed by special enzymes.
Currently, the overwhelming majority of neurophysiologists recognize the existence in the spinal cord and in various parts of the brain of two qualitatively different types of synapses - excitatory and inhibitory.
Under the influence of an impulse arriving along the axon of an inhibitory neuron, a mediator is released into the synaptic cleft, which causes specific changes in the postsynaptic membrane. The inhibitory mediator, interacting with the substance of the postsynaptic membrane, increases its permeability to potassium and chlorine ions. Inside the cell, the relative number of anions increases. The result is not a decrease in the internal charge of the membrane, but an increase in the internal charge of the postsynaptic membrane. Its hyperpolation occurs. This leads to the emergence of an inhibitory postsynatic potential, resulting in inhibition.

9. Irradiation and induction

Excitation impulses that arise from irritation of one or another receptor, entering the central nervous system, spread to its neighboring areas. This spread of excitation in the central nervous system is called irradiation. The wider the irradiation, the stronger and longer the irritation caused.
Irradiation is possible due to numerous processes in centripetal nerve cells and interneurons connecting various parts of the nervous system. Irradiation is well expressed in children, especially at an early age. Children of preschool and primary school age, when a beautiful toy appears, open their mouths, jump, and laugh with pleasure.
In the process of differentiation of stimuli, inhibition limits the irradiation of excitation. As a result, excitation is concentrated in certain groups of neurons. Now around the excited neurons, excitability decreases, and they enter a state of inhibition. This is the phenomenon of simultaneous negative induction. Concentration of attention can be considered as a weakening of irradiation and strengthening of induction. Dispersion of attention can also be considered as a result of inductive inhibition induced by a new focus of excitation as a result of an emerging orienting reaction. In neurons that were excited, inhibition occurs after excitation and, conversely, after inhibition, excitation occurs in the same neurons. This is sequential induction. Sequential induction can explain the increased motor activity of schoolchildren during breaks after prolonged inhibition in the motor area of ​​the cerebral cortex during the lesson. Rest during recess should be active and mobile.

The eye is located in the recess of the skull - the orbit. It is protected from external influences from the back and sides by the bony walls of the orbit, and from the front by the eyelids. The inner surface of the eyelids and the front part of the eyeball, with the exception of the cornea, are covered with a mucous membrane - the conjunctiva. At the outer edge of the eye socket there is a lacrimal gland, which secretes a fluid that protects the eye from drying out. The uniform distribution of tear fluid over the surface of the eye is facilitated by blinking of the eyelids.
The eye shape is spherical. Growth of the eyeball continues after birth. It grows most intensively in the first five years of life, less intensively - 9-12 years.
The eyeball consists of three membranes - outer, middle and inner.
The outer layer of the eye is the sclera. This is a dense, opaque white fabric, about 1 mm thick. In the anterior part it turns into a transparent cornea.
The lens is a transparent elastic formation shaped like a biconvex lens. The lens is covered with a transparent bag; along its entire edge, thin but very elastic fibers stretch towards the ciliary body. They are strongly stretched and keep the lens stretched.
In the center of the iris there is a round hole - the pupil. The size of the pupil changes, causing more or less light to enter the eye.
The tissue of the iris contains a special coloring substance - melanin. Depending on the amount of this pigment, the color of the iris ranges from gray and blue to brown, almost black. The color of the iris determines the color of the eyes. The inner surface of the eye is lined with a thin (0.2-0.3 mm) membrane of very complex structure - the retina. It contains light-sensitive cells called cones and rods because of their shape. Nerve fibers coming from these cells come together to form the optic nerve, which travels to the brain.
In the first months after birth, a child confuses the top and bottom of an object.
The eye is able to adapt to a clear vision of objects located at different distances from it. This ability of the eye is called accommodation.
Accommodation of the eye begins already when the object is at a distance of about 65 m from the eye. A clearly expressed contraction of the ciliary muscle begins at a distance of the object from the eye of 10 and even 5 m. If the object continues to approach the eye, accommodation becomes more and more intensified and, finally, a clear vision of the object becomes impossible. The shortest distance from the eye at which the object is still clearly visible is called the closest point of clear vision. In a normal eye, the farthest point of clear vision lies at infinity.

