It is not always possible to interpret a conflict only as a positive or only as a negative phenomenon. In order to prevent or at least reduce possible damage, it is more appropriate than ending or resolving a conflict to prevent it. But the effectiveness of preventing interstate and ethnic conflicts is low, due to the obstacles encountered at the latent and early stages of conflict development. Often a conflict is seen as a private matter between the parties, and forcing the parties to agree or behave in a certain way is unethical and unfair. It is believed that intervention is possible only when the conflict acquires a socially significant scale.

Some elements of intergroup tension and potential conflict exist in every society. Analysis of social change draws attention to the elements that support it. Tension can be manageable, as it manifests itself, as a rule, in the legitimate interests of groups. Social changes can only be analyzed in relation to specific structures. Therefore, it is necessary to distinguish between changes occurring within certain structures.

In any hierarchically constructed system, social relations exist within the framework of social roles imposed on individuals, which are felt as coercion. Any norm, rule, tradition presupposes a performer and someone who monitors the execution. Conflict is a form of manifestation of freedom; it arises from relations of domination and subordination in a system of relations of inequality. Any regulation of social relations based on law, norm, rule includes an element of coercion and can cause conflict.

If society does not want to recognize the very possibility of conflict as a product of freedom, then it drives the conflict inside, which makes its manifestation in the future more destructive. The conflict must be identified, understood, and made the subject of public consciousness and attention. This will help determine the real causes of the conflict and the area of ​​its possible spread. A specific conflict is relative in nature and localized in a specific area. Conflict is a universal form of human society. He is absolute. Awareness of this circumstance is a condition of individual freedom.

In modern conflictology, the following conditions for conflict resolution are formulated.

• 1) Timely and accurate diagnosis of the causes of the conflict. This involves identifying objective contradictions, interests, goals and delineating the “business zone” of a conflict situation. A model for exiting a conflict situation is created.
• 2) Mutual interest in overcoming contradictions based on mutual recognition of the interests of each party.
• 3) Joint search for a compromise, i.e. ways to overcome the conflict. Constructive dialogue between the warring parties is of decisive importance.

The post-conflict stage involves the elimination of contradictions of conflicting interests, goals, attitudes, and the elimination of socio-psychological tension in society. Post-conflict syndrome, when relations worsen, may be the beginning of repeated conflicts at a different level with other participants.

The process of resolving any conflict consists of at least three stages. The first - preparatory - is the diagnosis of the conflict. The second is developing a resolution and technology strategy. The third is direct practical activity to resolve the conflict - the implementation of a set of methods and means.

Diagnosis of a conflict includes: a) a description of its visible manifestations (skirmishes, clashes, crises, etc.), b) determining the level of development of the conflict; c) identifying the causes of the conflict and its nature (objective or subjective), d) measuring intensity, e) determining the scope of prevalence. Each of the noted diagnostic elements presupposes an objective understanding, assessment and consideration of the main variables of the conflict - the content of the confrontation, the state of its participants, the goals and tactics of their actions, and possible consequences. Conflict is diagnosed in structural and functional terms, in situational and positional aspects, as a state and a process.

Depending on the possible models of conflict resolution, the interests and goals of the conflicting entities, five main conflict resolution styles are used, described and used in foreign management training programs. These are: styles of competition, evasion, adaptation, cooperation, compromise.

The competitive style is used when the subject is very active and intends to resolve the conflict, seeking first of all to satisfy his own interests to the detriment of the interests of others, forcing other people to accept his solution to the problem.

The avoidance style is used in a situation where the subject is unsure of a positive solution to the conflict, or when he does not want to waste energy on resolving it, or in cases where he feels wrong.

The accommodation style is characterized by the fact that the subject acts together with others, without trying to defend his own interests. Consequently, he yields to his opponent and accepts his dominance. This style should be used if you feel that by giving in on something, you have little to lose. The most typical are some situations in which the adjustment style is recommended: the subject strives to maintain peace and good relations with others; he understands that the truth is not on his side; he has little power or little chance of winning; he understands that the outcome of the conflict resolution is much more important for the other subject than for him.

Thus, in the case of applying the accommodation style, the subject strives to develop a solution that satisfies both parties.

Collaborative style. By implementing it, the subject actively participates in resolving the conflict, while defending his interests, but trying, together with another subject, to look for ways to achieve a mutually beneficial result. Some typical situations when this style is used: both conflicting subjects have equal resources and opportunities to solve the problem; resolving the conflict is very important for both sides, and no one wants to get rid of it; the presence of long-term and interdependent relationships among the subjects involved in the conflict; both subjects are able to express the essence of their interests and listen to each other, both are able to explain their desires, express their thoughts and develop alternative solutions to the problem.

Compromise style. It means that both sides of the conflict are looking for a solution to the problem based on mutual concessions. This style is most effective in situations where both opposing parties want the same thing, but are sure that it is impossible for them to do it at the same time. Some cases in which the compromise style is most appropriate: both parties have the same resources and have mutually exclusive interests; both parties may be satisfied with a temporary solution; both parties can reap short-term benefits.

The compromise style is often a successful retreat or a last chance to find some solution to a problem. It is advisable to divide the entire set of methods, depending on the types of conflict resolution models, into two groups.

We will conditionally call the first group of negative methods, including all types of struggle, pursuing the goal of achieving victory of one side over the other. The term “negative” methods in this context is justified by the expected end result of the end of the conflict: the destruction of the unity of the conflicting parties as a basic relationship. We will call the second group positive methods, since when using them, it is assumed that the basis of the relationship (unity) between the subjects of the conflict will be preserved. These are, first of all, various types of negotiations and constructive competition.

