Capabilities- these are individual psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another and are related to the success of an activity. When talking about abilities, you need to keep the following in mind:
1. These are features that distinguish one person from another. B. M. Teplov considers the most important sign of abilities to be the individual originality of productive activity, the originality and originality of the techniques used in the activity.
2. Abilities serve the successful performance of activities. Some researchers, for example N.A. Menchinskaya, believe that in this case it is more logical to talk about learning ability as success in acquiring skills, knowledge, and abilities.
3. Abilities are characterized by the ability to transfer developed skills and abilities to a new situation. At the same time, the new task should be similar to previously solved tasks, not in the sequence of methods of action, but in the requirements for the same mental properties of a person.
For ability classifications use several criteria.
According to the criterion of the type of mental functional systems, abilities are divided into:
Sensorimotor;
Perceptual;
Attentional;
Mnemonic;
Imaginative;
Thinking;
Communication;
According to the criterion of the main type of activity:
Scientific (mathematical, linguistic, etc.);
Creative (musical, literary, artistic);
Engineering, etc.
In addition, a distinction is made between general and special abilities. General abilities are associated with the implementation of leading forms of human activity, and special abilities are associated with individual activities. Among general abilities, most researchers highlight general intelligence, creativity (the general ability to create) and, less often, learning ability.
There are several levels of ability development of people:
Giftedness is a combination of several versatile abilities that determines a person’s successful activity in a certain area and distinguishes him from other individuals;
Talent is a set of abilities that allows you to obtain a product of activity that is distinguished by originality and novelty, perfection and social significance; a feature of talent is a high level of creativity when carrying out activities;
Genius is the highest degree of development of talent, allowing one to implement something fundamentally new in a particular field of activity. The work of a brilliant person has historical and, as a rule, positive significance.
The basis of abilities is made up of inclinations. Makings of- these are natural prerequisites that are a condition for the development of abilities not only in the sense that they give originality to the process of their development, but also in the sense that, within certain limits, they can determine the content side and influence the level of achievements. The inclinations include not only the anatomical, morphological and physiological properties of the brain, but also mental properties to the extent that they are directly and directly determined by heredity.
Ability Theories:
Plato - abilities are biologically determined and their appearance depends entirely on hereditary characteristics. Training and education can only change the speed of their appearance.
Gall - the degree of development of abilities is directly dependent on the size of the corresponding part of the brain (phrenology).
Galton - abilities depend on psychophysiological parameters, the main factor is heredity. The improvement of human nature is possible only by breeding, on the basis of the laws of heredity, a race of especially gifted, mentally and physically developed people.
Halperin, Gelvetsky, Ovchinnikova, Gippenreiter - believed that a genius could be made out of anyone, the main thing was the surrounding social environment. Genius can be formed through education.
Teplov, Golubev, Stern, Nebylitsyn, Leontiev adhered to the middle point of view - human abilities are biosocial in nature.
Natural prerequisites matter, however, they are not actual abilities, but are inclinations. Inclinations are the anatomical and physiological characteristics of the body; they act as natural prerequisites for abilities. The inclinations themselves do not mean that a person will develop the corresponding abilities. The development of abilities depends on many social conditions (upbringing, the need for communication, the education system).
Classification of research methods in psychology. The theory of psychological experiment. Quasi-experiment. Correlational studies. Measurement in psychology. Analysis and presentation of the results of psychological research.
S.L. Rubinstein identified observation and experiment as the main psychological methods. He divided observation into external and internal (self-observation), experiment into laboratory, natural, psychological-pedagogical and auxiliary experimental method - physiological experiment in its main modification (conditioned reflex method). In addition, Rubinstein identified study methods - the method of studying the products of activity, conversation and questionnaire. He paid special attention to conversation in various versions (psychoanalytic conversation by S. Freud, clinical conversation in genetic psychology by J. Piaget, psychological and pedagogical conversation). On another plane, Rubinstein considered the comparative method (especially the comparison of data from normal and pathological development) and the genetic method, to which he attached universal significance in child psychology.
Classification of Pir'ov's psychology methods:
a) basic methods - observation, experiment, modeling;
b) auxiliary methods;
c) synthetic methodological technique - psychological and pedagogical characteristics;
d) special methodological approaches.
Ananyev B.G.’s classification corresponds to the stages of scientific research:
1. Organizational methods (comparative, longitudinal and complex), which operate throughout the entire study, determining its organization;
2. Empirical methods. These are observational methods (observation and self-observation), experimental methods (laboratory, field, natural, formative, or psychological-pedagogical experiment), psychodiagnostic methods (standardized and projective tests; questionnaires, sociometry, interviews and conversations), techniques for analyzing processes and products activities (chronometry, cyclography, professional description), assessment of products and work performed (praximetric methods), modeling (mathematical, cybernetic, etc.), biographical methods (analysis of dates, facts and events of a person’s life path, documents, certificates, etc. .d.);
3. Data processing techniques: quantitative (mathematical and statistical) and qualitative analysis;
4. Interpretive methods - include various variants of genetic (phylo- and ontogenetic) and structural methods (classification, typologization, etc.).
Classification of psychological research methods M.S. Rogovina and G.V. Zalevsky:
1) hermeneutic (subject and object are not opposed, the mental operation and method of science are identical);
2) biographical (identifying an integral object of knowledge in the science of the psyche);
3) observation (differentiation of the object and subject of cognition);
4) introspection (transformation of a subject into an object based on previous differentiation);
5) clinical (the task of transition from externally observable to internal mechanisms comes to the fore);
6) experiment (active opposition of the subject of cognition to the object, which takes into account the role of the subject in the process of cognition).
V.N. Druzhinin proposes to combine all the variety of methods of psychological research into three classes:
1) empirical, in which external real interaction between the subject and object of research takes place;
2) theoretical, when the subject interacts with a mental model of an object (subject of research);
3) interpretation and description, in which the subject “externally” interacts with the symbolic representation of the object (tables, graphs, diagrams).
Another classification of empirical methods is based on the research purpose. Here, groups of descriptive, correlational and causal methods are distinguished. Descriptive methods include conversation, observation, testing, biographical method, etc. - they describe data. Correlation methods - measurement and data processing methods - allow us to establish connections between phenomena. With the help of causal methods, a cause-and-effect relationship between phenomena is established - this is already an experiment.
Experiment is one of the main methods of scientific research. In general scientific terms, an experiment is defined as a special research method aimed at testing scientific and applied hypotheses, requiring strict logic of proof and based on reliable facts. In an experiment, some artificial (experimental) situation is always created, the causes of the phenomena being studied are identified, the consequences of the actions of these causes are strictly controlled and evaluated, and the connections between the phenomena being studied are clarified.
The key feature of a psychological experiment is the “subjectivity of the object” of the study. A person, as an object of knowledge, has activity, consciousness, and thus can influence both the process of his study and its result. Therefore, special ethical requirements are imposed on the situation of an experiment in psychology, and the experiment itself can be considered as a process of communication between the experimenter and the subject.