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SUBJECT, CONTENT, TASKS OF AGE ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, HYGIENE Anatomy and physiology are the most important biological sciences about the structure and functions of the human body. Human anatomy is the science of the forms and structure, origin and development of the human body, its systems and organs. Human anatomy is studied, as a rule, by examining various organs. Physiology is a science that studies the patterns of functioning of living organisms, their individual systems, organs, tissues and cells, the relationship and changes in functions under different environmental conditions and under different states of the body.

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Anatomy studies not only the structure of a modern adult human, but also explores how the human body developed in its historical development. For this purpose: the development of the human race in the process of evolution of the animal world is studied - phylogeny; the process of formation and development of man in connection with the development of society - anthropogenesis - is studied; Objectives of modern anatomy: 1. Description of the structure, shape, position of organs and their relationships, taking into account the age, gender and individual characteristics of the human body. 2. Study of the interdependence of the structure and shape of organs with their functions. 3. Clarification of the laws of the constitution of the body as a whole and its constituent parts. Currently, physiology and anatomy have accumulated a huge amount of factual material. This led to the fact that two independent sciences sprang from physiology and anatomy - these are age-related anatomy and age-related physiology.

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Age-related anatomy studies the human physique and its organs at different periods of life. Age-related physiology is a science that studies the features of the life processes of an organism at different stages of ontogenesis. It is an independent branch of human and animal physiology, the subject of which includes the study of the patterns of formation and development of the physiological functions of the body throughout its life path from fertilization to the end of life. The subject of the study of age-related anatomy and physiology is the study of the anatomical and physiological characteristics of children and adolescents in the process of their individual development.

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The main objectives of studying age-related physiology are the following: studying the characteristics of the functioning of various organs, systems and the body as a whole; identification of exogenous and endogenous factors that determine the functioning of the body at different age periods; determination of objective age criteria (age standards); establishing patterns of individual development.

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Hygiene is a medical science that studies the influence of the environment on human health, performance, and develops optimal requirements for living and working conditions. Hygiene creates the basis for ongoing and preventive sanitary supervision, sanitary measures to improve human working and rest conditions. One of the tasks of hygiene is the examination of the quality of food products and household items. Modern hygiene develops standards for the air environment of populated areas and industrial enterprises, water, food, clothing materials, footwear in order to preserve human health and prevent diseases to increase life expectancy. Hygienic standards necessary to preserve human health are created on the basis of knowledge of anatomy and physiology.

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From general hygiene, its sections stand out: municipal hygiene, food hygiene, occupational hygiene, hygiene of children and adolescents (or school hygiene), military hygiene, radiation hygiene, etc. Hygiene of children and adolescents is a science that studies the interaction of the child’s body with the external environment in order to develop hygienic standards and requirements aimed at protecting and promoting health. Hygiene, like any other science, has come a long way in development. There are known sanitary regulations in the code of laws of Ancient India, which indicated the need to change linen and clothes, care for skin and teeth, and prohibition of excess food.

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AGE PERIODS OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT. Physiologists and doctors have long tried to identify several age periods to establish the characteristics of the development of a child’s body at each stage of its life. The division was based on such signs as teething, timing of ossification of individual parts of the skeleton, characteristics of growth, mental development, etc. Currently, an age periodization scheme has been approved, according to which the following stages are distinguished: newborn - up to 1 month. life; infancy – from 1 month. up to 1 year; early childhood – from 1 year to 3 years; first childhood – from 4 to 7 years; second childhood: boys – from 8 to 12 years; girls – from 8 to 11 years old; adolescence: boys - from 13 to 16 years; girls – from 12 to 15 years old; adolescence: boys – from 17 to 21 years; girls – from 16 to 20 years old.