The difference between negative and positive methods is relative, conditional. In practical conflict management activities, these methods often complement each other. In addition, the concept of “struggle” as a method of conflict resolution is very general in its content. It is known that a principled negotiation process may include elements of struggle on certain issues. At the same time, the toughest struggle between conflicting agents does not exclude the possibility of negotiations on certain rules of struggle. Without the struggle between the new and the old, there is no creative rivalry, although the latter presupposes the presence of a moment of cooperation in relations between rivals, since we are talking about achieving a common goal - progress in a specific area of ​​public life.

No matter how diverse the types of struggle are, they have some common features, for any struggle is an action with the participation of at least two subjects (individual or collective, mass), where one of the subjects interferes with the other.

The main positive method of conflict resolution is negotiation. Negotiations are a joint discussion between the conflicting parties, with the possible involvement of a mediator, of controversial issues in order to reach agreement. They act as a continuation of the conflict and at the same time serve as a means of overcoming it. When the emphasis is on negotiations as part of a conflict, they are sought to be conducted from a position of strength, with the goal of achieving a one-sided victory.

Naturally, this nature of negotiations usually leads to a temporary, partial resolution of the conflict, and negotiations serve only as an addition to the struggle for victory over the enemy. If negotiations are understood primarily as a method of conflict resolution, then they take the form of honest, open debates, designed for mutual concessions and mutual satisfaction of a certain part of the interests of the parties.

In this concept of negotiation, both parties operate within the same rules, which helps maintain the basis for agreement. The use of positive methods of conflict resolution is embodied by achieving compromises or consensuses between opposing entities.

Compromise (from Latin compromissum) means an agreement based on mutual concessions. There are forced and voluntary compromises. The first are inevitably imposed by prevailing circumstances. For example, the balance of opposing political forces is clearly not in favor of those who compromise. Or a general situation that threatens the existence of the conflicting parties (for example, the mortal danger of a thermonuclear war, if it is ever unleashed, for all humanity). The second, that is, voluntary, compromises are concluded on the basis of agreement on certain issues and correspond to some part of the interests of all interacting forces.

Consensus (from Latin consedo) is a form of expressing agreement with the opponent’s arguments in a dispute. Consensus becomes the principle of interaction between opposing forces in systems based on democratic principles. Therefore, the degree of consensus is an indicator of the development of public democracy. Naturally, neither authoritarian, nor, especially, totalitarian regimes involve resorting to the method in question for resolving social and political conflicts.

Consensus technology is a particular challenge. It is, apparently, not simpler, but more complex than the technology of compromises. The essential elements of this technology are:

• a) analysis of the range of social interests and organizations expressing them;
• b) clarifying the fields of identity and difference, objective coincidence and contradiction of priority values ​​and goals of the current forces; justification of common values ​​and priority goals on the basis of which agreement is possible;
• c) systematic activities of government institutions and socio-political organizations in order to ensure public consent regarding norms, mechanisms and ways to regulate social relations and achieve those goals that are recognized as generally significant.

In all these situations, various methods of resolving and resolving conflicts can be effective, provided that deformations in the structures and functions of management systems and government institutions are eliminated.

Modern conflictology in democratic countries identifies the main priorities for conflict resolution. A feature of a democratic society is the recognition of the admissibility of conflicts and the multiplicity of divergent interests. In Russia, a feature of conflict resolution is the maximalism of the parties, which does not allow reaching consensus, removing motives, and deep sources of social tension. This maximalism is most clearly manifested in Russia in ethno-national conflicts, where one of the conflicting parties defends the principle of sovereignty. This principle of sovereignty is indeed the most authoritative in resolving national conflicts, but it can lead to a deterioration in the financial situation of the local population and cause not an interethnic, but an internal conflict. The principle of the right of nations to self-determination works best in interethnic conflicts.

Ultimately, what is the most rational way to resolve the conflict? - This is the integration of the parties, political decisions that take into account the interests of all parties. In R. Dahrendorf's conflict theory, successful conflict management requires the presence of value prerequisites, the level of organization of the parties, and equality of opportunity for both parties to the conflict. Prospects for resolving social conflicts are associated both with democratic procedures for legalizing the results of the ongoing transformations in Russian society, and with the legitimation of democratic methods for changing the bearers of political power (elites).

Civil society in Russia needs a stable political and legal order that supports the principles of fair distribution of national wealth while simultaneously encouraging high efficiency in the economic sphere. A socially oriented economy and a cultural rule-of-law state, together with mechanisms for searching for social compromise at different levels, are the minimum conditions for the prospects for reducing the severity of social conflicts in Russia and transforming their negative energy into the constructive creation of one’s own life.

Conflict is a complex and contradictory phenomenon. Therefore, when modeling social conflicts for a more accurate diagnosis, prognosis, etc. you need to use all available methods and methods: synergetic approach, the principle of the golden section, catastrophe theory, periods of solar activity, etc. In this case, it is possible to more effectively prevent, resolve, manage, and, if necessary, create conflict situations.

Conflict resolution factors

The following factors play an important role in constructive conflict resolution:

Adequacy of conflict reflection;

Openness and efficiency of communication between conflicting parties;

Creating a climate of mutual trust and cooperation;

Determining the essence of the conflict.

Adequate perception of conflict

Very often, in a situation of conflict, we incorrectly perceive our own actions, intentions and positions, as well as the actions, intentions and points of view of our opponent. Typical perceptual distortions include:

1. “Illusions of one’s own nobility.” In a conflict situation, we often believe that we are the victim of attacks from an evil enemy whose moral principles are very questionable. It seems to us that truth and justice are entirely on our side and testify in our favor. In most conflicts, each of the opponents is confident in his rightness and desire for a fair resolution of the conflict, convinced that only the enemy does not want this. As a result, suspicion often stems naturally from existing prejudice.