The task of a psychological experiment is to make an internal mental phenomenon accessible to objective observation. In this case, the phenomenon under study must adequately and unambiguously manifest itself in external behavior, which is achieved through targeted control of the conditions of its occurrence and course. S.L. Rubinstein wrote:
V.V. Nikandrov points out that achieving the main goal of the experiment - the utmost possible unambiguity in understanding the connections between the phenomena of internal mental life and their external manifestations - is achieved thanks to the following main characteristics of the experiment:
1) the initiative of the experimenter in the manifestation of psychological facts of interest to him;
2) the possibility of varying the conditions for the emergence and development of mental phenomena;
3) strict control and recording of conditions and the process of their occurrence;
4) isolating some and emphasizing other factors that determine the phenomena being studied, which makes it possible to identify the patterns of their existence;
5) the possibility of repeating experimental conditions for multiple verification of the obtained scientific data and their accumulation;
6) varying the conditions for quantitative assessments of the identified patterns.
A psychological experiment can be defined as a method in which the researcher himself causes the phenomena of interest to him and changes the conditions for their occurrence in order to establish the reasons for the occurrence of these phenomena and the patterns of their development. In addition, the obtained scientific facts can be repeatedly reproduced due to controllability and strict control of conditions, which makes it possible to verify them, as well as the accumulation of quantitative data, on the basis of which one can judge the typicality or randomness of the phenomena being studied.
Quasi-experiment is any study aimed at establishing a causal relationship between two variables (“if A, then B”), in which there is no preliminary procedure for equalizing groups or “parallel control” with the participation of a control group is replaced by comparison of the results of repeated testing of the group (or groups) before and after exposure.
For the classification of these plans, two reasons can be distinguished: the study is carried out 1) with the participation of one group or several; 2) with one impact or a series. It should be noted that plans in which a series of homogeneous or heterogeneous influences are implemented with testing after each influence have traditionally been called “formative experiments” in Soviet and Russian psychological science. At their core, of course, they are quasi-experiments with all the inherent violations of external and internal validity in such studies. A quasi-experiment allows you to control the effect of the background factor (the “history” effect). This is usually the design recommended for researchers conducting experiments involving natural groups in kindergartens, schools, clinics, or workplaces. This can be called a formative experimental design with a control sample.
Correlation is a study conducted to confirm or refute a hypothesis about a statistical relationship between several (two or more) variables. In psychology, the variables can be mental properties, processes, states, etc. If a change in one variable is accompanied by a change in another, then we can talk about the correlation of these variables. The presence of a correlation between two variables does not say anything about the cause-and-effect relationships between them, but it makes it possible to put forward such a hypothesis. The absence of correlation allows us to reject the hypothesis of a cause-and-effect relationship between the variables. There are several interpretations of the presence of a correlation between two measurements:
1. Direct correlation. The level of one variable directly corresponds to the level of another.
2. Correlation due to the 3rd variable. 2 variables (a, c) are related to each other through the 3rd (c), which was not measured during the study. According to the rule of transitivity, if there are R (a, b) and R (b, c), then R (a, c).
3. Random correlation not due to any variable.
4. Correlation due to sample heterogeneity.
Measurements in psychology- procedures for obtaining numerical characteristics for the properties of phenomena studied in psychology, for example. motor and speech reactions, sensations, abilities, motives, attitudes and actions of the individual, his status in the group.
In psychology, there are three main procedures for psychological measurement. The basis of the distinction is the object of measurement.
1. Measuring the characteristics of people’s behavior, determining differences between people in terms of the severity of certain properties, the presence of a particular mental state, or for assignment to a certain type. Psychological measurement is about measuring subjects.
2. Measurement as a task of the subject, during which the latter measures (classifies, ranks, evaluates, etc.) external objects: other people, stimuli or objects of the external world, his own states. The psychological dimension in this case is the stimulus dimension. A stimulus is any scalable object.
3. Joint measurement of stimuli and subjects. It is assumed that “stimuli” and “subjects” can be located on the same axis. The behavior of the subject is considered as a manifestation of the interaction between the individual and the situation.
Various types of measurement are theoretically formalized using the concepts of numerical representation and scale. A numerical representation is a function that homomorphically maps an empirical system with relations to a numerical system with relations. A scale is a set of numbers, the relationships between which reflect the relationships between objects of the empirical system. Scales are classified by type according to what relationships they reflect and, equivalently, those permissible (mathematical) transformations that leave the corresponding relationships invariant. Typology of S. Stevens scales:
The nominal scale (or scale of names) reflects only the equivalence relation by which objects are grouped into separate non-overlapping classes, and the class number actually has no quantitative content and can be replaced by a name, code, etc. An example of a scale of this kind is the numbering of players on sports teams.
The ordinal (or rank) scale displays, in addition to the equivalence relation, also the order relation; Any monotonic transformation will be admissible for it. Examples: school performance scores.
The interval scale, in addition to the relationships indicated for the naming and order scales, displays the ratio of distances (differences) between pairs of objects. A positive linear transformation is acceptable for it. In psychology, such scales include scales measuring various subjective phenomena, obtained by the method of paired comparison.
The ratio scale (proportional scale) allows only the multiplication of scale values by a constant (similarity transformation).
Analysis and presentation of the results of psychological research.
1. The genetic approach is a way of studying and explaining phenomena (including mental ones), based on the analysis of their development both in ontogenetic and phylogenetic plans. This requires establishing: 1) the initial conditions for the occurrence of the phenomenon; 2) the main stages and 3) the main trends of its development. The goal of the genetic approach is to identify the connection between the phenomena being studied over time and to trace the transition from lower to higher forms.
Most often, the genetic approach is used when interpreting results in developmental psychology: comparative, age, historical. Any longitudinal study involves the use of the approach in question.
The structural approach is a direction focused on identifying and describing the structure of objects (phenomena). It is characterized by: in-depth attention to the description of the current state of objects; clarification of their inherent timeless properties; interest not in isolated facts, but in the relationships between them. As a result, a system of relationships is built between the elements of the object at various levels of its organization. The advantage of the structural approach is the ability to visually present the results in the form of various models.
The functional approach is focused on identifying and studying the functions of objects (phenomena). It is used mainly in the study of connections between an object and its environment. This approach is based on the principle of self-regulation and maintaining the balance of objects in reality. In modern psychology, the functional approach is enriched with components of structural and genetic analysis.
An integrated approach is a direction that considers the object of research as a set of components to be studied using an appropriate set of methods. Components can be both relatively homogeneous parts of the whole, and its heterogeneous sides, characterizing the object under study in different aspects.
The systems approach is a methodological direction in the study of reality, considering any fragment of it as a system.
It is necessary to distinguish between two main forms for presenting results: qualification and research.
Qualification work - coursework, diploma work, dissertation, etc. - serves to ensure that a student, graduate student or applicant, having presented his scientific research, receives a document certifying the level of competence. Requirements for such work, the method of their execution and presentation of results are set out in the relevant instructions and regulations adopted by academic councils.
The results of scientific research work are the results obtained during the research activities of a scientist. Presentation of scientific results usually occurs in three forms: 1) oral presentations; 2) publications; 3) electronic versions. In any of these forms there is a description.