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HEALTH AND PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF A CHILD Currently, in a comprehensive assessment of the health status of children and adolescents, 4 criteria are used: the presence or absence of chronic diseases at the time of examination; level of functional state of the main body systems; the degree of resistance of the body to adverse effects; the level of physical and neuropsychic development achieved and the degree of its harmony (for assessing the child’s health, the last criterion is especially important, since the child’s body is in the process of continuous growth and development). The presence or absence of diseases is determined during examination by medical specialists. The functional state of organs and systems is determined by clinical methods using, if necessary, special tests. The degree of body resistance is determined by susceptibility to diseases. It is judged by the number of acute diseases (including exacerbations of chronic diseases) over the previous year. The level of mental development is usually determined by a child psychologist taking part in the examination. The level and degree of harmonious physical development is determined using anthropometric studies, based on regional standards of physical development. The achieved level of physical development is determined by comparison with the average indicators of biological development for a given age, and the degree of harmony is determined by using evaluation tables (regression scales).

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Depending on their health status, children are divided into the following groups: Healthy, with normal development and a normal level of function. This includes healthy children with normal physical and mental development, without deformities, injuries or functional deviations. Healthy, but having functional and some morphological abnormalities, as well as reduced resistance to acute and chronic diseases. This should also include children who have had infectious diseases, and children with a general delay in physical development without endocrine pathology and with significant underweight, as well as those who are often (4 or more times a year) ill. Children with chronic diseases in a state of compensation, with preserved functional capabilities of the body. Children with chronic diseases in a state of subcompensation, with reduced functionality. Children with chronic diseases in a state of decompensation, with significantly reduced functional capabilities of the body. As a rule, children in this group do not attend general child care institutions and are not covered by mass examinations.

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HYGIENIC BASICS OF A HEALTHY LIFESTYLE The ability of nerve cells to be in an active state in children is very insignificant. For the normal development of the nervous system of children and the prevention of early or severe fatigue during wakefulness, the correct organization of their lifestyle is of great importance. The correct regime is a rational duration and a clear alternation of various types of activities and rest for children during the day. The regime should provide sufficient time (taking into account age-related characteristics) for all the necessary elements of the child’s life (sleep, walks, classes, etc.) and at the same time, during the waking period, protect his body from excessive fatigue. Strict adherence to the daily routine, carrying out all its constituent elements always at the same time, contributes to the emergence in children of strong conditional connections that facilitate the transition from one activity to another. At each individual period of time, the child’s body is, as it were, preparing for the type of activity that it has to perform; as a result, all processes (digestion of food, awakening, falling asleep, etc.) proceed faster and with less energy expenditure. The correct regime disciplines children, improves their appetite, sleep, performance, promotes normal physical development and health promotion.

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Sleeping mode. Since children get tired easily, properly organized sleep is of great importance to restore the normal state of nerve cells. The total daily duration of sleep and its frequency during the daytime decrease with the age of children, and the time of wakefulness, on the contrary, increases.

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Diet. For the proper development of a child, a rational diet is necessary. Children should eat at exactly set times. By the time of eating, the excitability of the digestive glands increases; they begin to intensively produce digestive juices even before the food enters the stomach. The child develops an appetite and willingly eats the food offered. Food products entering the gastrointestinal tract are quickly processed by juices and are well absorbed by the body. Meal frequency. Children in the first months of life receive food 7 times a day, from 2.5 to 3 months. up to 5 – 6 months. – 6 times, from 6 months. up to 9–10 months – 5 times, from 9–10 months. up to 1 g – 5–4 times, from 1 g to 7 years – 4 times. Accordingly, the duration of breaks between meals gradually increases from 3.5 to 4–4.5 hours.