2. “Looking for the straw in another’s eye.” Each of the opponents sees the shortcomings and errors of the other, but is not aware of the same shortcomings in himself. As a rule, each of the conflicting parties tends not to notice the meaning of their own actions in relation to the opponent, but reacts with indignation to his actions.

3. “Double ethics.” Even when opponents realize that they are performing the same actions in relation to each other, each of them still perceives their own actions as acceptable and legal, and the opponent’s actions as dishonest and impermissible.

4. “Everything is clear.” Very often, each partner oversimplifies the conflict situation, and in such a way that it confirms the general idea that his strengths are good and correct, and his partner’s actions, on the contrary, are bad and inadequate.

These and similar misconceptions, inherent in each of us in a conflict situation, as a rule, aggravate the conflict and prevent a constructive way out of the problem situation. If the perceptual distortion in conflict is excessive, there is a real danger of becoming trapped by one's own bias. As a result, this can lead to the so-called self-confirming assumption: assuming that the partner is extremely hostile, you begin to defend against him, going on the offensive. Seeing this, the partner experiences hostility towards us, and our preliminary assumption, although it was incorrect, is immediately confirmed. Knowing about such ideas in a conflict situation, try to more carefully analyze your feelings in specific cases.

Open and effective communication between conflicting parties

Communication is the main condition for constructive conflict resolution. However, unfortunately, in a conflict situation, communication usually deteriorates. Opponents mainly try to hurt each other, while they themselves take a defensive position, hiding any information about themselves. Meanwhile, communication can only help resolve the conflict when both parties are looking for a way to achieve mutual understanding. One of the methods of political struggle is to isolate the opponent.

In modern conflictology, the following conditions for conflict resolution are formulated.

1) Timely and accurate diagnosis of the causes of the conflict. This involves identifying objective contradictions, interests, goals and delineating the “business zone” of a conflict situation. A model for exiting a conflict situation is created.

2) Mutual interest in overcoming contradictions based on mutual recognition of the interests of each party.

3) Joint search for a compromise, i.e. ways to overcome the conflict. Constructive dialogue between the warring parties is of decisive importance.

The post-conflict stage involves the elimination of contradictions of conflicting interests, goals, attitudes, and the elimination of socio-psychological tension in society. Post-conflict syndrome, when relations worsen, may be the beginning of repeated conflicts at a different level with other participants.

Modern conflictology in democratic countries identifies the main priorities for conflict resolution. A feature of a democratic society is the recognition of the admissibility of conflicts and the multiplicity of divergent interests.

In Russia, a feature of conflict resolution is the maximalism of the parties, which does not allow reaching consensus, removing motives, and deep sources of social tension. This maximalism is most clearly manifested in Russia in ethno-national conflicts, where one of the conflicting parties defends the principle of sovereignty. This principle of sovereignty is indeed the most authoritative in resolving national conflicts, but it can lead to a deterioration in the financial situation of the local population and cause not an interethnic, but an internal conflict. The principle of the right of nations to self-determination works best in interethnic conflicts.

As a result, which method of resolving the conflict is the most rational? – This is the integration of the parties, political decisions that take into account the interests of all parties.

In R. Dahrendorf's conflict theory, successful conflict management requires the presence of value prerequisites, the level of organization of the parties, and equality of opportunity for both parties to the conflict.

Mass consciousness and mass actions. Social movements

“Mass consciousness,” along with group and social consciousness, is a type of social consciousness associated with the activities of a special kind of social communities—the masses. In terms of content, “mass consciousness” is a set of ideas, ideas, moods and illusions accessible to the masses that reflect the social life of society. “Mass consciousness” is narrower in scope than social consciousness; group components and special forms of spiritual mastery of reality (science, professional ethics) fall out of it.

“Mass consciousness” arises and is formed in the process of stereotyping people’s lives in the spheres of work, politics, and leisure, when the same or similar aspirations, interests, assessments, and needs are born. With the help of the media, models of behavior, perception of the surrounding world, knowledge, lifestyles, and stereotypes of consciousness are replicated. The structure of “mass consciousness” consists of public opinion (a set of assessments), value orientations and attitudes that influence the behavior of the masses, “public mood”. Mass consciousness acts as a regulator of mass forms of human behavior. Its role intensifies as the role of the masses in economics, politics, and culture grows.

Mass actions as a form of conflict

The most striking form of social conflicts are mass actions, which are realized in the form of demands on the authorities, or in direct protests. Mass protest is an active form of conflict behavior. It is expressed in various forms: spontaneous riots, organized strikes, violent actions (hostages), non-violent actions - civil disobedience campaigns; the organizers of mass protest are interest groups, or pressure groups. Rallies, demonstrations, picketing, and hunger strikes are effective means of solving specific problems. They are complemented by revolutions, partisan movements, and terrorist attacks.

In conclusion, we note that since conflicts in life are inevitable, it is important to master conflict management technologies.

Social movements

“Social movement” is various associations of social, demographic, ethnic, religious and other groups, their joint actions to achieve common goals. The genesis of social movements is associated with the emergence of conflicts, disorganization, and erosion of past values ​​in society, which encourage part of society to unite for the purpose of self-realization. Social movements united:

1) the general goal is to change one’s social status;

2) common values ​​(revolutionary, conservative, destructive, positive);

3) a general system of norms regulating the behavior of its participants;

4) an informal leader.

Marxist sociology analyzes various types of social movements - revolutionary, reform, national liberation, professional, youth, women's, etc. Political parties are often formed on the basis of social movements, which have their own organization, ideology, and programs. In the political life of the twentieth century, mass movements for peace, ecology, national liberation, feminist, and youth play a large role. A number of mass movements take the form of a social institution that has specific norms and sanctions, values ​​(for example, environmentalists, the protection of cultural monuments, religious sects). Informal social movements of punks, skinheads, rockers, mods, and hippies are also widespread in modern society. In a democracy, the importance of mass movements increases.