The following are distinguished: information presentation options: verbal form (text, speech), symbolic (signs, formulas), graphic (diagrams, graphs), object-like (layouts, material models, films, etc.).
Psychology uses several basic forms of graphical representation of scientific information. For the primary presentation of data, the following graphic forms are used: charts, histograms and distribution polygons, as well as various graphs.
The most important way to present the results of scientific work is through numerical values, in particular:
1) indicators of central tendency (mean, mode, median);
2) absolute and relative frequencies;
3) dispersion indicators (standard deviation, dispersion, percentile dispersion);
4) the values of the criteria used when comparing the results of different groups;
5) coefficients of linear and nonlinear connection of variables, etc.
The standard form of tables for presenting primary results is as follows: subjects are arranged in rows, and values of measured parameters are arranged in columns. The results of mathematical statistical processing are also summarized in tables. Existing computer packages for statistical data processing allow you to choose any standard form of tables for presenting them in a scientific publication.
Psychodiagnostics: principles, scope of application. Types of psychodiagnostic methods: hardware, computer, personality questionnaires, drawing, projective. Their advantages and disadvantages. Systemic psychological diagnostics.
Psychodiagnostics is a field of psychological science and at the same time the most important form of psychological practice, which is associated with the development and use of various methods for recognizing individual psychological characteristics of a person.
Principles of psychodiagnostics:
1. The principle of mutual verification and comparison of methods with each other. With the correct selection of techniques, the results obtained using one technique are verified through the additional capabilities of other diagnostic tools used.
2. The principle of necessity-sufficiency is that the set and number of diagnostic procedures should be the minimum necessary, but at the same time quite sufficient for an objective probing of mental reality. Most experimental psychological techniques allow one to obtain a wider range of data due to the additional capabilities of the technique.
3. The principle of the relationship between the capabilities of instrumental techniques and the level of probing of psychic reality assumes that each specific technique examines what it is aimed at only at a certain level. At the same time, the level of diagnostics assumed by the researcher objectively dictates that data be obtained only within this level of research depth.
Areas of application of psychodiagnostics:
1. The sphere of education and upbringing.
2. The field of medicine, in particular in psychiatric and neurological clinics. Diagnostic methods for studying the psychological characteristics of patients in these clinics are considered auxiliary, subordinate to the tasks and interests of the clinic. These methods are developed and developed within the framework of special branches of psychology - pathopsychology and neuropsychology.
3. Psychological counseling, the purpose of which is to provide assistance in solving certain psychological problems. A psychological diagnosis in advisory practice is made on the basis of both observation and conversation data, and indicators of special techniques; its correctness depends on how successful the interaction between the psychologist and the client was, and is ensured by considering the diagnostic results in the context of the holistic development process of the individual.
4. Sphere of work. These are problems of professional selection, professional counseling, organization of vocational training, optimization of professional activities through rational distribution of personnel, identification of the causes of defects, industrial injuries, etc. The role of psychodiagnostics in the work of a psychologist associated with any professional field varies depending on the type of profession , but it should be a mandatory stage that performs the most important function - to help everyone find their place in the world of work and become a high-level professional in their chosen work.
5. In the field of forensic psychological examinations. The work of a forensic psychologist requires not only knowledge of diagnostic methods and techniques, but also knowledge in the field of forensic psychological and psychiatric examination. The great social significance of the activity of a forensic psychologist determines high requirements for his personality, which in general can be described as the presence of personal and cultural maturity. The quality of legal proceedings, as well as respect for the rights and legally protected interests of citizens, largely depend on the competence of conducting and using the results of a forensic psychological examination.
6. In the army, police, sports, in commercial structures, to increase the efficiency of management and group activities of people, etc.
Types of psychodiagnostic techniques:
Blank methods are those in which the subject is presented with a series of judgments or questions to which he must answer orally or in writing. Based on the responses received by the subject, in turn, the psychology of the person who proposed these answers is judged.
Survey techniques are techniques in which a human psychology researcher asks the subject verbal questions, notes and processes his answers. These methods are good because they do not require the preparation of special forms and allow the psychodiagnostician to behave quite flexibly towards the subject. The disadvantage of survey methods is subjectivity, which manifests itself both in the choice of questions themselves and in the interpretation of answers to them. In addition, survey techniques are difficult to standardize and, therefore, to achieve high reliability and comparability of the results obtained.
Drawing psychodiagnostic methods are those methods in which drawings created by them are used to study the psychology and behavior of subjects. The technique of interpretation by subjects of standard, ready-made images is used. The content of these images visually presents the problems that the test taker must solve (for example, the Raven's matrix test).
The first and third of the described types of techniques can have two options: manual and computer. In the manual version, the technique is used without the use of electronic computers for presentation or processing of experimental material. In the computer version, at one of the indicated stages of psychodiagnostics, electronic computing technology is used. For example, text and drawing material can be presented to subjects through a display screen, and the machine’s processor can be used to perform quantitative calculations and print the results obtained.
Projective techniques, in turn, can be blank, survey and drawing. The frequency of their practical use is also quite high and increases from year to year for the reason that the methods of this group are the most valid and informative.
The next group of techniques is objective manipulation. In them, the tasks to be solved by the subjects are presented to them in the form of real objects with which they have to do something: assemble from given materials, manufacture, disassemble, etc.
Advantages and disadvantages of types of psychodiagnostic techniques.
The advantage of methods that address consciousness is that they allow one to judge a person’s psychology directly on the basis of what he says about himself or the people around him. Deliberate subjective distortion of test results is one of the most serious disadvantages of this group of methods.
The advantage of objective methods that rely not on verbal answers, self-characteristics or self-esteem, but on involuntary actions and reactions independent of a person’s consciousness, as well as the products of his activity, is that they allow one to avoid subjectivity. But objective indicators do not always reflect through their changes exactly those psychological properties for which they are intended to assess. For indicators of this kind, it is difficult to develop a subtle measurement scale that allows one to identify different degrees of manifestation of the diagnosed quality and differentiate them.
Projective techniques have one very significant advantage: they are valid and relatively reliable with a high level of professional training of the user. They are less subjective and less susceptible to random, situational influences.
Their disadvantage is labor intensity and significant time costs.
Methods that allow obtaining quantitative data reflecting the degree of development of the property being studied make it possible to use measures and methods for quantitative processing of psychodiagnostic results. But with the help of such techniques it is impossible to distinguish from each other qualitatively different psychological properties that have the same quantitative indicators.
Systemic psychological diagnostics- theory and practice of holistic psychological research based on systemic analysis and systemic synthesis of its mental properties and functions. Systemic psychological diagnostics presupposes a fairly complete account of the methodological principles of the systems approach, as well as the use of all the main components of the systems approach:
1. The principle of physicality;
2. The principle of modelability;
3. The principle of purposefulness;
4. The principle of purposefulness;
5. Controllability principle;
6. The principle of relativity;
7. The principle of efficiency.
Human system diagnostics is designed to solve the following problems:
To contribute to the systematization of a huge number of diagnostic techniques and experimental data about a person into a unified system of knowledge.