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Wake mode. During waking hours with newborn children, it is necessary to walk as much as possible. When the child begins to walk independently, games and activities can be carried out. Children over 1.5 years old take walks at certain hours: the first time after games and activities following breakfast (2 hours), the second time after afternoon tea (2–3 hours). The total duration of walks is 4–5 hours. A walk, if properly organized, is one of the most important moments in the hardening of children. Before a walk, it is important to dress and put on your child’s shoes in accordance with the season and weather in order to provide him with freedom of movement and the necessary thermal comfort. Children under 3 years old go for walks in winter in calm weather at an air temperature of at least – 15 °C, and 4–7 years old – at temperatures up to – 18–22 °C. At low temperatures, walking time is reduced.

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Visual hygiene Sometimes children with practically healthy eyes and good general condition in conditions of excellent lighting can be visually impaired. This is explained by the fact that the relationship between the refractive power of the optical media of the eye (cornea, lens) and the anteroposterior size (length) of the eye is different, and light rays are not always focused (collected) on the most photosensitive part of the retina - the macula. Emmetropia, or normal refraction, is characterized by the fact that light rays, after refraction in the cornea and lens, are collected on the retina, in the area of ​​the macula. In this case, there is greater contrast (sharpness) and the highest visual acuity. With farsightedness, or poor refraction, light rays are focused as if behind the retina. Surrounding objects, especially close ones, seem blurry and lacking in contrast. Young children are characterized by farsightedness, since their anterior non-posterior diameter of the eyeball is shortened. So, 95% of newborns are diagnosed with farsightedness. As a rule, it is compensated with age by the high power of the refractive media of the eye and does not require glasses; Only in cases of severe farsightedness will a child be prescribed glasses. Myopia (myopia), or strong refraction, has the opposite feature of farsightedness: light rays are focused in front of the retina. At the same time, good visual acuity is only possible at close range; distant objects are visible as if in fog.

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Hygiene of the respiratory system and vocal apparatus In children, the mucous membranes of the upper respiratory tract and vocal cords are very delicate and easily vulnerable, so they often suffer from a runny nose, inflammation of the larynx, bronchi and lungs. Proper breathing through the nose plays a major role in preventing diseases of the respiratory system and vocal apparatus. When breathing through the nose, the air, before entering the larynx, bronchi and lungs, passes through the narrow, winding nasal passages, where it is cleared of dust, germs and other harmful impurities, moistened and warmed. This does not happen when breathing through your mouth. In addition, when breathing through the mouth, the normal rhythm and depth of breathing becomes difficult and the passage of air into the lungs per unit of time decreases. Breathing through the mouth in children most often occurs with a chronic runny nose and the appearance of adenoids in the nasopharynx. Impaired nasal breathing negatively affects the child’s general condition: he turns pale, becomes lethargic, gets tired easily, sleeps poorly, suffers from headaches, and his physical and mental development slows down. Such a child should be urgently shown to a doctor. If the adenoids are the cause of improper breathing, they are removed. After this simple and harmless operation, the child’s condition improves significantly, and physical and mental development quickly returns to normal.

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Inflammation of the larynx (laryngitis) mainly affects the vocal cords located on the inner surface of the lateral walls of the larynx. Laryngitis has two forms: acute and chronic. Acute laryngitis is accompanied by cough, sore throat, pain when swallowing, talking, hoarseness, and sometimes even loss of voice (aphonia). If the necessary treatment measures are not taken in a timely manner, acute laryngitis can become chronic. To protect the respiratory system and vocal apparatus from diseases in children, the absence of sharp fluctuations in air and food temperature is of great importance. Children should not be taken out of very hot rooms or after a hot bath (sauna) into the cold, or allowed to drink cold drinks or eat ice cream while hot. Severe strain on the vocal apparatus can also lead to inflammation of the larynx. It is necessary to ensure that children do not talk loudly for a long time, do not sing, scream or cry, especially in damp, cold and dusty rooms or on walks in unfavorable weather. Learning poems and singing (while observing vocal patterns and breathing) contribute to the development and strengthening of the larynx, vocal cords and lungs. To prevent the vocal cords from overstraining, you need to recite poetry in a calm, quiet voice, sing without tension; sound continuity should not exceed 4–5 minutes.

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