Social conflict is a way of interaction between individuals, communities, social institutions, determined by their material and spiritual interests, a certain social status, power; it is a collision whose goal is neutralization. causing damage or destruction to an enemy. Consensus seems to be one of the methods for making economic, socio-political and other decisions, which consists in developing an agreed position that does not cause fundamental objections from the parties.

Questions for self-control

1. How does social conflict differ from interpersonal conflict?

2. Who can become the subject of social conflict?

3. What determines the social significance of conflictology?

4. Name the main signs of social conflict.

5. Define the concepts of “social conflict” and conflict situation.

6. What is the main way to resolve social conflicts?

7. What is the fundamental difference between formal and informal mass movements?

Literature

2. Druzhinin M.V., Kontorov D.S., Kontorov M.D. Introduction to the theory of conflicts. M., 1989.

3. Zdravomyslov A. G. Fundamental problems of the sociology of conflict in the dynamics of mass consciousness. //Socis, 1998, No. 8.

4. Siegert W., Lang L., Lead without conflict. M., 1990.

5. Political conflicts: from violence to harmony. M., 1996.

6. Pretorius R. Theory of conflict. //Polis, 1991, No. 5.

7. Social conflict. Modern research. M., 1991.

8. Sogrin V.V. Conflict and consensus in Russian politics. //Social sciences and modernity. 1996, no. 1.

XI. PRODUCTION ORGANIZATIONS:

OPERATION, MANAGEMENT

1. Management of a production organization.

2. Management style and methods.

Basic Concepts

Production organization, management, standards of behavior in production, formal and informal organizations, management, verbal and horizontal communications and structures, hierarchy, stability, intra-organizational values, decision making, instrumentality and subjectivity, subordination, controllability, standardized decisions, directive, collective style, innovative management.

Purpose of information

The previous topics examined social institutions and organizations as a special type of structures that regulate interaction and social relations in society. The purpose of this topic is to reveal the features of the functioning and management of one of the most common forms of social organization - the production organization.

First question. When studying the theoretical concepts of industrial organization, pay attention to the sociological works of American researchers E. Mayo, F. Taylor, D. McGregor, F. Herzberg, E. Goldner and domestic sociologists V. Podmarkov, D. Gvishiani, A. Prigozhin, N. Lanin etc. Consider the formal and informal structures and functions of the production organization and their impact on the efficiency of work and labor organization.

A significant role is played by organizational values ​​aimed at establishing strict social control and meeting the needs of organization members. Determine for yourself the ranking of these values, putting in the foreground the values ​​in the form of obtaining maximum profit by achieving economic efficiency with a rational organization.

Second question Start studying by clarifying the concepts of “management” and “management”. The administrative organization inherent in any production is a management structure with an internal cycle. Determine that management is the most radical way of organizing business and work in general. Expand such concepts as “controllability”, “decision making”, “style and methods of management” based on studying the works of A.I. Prigogine, D. McGregor and other sociologists.

Conclusions. Summarize the materials studied, noting that production organizations and management play a huge role in the realization of basic human needs, improving the level and quality of life of the entire society.

Production organization management

A production organization as a formal organization can be described as a system of specified impersonal requirements and standards of behavior, formally defined and rigidly assigned role prescriptions. It is a pyramid, the horizontal section of which characterizes the system of requirements for the functional division of labor, and the vertical section – the relations of power and subordination.

A formal organization can also be described as a system of departments, groups, and jobs. The workplace of an individual and a separate structural unit is easily determined by the positions they occupy in horizontal and vertical sections. In the first case, such a position is called a function, in the second - a status.

The structure of production organizations is a spatio-temporal formation. Its elements are distributed in the organizational space. The topography of organizational space implies four types of division: 1) geographical distribution of workers in workshops, departments, etc., the premises of which are separated from each other; 2) functional - a mason, a standardizer can be located in the same geographical space, but functionally they are separated and, therefore, they have different roles and interests; 3) status - division by position, place in a social group: workers, employees, managers more often contact each other, despite the fact that they may be located in different rooms, they trust each other more; 4) hierarchical - according to place in the management of the organization. The norms of the formal structure prescribe to address the issue to the immediate superior, and not through his “head”. At the same time, a production organization is an open system and, therefore, it functions and develops over time. Its elements, based on activity and relationships, exchange matter, energy, information, etc.

In industrial organizations, as in other social organizations, there is a fairly large number of values. What are the main ones? First of all, the organization needs constant external goal setting to confirm the relevance of its functions. Therefore, the goals themselves are formed by certain specific customers - other organizations that need the productivity of this organization.

Any production organization requires stability, sustainable functioning, and certain guarantees of its need in the future. Therefore, a stable customer and long-term sustainable relationships with this customer are also an important organizational value.

For a production organization, it is also of significant importance what costs are used to achieve the result of their activities, what is the economic efficiency of management, whether the production of a particular product is unprofitable or makes a profit. Maximum economic efficiency and profit making are an important organizational value in the conditions of commodity production.

The functioning of production organizations is related to the interaction of two components - means of production and labor. The quality of the workforce and its reproduction are associated with meeting the diverse needs of enterprise employees. This satisfaction is carried out within the framework of the social policy of production organizations. The quantitative and qualitative levels of social policy of enterprises undoubtedly belong to significant organizational values.

Discipline, responsibility, stability - all these values ​​are, as it were, the preservative qualities of a production organization. But organizations have a need to introduce innovations, to change their structure, technologies, relationships, and functions. Diverse innovation is also widely recognized as an essential organizational value. This means that innovation, initiative, and creative inclinations, in a certain sense, can act as intra-organizational values.