Study a person as an integral being, consisting of an inextricable set of various properties (physiological, neurodynamic, psychological, social, etc.).
Increase the completeness of diagnostics by covering the main levels of a person’s hierarchical structure and the components of the parity structure.
To increase the validity of diagnostic methods by clarifying the functional essence of the parameters under study.
To improve the quality of interpretation of research results by clarifying the roles of specific diagnostic data in creating an overall diagnostic picture.
To promote the problem of interdisciplinary connections in scientific research and practice.
To contribute to raising the scientific and practical level of specialists involved in human diagnostics, increasing their diagnostic horizons, expanding the arsenal of diagnostic methods.
Psychometric indicators of the diagnostic technique: validity, reliability, representativeness, reliability. Standardization of psychological methods. The structure of psychological methodology.
Psychometric indicators– these are the main indicators of test performance. Among the main psychometric properties and criteria for a test, the following are usually distinguished: reliability, representativeness, validity, reliability.
1. Reliability– stability of testing results over time, as well as to the influence of various random distortions. An indicator that allows us to say that at whatever time and in whatever conditions the subject would not be tested, he will receive approximately the same results (differing by no more than 1-1.5 points);
2. Representativeness– an indicator that reflects the correspondence of the parameters of the sample on which the instrument was developed to the parameters of the general population of people for whom this test will be used. In other words, if the test was developed for Russian-speaking young people, then it should work correctly for any representative of this category of the population. Representativeness indicators are:
The sample size on which the norms were calculated;
Characteristics of the sample (age, gender);
Correspondence of the distribution of raw scores on the standardization sample to the normal distribution.
3. Validity– an indicator reflecting the compliance of the measuring instrument with the property being measured. In other words, validity reflects the stability of test results with respect to systematic distortions (for example, an aggressiveness test should measure aggressiveness and nothing else). There are several types of validity.
Internal apparent validity is the correspondence of the essence of the test questions to the content of the test scales. This indicator is controlled by experts - testologists who develop tools.
External apparent validity is the correspondence of the results obtained to the self-assessment of the subjects who passed the test. After passing the test, the subject can give feedback - how, in his opinion, the results obtained can be characteristic of himself.
External criterion validity - validation using other indicators or expert assessment, during which test data are compared with data that acts as a criterion for demonstrating the same quality as the parameters measured in the test. There can also be a comparison with the standardized opinion of experts who independently assess the same parameters in subjects as the test to be validated.
External construct validity - validation using similar test instruments measuring the same psychological construct (for example, personality, motivation, intelligence, etc.). With significant correlation indicators (p< 0,05) можно признать, что соблюдается внешняя валидность теста по диагностическому конструкту, т.е. тест направлен на измерение заявленных качеств.
4. Credibility– an indicator reflecting the stability of testing results from distortions on the part of the test subject. In other words, test results should ideally not depend on the subject’s mood, degree of sincerity, fatigue, etc. Ensuring reliability is implemented using special techniques both during testing (the procedure should be standard for everyone, at a standard time, there should be no extraneous factors) and within the test itself.
Instructions – the test must implement a single instruction for all test takers, accompanying the test taker throughout the entire test.
Time control – the test controls the time for completing tasks. This parameter puts all subjects in the same situation, which further increases the reliability of the data obtained.
Control of social desirability - the test controls a person’s desire to give socially desirable answers about himself, in other words, to distort data about himself towards more socially approved qualities. This variable is controlled using a special scale “frankness - social desirability.”
Standardization- this is the uniformity of the procedure for conducting and assessing the test. Standardization is considered in two ways: as the development of uniform requirements for the experimental procedure and as the definition of a single criterion for assessing the results of diagnostic tests.
Typically, the authors of the methodology provide precise and detailed instructions on the procedure for carrying it out in the manual. The formulation of such instructions constitutes the main part of the standardization of the new technique, since only strict adherence to them makes it possible to compare the indicators obtained by different subjects. The other most important step in standardizing a technique is the choice of criterion by which the results of diagnostic tests should be compared, since diagnostic techniques do not have predetermined standards for success or failure in their performance. In general terms, the standardization of a norm-referenced diagnostic technique is carried out by conducting this technique on a large representative sample of the type for which it is intended. With respect to this group of subjects, called the standardization sample, norms are developed that indicate not only the average level of performance, but also its relative variability above and below the average level. As a result, different degrees of success or failure in performing a diagnostic test can be assessed. This makes it possible to determine the position of a particular subject relative to the normative sample or standardization sample.
By internal structure Psychodiagnostic techniques can be divided into monomeric and multidimensional. The first are characterized by the fact that they evaluate one property, and the second by the fact that they are intended for psychodiagnostics of several similar or different types of psychological qualities of a person. Multidimensional ones are divided into several private methods - subscales that assess individual psychological qualities.
Related information.
It is believed that the development of any ability occurs in several stages:
Capabilities
Giftedness
Genius
B.M. Teplov defines giftedness as “a qualitatively unique combination of abilities, on which the possibility of achieving greater or lesser success in performing a particular activity depends.” Giftedness itself does not ensure success in any activity, but only provides the opportunity to achieve success. In other words, to achieve results in an activity, a person must acquire the necessary knowledge, skills and abilities. Giftedness, like abilities, can be general or special. Quite often, general talent manifests itself in combination with special talent. Signs indicating giftedness include early or more pronounced development of abilities compared to representatives of the same social environment.
The qualitative uniqueness of a person’s giftedness necessarily affects the characteristics of his activity. Despite the fact that in life, of course, it is not difficult to find people who are engaged in one or another creative or scientific activity equally successfully, however, it is unlikely that it will be possible to single out at least two of them who perform it in the same way.
Thus, due to the qualitative uniqueness of the combination of abilities in different people, any activity is characterized by its individuality and originality. Without this feature, creative and scientific progress would be unthinkable.
Giftedness as a general characteristic of the sphere of abilities requires complex (psychophysiological, differential psychological and socio-psychological) study.
The next level of ability development is talent. It is defined as an ability inherent from birth. But it does not reveal itself immediately, but as the necessary skills and experience are gradually acquired. In modern psychology, there are several types of talent that can be inherent in a person to one degree or another. In the 1980s, Howard Gardner wrote a book called “Frames of Mind,” in which he described eight different types of talent:
verbal and linguistic talent, which reflects the ability to write, can be possessed by journalists, writers and lawyers
digital talent, characteristic of representatives of the exact sciences, such as mathematics or programming
auditory talent, which musicians, linguists, and linguists should possess to a high degree
spatial talent inherent in designers and artists
physical talent characteristic of athletes and dancers,
personal or emotional talent
interpersonal talent inherent in politicians, speakers, traders, actors
environmental talent, which is endowed with trainers or farmers.
The presence of talent is evidenced by a high level of development of abilities, especially special ones, as well as by a person’s achievement of high results in activities. The results of the work of a person with talent are distinguished by fundamental novelty and originality. Talent is usually guided by a pronounced need for creativity and reflects social demands.