Thus, we have moved on to an important problem in the sociology of industrial organizations - the problem of management. The management cycle is called the administrative organization. Let's figure out what an administrative organization is. An administrative organization is a system of official relations defined by regulations, instructions, rules, laws, orders, technical standards, maps of official duties, and staffing. The administrative organization includes a number of necessary components: 1) distribution of functions: horizontal specialization between target groups (teams, sections, workshops, departments, etc.); the structure and methods of operation of these groups are usually formalized in regulations, instructions and other official documents; 2) subordination of positions, i.e. vertical distribution of rights, duties and powers, volumes and measures of responsibility in decision making at various levels; 3) a communication system, i.e. a system for transmitting information that operates “from top to bottom” and horizontally. These functions combine management, i.e., the organization of the management process, ensuring the adoption of the optimal decision and its practical implementation, as well as effective control and verification of execution.

Management is a rational way of organizing production work. Management can be defined as follows. Management is a purposeful, planned, coordinated and consciously organized process that helps achieve maximum effect while expending minimal resources, effort and time. Management is the object of study of many disciplines: cybernetics, biology, economic theory, etc. The specificity of the sociological approach to management is that it is considered from the perspective of the activities, interests, behavior and interaction of certain social groups that are in a leadership relationship with each other - submission. The sociology of industrial organization studies one of their varieties - management groups.

A synthetic approach to the problem of management was developed by A. I. Prigogine in his work “Sociology of Organization” (Moscow, 1980). It is based on the principle that the control system is a less complex object than the controlled one or the control object. The control object has a relatively independent form of its existence, and, consequently, its own operating logic and inertia. The degree of freedom and autonomy of the controlled object is expressed by the concept of “controllability”. The degree of controllability depends on the size of the enterprise, the number of personnel, territorial location, technological profile of production, and finally, the trends and norms of discipline that have developed in the team, attitude to work, style and methods of management. The degree of controllability also depends on the flexibility of the control system itself.

The effectiveness of management largely depends on the quality of the solutions used. The decision is the central element of management and production organization. A.I. Prigozhin proposed a classification of management decisions that would take into account, first of all, the degree of contribution of the subject of the decision to organizational transformations. According to his opinion, all management decisions in an organization can be divided into two types. The first is strictly conditioned (deterministic and weakly dependent on the subject of decisions. This type usually includes either so-called standardized decisions (conditioned by the instructions and orders adopted above), or secondarily conditioned orders of a higher organization. This type of practice decision does not depend on the qualities and orientation of the leader .

The second type is the so-called situational decisions, where the qualities of a leader leave a serious imprint on the nature of the decisions made. These include decisions related to both local changes in the organization (for example, rewards, punishments) and changes in the mechanisms, structure, and goals of the organization. An initiative decision is usually considered as a choice of behavioral alternative from several possible options, each of which entails a number of positive and negative consequences. Among the factors influencing the quality of decisions, in addition to the role positions we have already identified, we should note such as the competence of the personnel preparing the decisions, the business and personal qualities of the manager.

Management style and methods

The theory of management styles by D. McGregor describes the features of three main management styles: 1. Authoritarian style, which is characterized by strict control, coercion to work, negative sanctions, and an emphasis on material incentives. 2. Democratic style, which emphasizes the use of the creative abilities of subordinates, flexible control, lack of coercion, self-control, participation in management, emphasis on moral incentives to work. 3. Mixed type, alternating elements of authoritarian and democratic management styles.

D. McGregor does not consider it necessary to recommend one or another management style as more preferable. In his opinion, before choosing a particular model at an enterprise, a diagnostic study should be conducted and a number of questions should be clarified: what is the level of trust in the relationship between managers and subordinates, the state of labor discipline, the level of cohesion and other elements of the socio-psychological climate in the team. Based on these studies, two social trends were formed in the United States - the introduction of new forms of labor organization and a program to improve the quality of life.

In recent years, in industrialized countries, along with the traditional leader - manager, a need has arisen for a new type of manager - an “innovation manager”. An innovation manager, according to B. Santo, is not a boss in the traditional sense of the word, but an employee, a partner. Its activities are aimed at transferring knowledge, implementing economic decisions, creating incentive mechanisms, etc. It acts as a catalyst for joint activities, leads to the search for new goals, and sets in motion those who identify themselves with these goals. An innovative manager achieves a goal by developing internal contradictions of the organization. His strategy is a gradual transition to large-scale cooperation, setting high ambitious goals, and more rapid socio-technical development of a market economy. His tactics consist of changing personnel in key positions, relying on successfully operating functional systems, selecting, accumulating even minor benefits and advantages, followed by a breakthrough to a new state of the organization.

Questions for self-control

1. Define the concept of “production organization”?

2. What are the features of the structure and functions of production organizations?

3. What are general and intra-organizational values?

4. What role do informal groups play in industrial organizations?

5. List the main forms and methods of management activities.

6. What is the meaning of D. McGregor’s theory of management styles?

Literature

1. Blau P. Study of formal organizations // American Sociology. M., 1972.

2. Blake R., Mouton D. Scientific methods of management. Kyiv 1990.

3. Gvishiani D. M. organization and management. Sociological analysis of bourgeois theories. M., 1979.

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8. Setrom M.I. Fundamentals of the functional theory of organization. L., 1973.