Genius is the practical embodiment of an individual’s increased level of creative potential relative to others. Often genius is expressed in new, unique creations that are belatedly recognized as masterpieces. Sometimes genius manifests itself in a new and unexpected methodological approach to the creative process. As a rule, a genius personality appears when it becomes necessary in a particular era under certain social conditions.
A genius creates much faster and more productively than his peers who achieve recognition in the same field of activity. There is an opinion that genius requires the universal interests of an extraordinary personality 10.
Capabilities. Types and levels of development of abilities
The word "ability" has a very wide application in a wide variety of areas of practice. Usually, abilities are understood as such individual characteristics that are the conditions for the successful implementation of one or more activities. However, the term “ability,” despite its long-standing and widespread use in psychology, is interpreted ambiguously by many authors. If we summarize all possible options for currently existing approaches to the study of abilities, then they can be reduced to three main types. In the first case Abilities are understood as the totality of all possible mental processes and states. This is the broadest and oldest interpretation of the term “ability.” From point of view second approach Abilities are understood as a high level of development of general and specialized knowledge, skills and abilities that ensure a person’s successful performance of various types of activities. This definition appeared and was accepted in psychology in the 18th-19th centuries. and is quite common nowadays . Third approach is based on the statement that abilities are something that is not reducible to knowledge, skills and abilities, but ensures their rapid acquisition, consolidation and effective use in practice.
Extended S.L. Rubinstein the principle of the unity of consciousness and activity and the formulation of the question of the development of abilities in activity are based on the idea of abilities as individual psychological qualities that distinguish one person from another and are manifested in the success of mastering or performing a specific professional activity. Abilities, according to S.L. Rubinstein, represent a synthetic formation of personality, which are based on hereditarily fixed prerequisites for their development in the form of inclinations, which mean the anatomical and physiological characteristics of the human neuro-cerebral apparatus.
B. M. Teplov in his classic definition of abilities, he points out three features that characterize the concept of “ability”.
Firstly, abilities refer to individual psychological characteristics.
Secondly, abilities are not called all individual characteristics, but only those that are related to the success of performing any activity or many activities.
Thirdly, the concept of “ability” is not limited to the knowledge, skills or abilities that have already been developed by a given person.
Abilities (Teplov) - individual psychological characteristics of a person, only those that ensure the successful (effective) performance of any activity. They are not limited to acquired knowledge, skills and abilities, but facilitate their assimilation.
Shadrikov: capabilities - properties of functional systems that implement individual mental functions that have an individual degree of expression, manifested in the success and qualitative originality of mastering and carrying out activities.
Understanding by abilities such individual psychological characteristics that are related to the success of performing one or another activity, it should be noted that it can be provided not by a separate ability, but only by that peculiar combination of them that characterizes a given personality.
Knowledge, skills and abilities are formed in a certain situation, when solving certain theoretical and practical problems. If in a new situation, when solving new problems, a person achieves successful results, and certain skills and abilities have not yet been acquired, then his abilities can be considered a condition for success. From abilities, according to M.V. Gamezo I.A. Domashenko The speed, depth, ease and strength of the process of mastering knowledge, abilities and skills depend on the speed, depth, ease and strength of the process, but they themselves are not reduced to them.
A.G. Kovalev indicates that ability can be defined as an ensemble or synthesis of the properties of a human personality that meet the requirements of activity and ensure high achievements in it. The expression “ensemble of properties” is used by the author because he does not mean the simple coexistence of properties, but their organic connection with each other, their interaction in a certain system, in which some come to the fore and are leading, others are supporting, and others play auxiliary role.
Merlin V.S. gives the following definition of abilities. Abilities are productive, individually unique techniques and ways of working. Not only the properties of an individual, but also the properties of a person can act as abilities.
Abilities, B. M. Teplov believed, cannot exist except in a constant process of development. An ability that does not develop, which a person stops using in practice, is lost over time.
It should be noted that the success of any activity does not depend on any one, but on a combination of different abilities, and this combination, which gives the same result, can be achieved in different ways. In the absence of the necessary inclinations to develop some abilities, their deficit can be compensated for by the higher development of others. “One of the most important features of the human psyche,” wrote B. M. Teplov, “is the possibility of extremely wide compensation of some properties by others, as a result of which the relative weakness of any one ability does not at all exclude the possibility of successfully performing even such activities that are most closely related to this ability. The missing ability can be compensated within very wide limits by others that are highly developed in a given person.”
Characteristics of levels of development of abilities.
According to the degree of development of abilities, they are divided into giftedness, talent and genius.
Giftedness– a level that allows you to achieve success easily and quickly. Giftedness is multifaceted; it can manifest itself in various types of activities. There are: intellectual, motor, musical talent. Giftedness is considered a good prerequisite for achieving success in various fields. Giftedness manifests itself early, but not synchronously. Giftedness can manifest itself quite clearly in preschool age; giftedness often manifests itself in the following forms:
Early speech indicates giftedness
Large vocabulary
Extraordinary attentiveness
Insatiable curiosity
Excellent memory.
Giftedness has not been studied in our country for a long time. In the West, giftedness is studied; Teachers for gifted children are specially trained. In the last 15 - 20 years, we have begun to talk about this problem. The first laboratory to study the problem was under the leadership of A.N. Matyushkin. Now the state is being implemented. "Gifted Children" program.
We can talk about possible giftedness in the following cases:
1) if the child learned to walk, talk, read earlier than his peers.
2) if the child shows interest in things: why, how they are made, where and how they are used.
3) remembers information and stores it in memory for a long time.
4) builds hypotheses that are unusual for his age.
5) if you are demanding of yourself.
6) shows concern and reacts sharply to injustice.
7) demonstrates significant achievements in some area.
Talent– allows a person to easily and quickly achieve significant success in any activity. People make significant progress.
“Talent is a combination of abilities that gives a person the opportunity to successfully, independently and originally perform any complex work activity.
The awakening of talents is socially determined. Which talents will receive the most favorable conditions depends on the needs of the era and the state. During war, military leadership talents are developed, in peacetime, engineering talents, etc.
Talent is a combination of abilities, their totality. A single ability, even a highly developed one, cannot be an analogue of talent.
Structure of mental giftedness (according to Petrovsky A.V.):
1. attentiveness, composure, constant readiness for hard work.
2. hard work.
3. intellectual activity: these are features of thinking, speed of thought processes, systematicity of the mind, increased capabilities of analysis and generalization, high productivity of mental activity.
The structure of special talent includes an ensemble of the above qualities and is supplemented by a number of abilities that meet the requirements of a specific activity.
Genius is a level of development of abilities that allows you to achieve outstanding success in any activity.
They speak of genius when a person’s achievements constitute an entire era in the life of society, in the development of culture. There are few brilliant people. It is generally accepted that over the 5000 history of civilization there were about 400 people (for example: Aristotle, M.V. Lomonosov).
The product created by a genius is known not only to the people or nation, it is known to the whole world.
The founder of the experimental approach to solving the problem of abilities, giftedness and talent is Francis Galton. He laid the foundations of differential psychology and the psychology of abilities. Giftedness in the 19th and 20th centuries was understood as a high level of intelligence (IQ - 140). It was believed that talent manifests itself in a number of generations. Spearman believed that intelligence is based on a special type of energy that is caused by cortical activity.
Eysenck believed that 80% of intelligence is determined genetically, and 20% is determined by training and upbringing.
Stern: giftedness = intelligence + cognitive processes.
Guilford, Thorens, Taylor, Barons: based on observations, convergent and divergent types were identified. Creativity includes: fluency, flexibility, originality.
Heller identifies the components of giftedness: cognitive, motivational, social.
Feldhuysen includes general abilities in giftedness: the ability to think well, process information, and solve problems.
Sternberg: Pentagonal Implicit Theory of Giftedness (1997). 5 criteria:
1. criterion of excellence
2. rarity criterion
3. productivity criterion
4. criterion of demonstrativeness (repeated repetition of the same result).
5. criterion of value (has value in a given culture).
The concept of abilities in psychology. Anatomical and physiological basis of abilities.
Many authors also include abilities as a component of personality structure.
Abilities characterize differences between people in terms of the level of performance of an activity.
In foreign literature, the emphasis is placed either on achievements (achievement and abilities are often identified) or on inclinations.
1. Abilities will be freed to achieve.
Ability = success/"cost".
BUT: Other factors (including character) also influence.
=> abilities achievements (not identity).
“-” of foreign psychology is a lack of theory.
2. Identification of abilities and inclinations.
Not all abilities are inherited. 95% is determined by the environment.
Domestic psychology.
First approach:
two levels of ability development:
1. reproductive. A person exhibits a high ability to assimilate knowledge, master activities and carry them out according to the proposed model.
2. creative. Man creates something new and original.
Second approach:
It is possible to identify a gradation of their development from weakly developed or not yet developed abilities to their highest development:
Congenital anatomical and physiological features of the structure of the body as a whole and its nervous system, which constitute the individual prerequisites for the formation and development of abilities
Tendencies
The first and earliest sign of an emerging ability. Addiction manifests itself in a person’s desire to engage in a certain type of activity.
Giftedness
A combination of various developed abilities that determines particularly successful human activity in a certain area or in several areas of activity
A combination of outstanding abilities that lead to particularly successful, independent and original performance of any activity
Genius
The highest level of talent. The ability to create something fundamentally new in public life, in science, literature, art, etc. The products of creativity of a brilliant person are an important stage in the development of a particular field of activity
Development of abilities
The morpho-physiological basis for the development of abilities is makings. Thus, the makings of musical abilities will be the corresponding structure of the cochlea and the temporal cortex of the cerebral hemispheres; to develop acting abilities, you need a sufficiently developed vocal apparatus and emotional zones of the brain, as well as good muscle coordination, etc.
The development of abilities begins from the first days of life and can last a lifetime:
Stage 1. From birth to 6-7 years. Maturation of the necessary organic structures or with the formation on their basis of the necessary functional organs. It usually covers the period from the birth of the child to 6-7 years.
Stage 2. Preschoolers - middle classes. Development of special abilities. At first, the development of these abilities is helped by various kinds of children's games, then educational and work activities begin to have a significant influence on them, especially if they are of a creative nature. We can assess how developed a child’s abilities are by the dynamics of their development - that is, by the speed of mastering a particular activity.
To develop a child’s abilities, certain conditions are necessary:
Conditions for the development of human social abilities
1. The presence of a society, a socio-cultural environment, which includes objects of material and spiritual culture.
2. The presence in a person’s immediate social environment of people who already have the abilities he needs and can impart to him the necessary knowledge, skills and abilities, while having the appropriate means of training and education.
3. The need to participate in those types of human activities that are related to his abilities.
49,. Temperament as a personality trait. Basic teachings about temperaments. Physiological basis of temperament.
Temperament- a mental property of a person, characterized by the dynamics of mental processes.
The following main features of human temperament are distinguished:
*temperament is the biological foundation on which personality is formed;
* personality traits determined by temperament are the most stable and long-lasting;
*according to modern data, temperament is determined by the properties of the nervous system of a particular person.
Basic teachings:
In the history of psychology, various theories of temperament are known. In particular, one of the first attempts to explain this personality characteristic belongs to the Greek doctor Hippocrates, who believed that the state of the body depends on the ratio of body fluids (blood, lymph and bile).
Ancient Roman scientist Galen clarified Hippocrates' classification and identified four main temperaments.
Sanguine"Sangvis" - blood. Easy excitability of feelings and their short duration. His inclinations are fickle
Phlegmatic person"Phlegm" - mucus. Feelings slowly take over such a person; he easily maintains his cool in extreme situations. He endures adversity patiently and rarely complains
Choleric"Chole" is yellow bile. Such a person is influenced by passions. He thinks little, but acts quickly. Cholerics are quick-tempered, but easy-going
Melancholic"Melaina chole" - black bile. Prone to sadness; exaggerates his suffering. Sensitive and easily hurt
German psychologist Ernst Kretschmer tried to link temperament with the structure of the body (constitutional theory of temperament).
According to the Russian physiologist I. P. Pavlova, a person’s temperament depends entirely on the properties of the body’s nervous system. He identified three main properties of the nervous system: strength, balance and mobility. Depending on the combination of these properties, he identified several types of higher nervous activity in humans.
Melancholic - (weak) is a weak type of nervous system, unable to withstand heavy stress. In response to them, a process of “extraordinary inhibition” develops in the central nervous system.
Choleric is an (unrestrained) strong and unbalanced type, reacting violently to influences, capable of active actions and strong emotions.
Phlegmatic - (calm) strong, balanced, inert type of nervous system, capable of withstanding prolonged and strong stress.
Sanguine is a (living) strong, balanced, mobile type, with regularly alternating processes of excitation and inhibition.
B. M. Teplov— the main component of temperament is emotions, or rather the speed and strength of their manifestation.
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Criteria for evaluation
When choosing and evaluating electoral systems, responsible politicians are guided not by one or two, but by many criteria, weighing the pros and cons of each of them. The main criteria include:
· democracy (or “political representativeness”), that is, the ability of the electoral system to most fully and accurately represent in parliament the existing range of interests of citizens and political forces in society;
· the nature of the influence on the political and, above all, the party system of society, as well as on the electoral behavior of voters;
· the nature of the relationship between voters and their elected representatives after the elections;
· technological simplicity of the mechanism and cost-effectiveness (low-cost) of elections and a number of other interrelated indicators.
The named criteria will form the basis for the analysis of the main types, as well as the most well-known varieties of electoral systems, in this lecture.
2. Majoritarian electoral system: varieties and their comparative characteristics
The majoritarian system is the oldest in terms of “age” and the simplest in terms of “technology” for distributing mandates of all existing ones. Her homeland is Great Britain. Half a century ago, some scientists declared this system almost a product of English conservatism and originality, and its preservation as a reluctance to keep up with the times. However, it is still used today in the formation of representative authorities not only in Great Britain and other Commonwealth countries (Canada, India, etc.), but also in the USA, Japan, the CIS countries, and in many other countries (independently or in combination with the proportional system ) – in Hungary, Italy, Germany; to determine the winner in presidential elections - in the USA, Iceland, Colombia, Nicaragua, Venezuela, the Philippines, etc. In Russia, until recently, it is used in presidential elections, as well as in regional and local elections.