9. Shibutani T. Social psychology. M., 1969.

10. O'Shaughnessy. Principles of organizing company management. M., 1979

11. Herzberg F., Miner M. Incentive to work and production motivation. // Sociological research. 1990, no. 1.

12. Young S. Organizational management system. M., 1972.

13. Radaev V.V. Economic sociology. M., 1998.

Educational literature

1. Elsukova A. N. et al. History of sociology. Minsk, 1997.

2. History of theoretical sociology. M., 1998.

3. Komarov M. S. Introduction to sociology. M., 1994.

4. Kravchenko A. I. Sociology. Tutorial. Ekaterinburg, 1998.

5. Kravchenko A. I. Sociology. Problem book. M., 1997.

6. Kravchenko A.I. Fundamentals of Sociology. M., 1997.

7. Radugin A.I., Radugin I.V. sociology. Lecture course. M., 1995.

8. Russian sociological encyclopedia (ed. G. V. Osipov). M., 1998.

9. Modern Western sociology. Dictionary. M., 1990.

10. Smelser N. Sociology. M., 1994.

11. Sociological encyclopedic dictionary (ed. G. V. Osipov). M., 1997.

12. Sociology. Problems and directions of development (ed. S. I. Grigoriev). M., 1997.

13. Toshchenko Zh. T. sociology. M., 1996.

14. Frolov S.S. sociology. Textbook for universities. M., 1997.

15. Sheregi F. E. applied sociology. Textbook. M., 1996.

16. Efendiev A. G. Fundamentals of Sociology. M., 1994.

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Most of the conditions and factors for successful conflict resolution are psychological in nature, as they reflect the characteristics of the behavior and interaction of opponents. Some researchers highlight organizational, historical, legal and other factors. Let's take a closer look at them.

Termination of conflict interaction - the first and obvious condition for the beginning of the resolution of any conflict. As long as some measures are taken from one or both sides to strengthen their position or weaken the opponent’s position through violence, there can be no talk of resolving the conflict.

Search for common or similar points of contact in the goals and interests of opponents is a two-way process and involves an analysis of both one’s own goals and interests and the goals and interests of the other party. If the parties want to resolve a conflict, they must focus on the interests, not the personality of the opponent.

When resolving a conflict, a stable negative attitude of the parties towards each other remains. It is expressed in a negative opinion about the opponent and in negative emotions towards him. To begin to resolve the conflict, it is necessary to soften this negative attitude. The main thing is reduce the intensity of negative emotions, experienced in relation to the opponent.

At the same time it is expedient stop seeing your opponent as an enemy, an adversary. It is important to understand that the problem that caused the conflict is best solved together by joining forces. This is facilitated, firstly, by a critical analysis of one’s own position and actions. Identifying and admitting your own mistakes reduces negative perceptions of your opponent. Secondly, you must try to understand the interests of the other. To understand does not mean to accept or justify. However, this will expand your understanding of your opponent and make him more objective. Thirdly, it is advisable to highlight the constructive principle in the behavior or even in the intentions of the opponent. There are no absolutely bad or absolutely good people or social groups. Everyone has something positive, and it is necessary to rely on it when resolving a conflict.

Important reduce the negative emotions of the opposite party. Among the techniques are such as a positive assessment of some of the opponent’s actions, readiness to bring positions closer together, turning to a third party who is authoritative for the opponent, a critical attitude towards oneself, balanced own behavior, etc.

Objective discussion of the problem, clarification of the essence of the conflict, the ability of the parties to see the main thing contributes to the successful search for a solution to the contradiction. Focusing on secondary issues and caring only about one’s own interests reduces the chances of a constructive solution to the problem.

When the parties join forces to end the conflict, it is necessary taking into account each other's status (position). The party occupying a subordinate position or having junior status must be aware of the limits of concessions that its opponent can afford. Too radical demands can provoke the stronger side to return to conflict confrontation.

Another important condition is choosing the optimal resolution strategy, appropriate to the given circumstances. These strategies are discussed in the next paragraph.

The success of ending conflicts depends on how the conflicting parties take into account the factors that influence this process. These include the following:

time: availability of time to discuss the problem, clarify positions and interests, and develop solutions. Reducing the time available to reach agreement by half leads to an increase in the likelihood of choosing an alternative that is more aggressive;

Third side: participation in ending the conflict of neutral persons (institutions) who help opponents solve the problem. A number of studies (V. Cornelius, S. Fair, D. Moiseev, Y. Myagkov, S. Proshanov, A. Shipilov) confirm the positive influence of third parties on conflict resolution;

timeliness: the parties begin to resolve the conflict in the early stages of its development. The logic is simple: less opposition - less damage - less resentment and claims - more opportunities to reach an agreement.

balance of power" if the conflicting parties are approximately equal in capabilities (equal status, position, weapons, etc.), then they are forced to look for ways to peacefully resolve the problem. Conflicts are resolved more constructively when there is no work dependence between opponents; culture: a high level of general culture of opponents reduces the likelihood of a violent conflict developing. It has been revealed that conflicts in government bodies are resolved more constructively if opponents have high business and moral qualities; unity of values: the existence of agreement between the conflicting parties about what should constitute an acceptable solution. In other words, “... conflicts are more or less regulated when their participants have a common system of values” (V. Yadov), common goals, interests; experience (example): at least one of the opponents has experience in solving similar problems, as well as knowledge of examples of resolving similar conflicts; relationship: good relations between opponents of the conflict contribute to a more complete resolution of the contradiction. For example, in strong families, where there are sincere relationships between spouses, conflicts are resolved more productively than in problem families.

Logic, strategies and methods of conflict resolution

Conflict resolution is a multi-stage process that includes analysis and assessment of the situation, choosing a method for resolving the conflict, forming an action plan, its implementation, and assessing the effectiveness of one’s actions.

Analytical stage involves collecting and assessing information on the following issues:

The object of the conflict (material, social or ideal; divisible or indivisible; can it be withdrawn or replaced; what is its accessibility for each of the parties);

The opponent (general data about him, his psychological characteristics; the opponent’s relationship with management; opportunities to strengthen his rank; his goals, interests, position; legal and moral foundations of his demands; previous actions in the conflict, mistakes made; in what ways interests coincide, and in what - no, etc.);

Own position (goals, values, interests, actions in a conflict; legal and moral foundations of one’s own demands, their reasoning and evidence; mistakes made and the possibility of admitting them to an opponent, etc.);

The reasons and immediate cause that led to the conflict;

Social environment (the situation in the organization, social group; what problems the organization, the opponent solves, how the conflict affects them; who and how supports each of the opponents; what is the reaction of management, the public, subordinates, if opponents have them; what do they know about the conflict );

Secondary reflection (the subject’s idea of ​​how his opponent perceives the conflict situation, how he perceives me, my idea of ​​the conflict, etc.). Sources of information are personal observations, conversations with management, subordinates, informal leaders, one’s own friends and friends of opponents, witnesses to the conflict, etc.

Having analyzed and assessed the conflict situation, opponents predict options for conflict resolution and determine the ones that suit their interests and situations ways to resolve it. The following are predicted: the most favorable development of events; least favorable development of events; the most realistic development of events; how the contradiction will be resolved if you simply stop active actions in the conflict.

It is important to determine criteria for conflict resolution, and they must be recognized by both parties. These include: legal norms; moral principles; opinion of authority figures; precedents for solving similar problems in the past, traditions.

Actions to implement the planned plan carried out in accordance with the chosen method of conflict resolution. If necessary, it is done correction of a previously planned plan(returning to the discussion; putting forward alternatives; putting forward new arguments; appealing to third parties; discussing additional concessions).

Monitoring the effectiveness of your own actions involves critically answering the questions to yourself: why am I doing this? what do I want to achieve? What makes it difficult to implement the plan? Are my actions fair? What actions need to be taken to eliminate obstacles to conflict resolution? and etc.

At the end of the conflict It is advisable to: analyze the mistakes of your own behavior; summarize the knowledge gained and experience in solving the problem; try to normalize relations with a recent opponent; relieve discomfort (if it arises) in relationships with others; minimize the negative consequences of the conflict in one’s own state, activities and behavior.

2. Strategies for exiting the conflict. Of fundamental importance for how the conflict ends is the opponent’s choice of exit strategy. “The interaction strategies developed by its participants are often decisive for the outcome of a conflict.”

The conflict exit strategy is the main line of behavior of the opponent at its final stage. Let us recall that there are five main strategies: competition, compromise, cooperation, avoidance and adaptation (K. Thomas). The choice of strategy for exiting a conflict depends on various factors. Usually they indicate the personal characteristics of the opponent, the level of damage caused to the opponent and their own damage, the availability of resources, the status of the opponent, possible consequences, the significance of the problem being solved, the duration of the conflict, etc.

There are five strategies for getting out of conflict. Rivalry, Compromise, device, Avoiding solving the problem Cooperation.

Back in 1942, American social psychologist M. Follett pointed out the need to resolve (settle) conflicts, rather than suppress them. Among the methods, she highlighted the victory of one of the parties, compromise and integration. Integration was understood as a new solution in which the conditions of both parties are met, and neither of them suffers serious losses. Later, this method of conflict resolution was called “cooperation.”

Rice. 36.2. Dependence of the method of conflict resolution on the strategies chosen by opponents

The use of a compromise is most likely, since steps forward taken by at least one of the parties make it possible to achieve an asymmetrical (one side concedes more, the other less) or symmetrical (the parties make approximately equal mutual concessions) agreement. The value of compromise is that it can be achieved in cases where the parties choose different strategies. This happens often in life. A study of conflict resolution between a manager and a subordinate showed that one third of these conflicts end in compromise, two thirds in a concession (mostly of the subordinate) and only 1-2% of conflicts end in cooperation!

The explanation for this dispersion in the frequency of using vertical conflict resolution methods lies in the stereotypes of thinking and behavior of Russians and the characteristics of this type of conflict. Most of us are focused on confrontation, solving problems with the result: I won, he lost. For decades, this principle prevailed in interactions with those who were not like us, who did not agree with us. In addition, in conflicts between “manager and subordinate” in 60% of situations, the boss is right in his demands on the subordinate (omissions in work, dishonest performance of duties, failure to perform, etc.). Therefore, most managers consistently pursue a strategy of competition in conflict, achieving the desired behavior from their subordinates.

The considered methods of conflict resolution are implemented in practice by forceful suppression one of the parties or through negotiations (compromise, cooperation, and sometimes concession). Forceful suppression is a continuation of the application of the strategy of competition. In this case, the stronger side achieves its goals and gets the opponent to waive the initial demands. The yielding party fulfills the opponent’s demands, or apologizes for shortcomings in activity, behavior or communication. If the parties understand that the problem is important for each of them and it is worth solving it taking into account mutual interests, then they use the path negotiations Here we will briefly describe the main technologies of compromise and cooperation.

It is important to normalize relations between opponents on the eve of the negotiation process. One way to do this is PRISN technique(consistent and reciprocal initiatives in reducing tension (S. Lindskold and others). The PRSN method was proposed by social psychologist C. Osgood and is successfully used in resolving conflicts at various levels: international, intergroup, interpersonal (B. Bethe, W. Smith). It includes the following rules:

Make sincere, public statements that one of the parties to the conflict wants to stop the escalation of the conflict;

Explain that conciliatory steps will definitely be taken. Inform what, how and when will be done;

Keep what you promise;

Encourage your opponent to exchange concessions, but do not demand them as a condition for fulfilling your own promises;

Concessions must be made over a sufficiently long period of time and even if the other party does not reciprocate. They should not lead to an increase in the vulnerability of the party implementing them. An example of the successful use of the PRSN method is the trip of Egyptian President A. Sadat to Jerusalem in 1977. Relations between Egypt and Israel were very tense at the time, and the trip increased mutual trust and paved the way for negotiations.