The majoritarian electoral system is a common name for several of its types and their varieties. A common feature is majority principle regardless of in which (single-member, multi-member or single national) electoral districts the elections are held.
Types of majoritarian systems are distinguished depending on character of the majority of votes required to win the election.
The main types of majoritarian electoral systems include: relative majority ( plural ) and absolute majority(actually majority) in their various modifications and combinations, including with the system of proportional representation (see Diagram 2).
To win elections under a plural system, the winning candidate needs at least be one vote ahead of your rivals. To win elections held according to the absolute majority system (actually majoritarian), he needs to receive more than 50% of votes voters (50% + 1 vote is enough). In other words, in the first case the winner is determined by a simple vote, and in the second - by the absolute majority of votes received. This is the most general and most fundamental difference between majoritarian systems of relative and absolute majority.
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On the basis of these two main types of the majoritarian system, its many varieties are built.
In addition, there are so-called “compromise” systems that are formed as a result of combining individual elements of the majoritarian and proportional electoral systems.
Let us consider each of the main types of the majoritarian system separately and some of its varieties, bearing in mind, first of all, their positive aspects and disadvantages that affect the conduct and nature of the influence of election results on the democratic nature of the party and, in general, the political system of society and the state.
Read also:
The statement that a person does not have ready-made biological inclinations for the development of social abilities does not mean that these abilities lack an anatomical and physiological basis when they become fully developed. This basis is there, but it is also not innate. It is represented by the so-called functional organs, which are intravitally developing neuromuscular systems that anatomically and physiologically ensure the functioning and improvement of the corresponding abilities. The formation of functional organs in a person becomes the most important principle of his ontogenetic morphological and physiological development associated with abilities
5. Development of abilities.
In psychology, the following classification of levels of development of abilities is most often found: ability, giftedness, talent, genius.
All abilities in the process of their development go through a number of stages, and in order for a certain ability to rise to a higher level in its development, it is necessary that it has already been sufficiently developed at the previous level.
Abilities are individual.
This means that each person has his own abilities that differ in quality and level of development from the abilities of other people. Qualitative differences in people’s abilities are manifested in the fact that one person shows abilities in technology, another in agriculture, a third in music, a fourth in teaching. There are also people who show abilities in various types of activities. The totality of general and special abilities characteristic of a particular person determines giftedness. Giftedness determines a person’s particularly successful activity in a certain area and distinguishes him from other persons studying this activity or performing it under the same conditions.
A high degree of talent realized by a person in a certain area is called talent. Talent is expressed in an extremely high level of development of qualities and in the special originality of manifestations of individual personality traits.
A talented person can solve complex theoretical and practical problems, create values that are novel and have progressive significance.
Genius- the highest level of development of abilities, expressed in results achieved simultaneously in a number of areas of activity. Genius presupposes the ability to create something fundamentally new, to pave new paths in various types of human activity. The work of a brilliant person has historical and necessarily positive significance for society. The difference between genius and talent is not so much in the degree of giftedness, but in the fact that a genius creates an era in his activity. The scientist M.V. was a genius. Lomonosov, poet A.S. Pushkin, physiologist I.P. Pavlov, chemist D.I. Mendeleev and others.
The most favorable conditions for the formation of talent and genius arise with the comprehensive development of the individual.
In order for inclinations to turn into pronounced abilities, it is necessary to create conditions for their formation from childhood: children’s involvement in technical, scientific and artistic creativity, the versatility of the child’s activities, the breadth and variety of areas of his communication.
In the process of developing abilities, a number of stages can be distinguished. On some of them, the preparation of the anatomical and physiological basis of future abilities takes place, on others, the inclinations of a non-biological plan are formed, on others, the required ability takes shape and reaches the appropriate level.
The primary stage in the development of any such ability is associated with the maturation of the organic structures necessary for it or with the formation on their basis of the necessary functional organs. It usually refers to preschool childhood, covering the period of a child’s life from birth to 6-7 years. This creates favorable conditions for the beginning of the formation and development of general abilities in the child, a certain level of which acts as a prerequisite (inclinations) for subsequent development: special abilities.
When organizing children's activities that shape and develop children's abilities, it is necessary to comply with psychological requirements: creating a positive emotional mood that supports the child's interest in this type of activity; creative nature of activity; optimal level of difficulty of the activity performed.
The formation of special abilities actively begins already in preschool childhood and continues at an accelerated pace in school, especially in the lower and middle grades. At first, the development of these abilities is helped by various kinds of children’s games, then educational and work activities begin to have a significant influence on them. Activities of various types of creative games in preschool childhood acquire special importance for the formation of special abilities in children.
The versatility and variety of activities in which a person is simultaneously involved acts as one of the most important conditions for the comprehensive and diversified development of his abilities. The requirements are the following: the creative nature of the activity, the optimal level of difficulty for the performer, proper motivation and ensuring a positive emotional mood during and after the completion of the activity.
If a child’s activity is creative, non-routine in nature, then it constantly forces him to think and in itself becomes quite an attractive activity as a means of testing and developing abilities. Such activity is always associated with the creation of something new, the discovery of new knowledge, the discovery of new possibilities in oneself. Such activities strengthen positive self-esteem, increase the level of aspirations, generate self-confidence and a sense of satisfaction from the success achieved.
If the activity being performed is in the zone of optimal difficulty, that is, at the limit of the child’s capabilities, then it leads to the development of his abilities, realizing what L. S. Vygotsky called the zone of potential development.
Thus, for many human abilities, development begins from the first days of life and, if a person continues to engage in those types of activities in which the corresponding abilities are developed, does not stop until the end.
Conclusion
Abilities are individual psychological characteristics of a person, which are a condition for the successful implementation of one or another productive activity. Abilities are revealed in the process of mastering an activity, in the extent to which an individual, other things being equal, quickly and thoroughly, easily and firmly masters the methods of its organization and implementation.
Abilities are closely related to the general orientation of the individual, to how stable a person’s inclinations are for a particular activity. The same achievements in performing any activity may be based on different abilities, while at the same time the same ability can be a condition for the success of different types of activity.
This provides opportunities for broad compensation of abilities.
Abilities cannot exist except in a constant process of development. An ability that does not develop, which a person stops using in practice, is lost over time. Only through constant exercises associated with systematic studies of such complex types of human activity as music, technical and artistic creativity, mathematics, sports, etc., do we maintain and develop the corresponding abilities.
Literature
Nemov R.S. Psychology. In three books. - M., 1995-2001.
Rubinshtein S.L. Fundamentals of general psychology.-S.-P., 2000.
Maklakov A. G. General psychology. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2001.
Druzhinin V.N. Psychology of general abilities / V.N. Druzhinin - St. Petersburg: Peter Publishing House, 2002. Levels of development of abilities: giftedness, talent, genius
Psychology of individual differences. Reader / Ed. Yu.B.Gippenreiter, V.Ya.Romanova. - M.: CheRo, 2000. - 776 p.