The compromise is based on the technology of “proximity concessions”, as it is also called - bargain. Compromise is believed to have disadvantages: disputes over positions lead to cut-rate agreements; the ground is created for tricks; a deterioration in relations is possible, as there may be threats, pressure, and breakdown of contacts; if there are several parties, bargaining becomes more complicated, etc. According to D. Lowell: compromise - a good umbrella, but a bad roof; it is expedient for a while, is often needed in inter-party struggles, and is almost never needed by the one who governs the state.

Despite this, in real life the compromise is often used. To achieve this, it can be recommended open conversation technique, which is as follows:

State that the conflict is disadvantageous to both;

Offer to stop the conflict;

Admit your mistakes already made in the conflict. They probably exist, and it costs you almost nothing to recognize them;

Make concessions to your opponent, where possible, on what is not the main thing for you in the conflict. In any conflict you can find a few little things in which it is not worth giving up. You can give in on serious, but not fundamental things;

Express wishes for concessions required on the part of the opponent. They usually relate to your main interests in the conflict;

Calmly, without negative emotions, discuss mutual concessions, and, if necessary, adjust them;

If you manage to reach an agreement, then somehow record that the conflict has been resolved.

Way cooperation it is advisable to carry out using the method "principled negotiations" It boils down to this:

Separating people from the problem: separate the relationship with your opponent from the problem; put yourself in his place; do not act on your fears; show your willingness to deal with the problem; be firm on the issue and soft on the people.

Focus on interests, not positions: ask “why?” and “why not?”; record basic interests and many of them; look for common interests; explain the vitality and importance of your interests; recognize the interests of your opponent as part of the problem.

Offer mutually beneficial options: Don't look for a single answer to a problem; separate the search for options from their evaluation; expand the range of options for solving the problem; seek mutual benefit; find out what the other side prefers.

Use objective criteria: be open to the other side's arguments; do not give in to pressure, but only to principle; For each part of the problem, use objective criteria; use multiple criteria; use fair criteria.

The cessation of conflict interaction is the first and obvious condition for the beginning of the resolution of any conflict. As long as some measures are taken from one or both sides to strengthen their position or weaken the opponent’s position through violence, there can be no talk of resolving the conflict.

The search for common or similar points of contact in the goals and interests of opponents involves an analysis of both one’s own goals and interests and the goals and interests of the other party. If the parties want to resolve a conflict, they must focus on the interests, not the personality of the opponent.

When resolving a conflict, a stable negative attitude of the parties towards each other remains. It is expressed in a negative opinion about the opponent and in negative emotions towards him. To begin to resolve the conflict, it is necessary to soften this negative attitude. The main thing is to reduce the intensity of negative emotions experienced towards your opponent.

At the same time, it is advisable to stop seeing your opponent as an enemy, an adversary. It is important to understand that the problem that caused the conflict is best solved together by joining forces. This is facilitated, firstly, by a critical analysis of one’s own position and actions - identifying and admitting one’s own mistakes reduces the negative perception of the opponent. Secondly, you must try to understand the interests of the other. To understand does not mean to accept or justify. However, this will expand your understanding of your opponent and make him more objective. Thirdly, it is advisable to highlight the constructive principle in the behavior or even in the intentions of the opponent. There are no absolutely bad or absolutely good people or social groups. Everyone has something positive, and it is necessary to rely on it when resolving a conflict.

It is important to reduce the negative emotions of the opposite party. Among the techniques are such as a positive assessment of some of the opponent’s actions, readiness to bring positions closer together, turning to a third party who is authoritative for the opponent, a critical attitude towards oneself, balanced own behavior, etc.

An objective discussion of the problem, clarification of the essence of the conflict, and the ability of the parties to see the main thing contribute to the successful search for a solution to the contradiction. Focusing on secondary issues and caring only about one’s own interests reduces the chances of a constructive solution to the problem.

When the parties join forces to end the conflict, it is necessary to take into account each other’s statuses (positions). The party occupying a subordinate position or having junior status must be aware of the limits of concessions that its opponent can afford. Too radical demands can provoke the stronger side to return to conflict confrontation.

Another important condition is the choice of the optimal resolution strategy appropriate to the given circumstances. Such strategies are cooperation and compromise, and only sometimes avoiding conflict.

The success of ending conflicts depends on how opponents take into account the factors that influence this process. These include: time: availability of time to discuss a problem, clarify positions and interests, and develop solutions. Reducing the time available to reach agreement by half leads to an increase in the likelihood of choosing an alternative that is more aggressive;

third party: participation in ending the conflict of neutral persons (mediators) who help opponents solve the problem;

timeliness: the parties begin to resolve the conflict in the early stages of its development. The logic is simple: less opposition - less damage - less resentment and claims - more opportunities to come to an agreement; balance of power: if the conflicting parties are approximately equal in capabilities (equal status or position), then they are forced to look for ways to peacefully resolve the problem; culture: a high level of general culture of opponents reduces the likelihood of a violent conflict developing. It has been revealed that conflicts in government bodies are resolved more constructively if opponents have high business and moral qualities; unity of values: the existence of agreement between conflicting parties about what should constitute an acceptable solution. Conflicts are more or less regulated when their participants have a common system of values, goals and interests; experience (example): at least one of the opponents has experience in solving similar problems, as well as knowledge of examples of resolving similar conflicts; relationships: good relations between opponents before the conflict contribute to a more complete resolution of the contradiction.