Teplov B. M. Selected works: in 2 volumes. T. 1. - M.: Pedagogika, 1985
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Levels of ability development
Capabilities
Abilities, as well as character, are a certain combination of various personal qualities. But, unlike character, abilities are manifested in any one type of activity (usually creative), and character determines all human behavior and all types of his activities. There are different classifications of abilities. They are usually divided into elementary and complex, as well as general and specific.
Elementary private abilities include, for example, an ear for music, motor memory (this ability is developed in dancers, gymnasts, and figure skaters), and the ability to empathize. They are called private because they cannot be equally inherent in different people. They are called elementary because they determine the success of any one specific type of activity.
Complex private abilities are abilities of a professional nature. They also ensure success in any one type of activity, but are complex. For example, an artist must have a developed sense of color, perspective, fine motor skills, and artistic taste. All together this can be called the ability for artistic creativity.
In contrast, complex general abilities imply the likelihood of success not in any specific type of activity, but rather in an entire area or direction (for example, the ability to lead, the ability to play, the ability to create, aesthetic activity, etc. ).
Well, general elementary abilities are the basis of all three types described above. They include features of perception, thinking, intelligence, memory, and motor skills.
The physiological basis of abilities are inclinations - innate morphological and functional characteristics of the brain.
According to another common classification, the following types of abilities are distinguished.
1. Natural abilities (based on the innate qualities of the individual - inclinations).
2. Specific human abilities (based on the development of cultural and historical experience and aimed at the adaptation and development of a person in society). They, in turn, are divided into the following types:
1) theoretical and practical (depending on the type of activity in which they are used);
2) educational (necessary for the process of acquiring knowledge);
3) creative (used in the process of creating objects of material and spiritual culture, discoveries, inventions);
4) communicative (allowing you to actively interact with people around you);
5) subject-activity (allowing a person to carry out subject activity in the field of science, technology, mastery of information and interaction with nature).
The highest degree of a person's ability to perform a certain activity is called talent. The highest degree of creative manifestations of personality is called genius. A person who is capable of many activities is called gifted.
Classification of levels of development of abilities: ability, giftedness, talent, genius.
All abilities in the process of their development go through a number of stages, and in order for a certain ability to rise in its development to a higher level, it is extremely important that it has already been sufficiently developed at the previous level. But for the development of abilities, there must initially be a certain basis, which constitute makings. By inclinations it is customary to understand the anatomical and physiological characteristics of the nervous system, which form the natural basis for the development of abilities. For example, developmental features of various analyzers can act as innate inclinations.
It should be emphasized that the presence of certain inclinations in a person does not mean that he will develop certain abilities.
Capabilities are largely social and are formed in the process of specific human activity.
The next level of ability development is giftedness.Giftedness It is customary to call a peculiar combination of abilities that provides a person with the opportunity to successfully perform any activity. In this definition, it is extremely important to emphasize that it is not the successful performance of an activity that depends on giftedness, but only the possibility of such successful performance. No matter how phenomenally mathematically gifted a person may be, if he has never studied mathematics, he will not be able to successfully perform the functions of the most ordinary specialist in this field.
The next level of development of human abilities is talent. Today under talent understand the high level of development of special abilities (musical, literary, etc.). Just like abilities, talent manifests itself and develops in activity. The activity of a talented person is distinguished by its fundamental novelty and originality of approach. The awakening of talent, as well as abilities in general, is socially conditioned. Which talents will receive the most favorable conditions for full development depends on the needs of the era and the characteristics of the specific tasks facing a given society. It should be noted that talent is a certain combination of abilities, their totality. A separate isolated ability, even a very highly developed one, should not be called a talent.
The highest level of development of abilities is called genius. Genius they say when a person’s creative achievements constitute an entire era in the life of society, in the development of culture. There are very few people of genius. It is generally accepted that over the entire five-thousand-year history of civilization there were no more than 400 people. The high level of talent that characterizes a genius is inevitably associated with excellence in various fields of activity. For example, M.V. Lomonosov achieved outstanding results in various fields of knowledge: chemistry, astronomy, mathematics, and at the same time he was an artist, writer, linguist, and had an excellent knowledge of poetry. However, this does not mean that all the individual qualities of a genius are developed to the same degree. Genius, as a rule, has its own “profile”, some side dominates in it, some abilities manifest themselves more clearly.
General abilities are often called giftedness. Giftedness can manifest itself in various types of life activity: intellectual, academic (ability to learn), creative activity, social sphere (leadership, communication), spiritual life, psychomotor skills (movement). Gifted people are distinguished by attentiveness, composure, constant readiness for activity, they are characterized by persistence in achieving goals, an indefatigable need to work, as well as intelligence that exceeds the average level.
This is the presence in a person of pronounced inclinations to develop abilities.
Giftedness is not the only factor ensuring the choice and success of an activity. In addition to talent, a person must have the appropriate skills and abilities. The development of abilities occurs in activity and manifests itself as talent and genius.
Talent is a high level of development of a person’s abilities, ensuring the achievement of outstanding success in a particular type of activity.
A separate isolated ability, even a very highly developed one, cannot be called a talent. For example, having a phenomenal memory. Thus, in medical practice, a case is described of a man who could not forget anything; he could literally convey the contents of an article he had read a few days ago, and at the same time could not express a single thought of his own.
Talent is a certain combination of abilities, their totality. If one ability is relatively weak, it can be compensated by another. According to Russian psychologist E.P. Ilyin, compensation can be carried out through acquired knowledge or skills, the formation of a typical style of activity, or through another more developed ability.
The highest level of development of abilities is called. Canadian scientist G. Lehman, having analyzed a lot of facts, came to the conclusion that genius awakens in poets at 26-30 years old, in doctors at 33-34 years old, in artists at 30-35 years old, in writers at 40-44 years old. They speak of genius when a person’s creative achievements constitute an era in the life of society and in the development of culture. History shows that during the period of human development no more than four hundred geniuses can be named.
Genius is the highest level of development in a person of any abilities, making him an outstanding person in the relevant field or field of activity.
The rare appearance and originality of a man of genius has given rise to many attempts to explain this phenomenon. Thus, some classify geniuses as mediums, with whose help some higher being communicates to humanity the results of his unique thoughts. Others believe that the manifestation of genius is associated with certain mental disorders. For example, the feverish state of geniuses during creativity is similar to manic excitement, and the characteristic signs of paranoia (egocentrism, increased self-esteem, excessive persistence in their actions, lack of remorse, commitment to one idea) are typical characteristics of a genius. Some psychologists believe that the human brain contains within itself a huge, so far untapped, redundancy of natural capabilities and that genius is not a deviation from the norm, but, on the contrary, the highest completeness of the manifestation of natural capabilities.
The difficulty in explaining genius lies in the fact that this concept is associated with the specifics of social development, and geniuses are unique manifestations of this growth. Which talents will receive the most favorable conditions for full development depends on the needs of the era: the development of the state causes the manifestation of engineering and design talents; during the heyday of the state, musical and literary talents appear, and in wartime - military talents.