Revolutions represent the most striking manifestation of social change, since they mark fundamental changes in historical processes, transform human society from the inside and leave nothing unchanged. At the time of revolutions, society reaches its peak of activity; there is an explosion of the potential of its self-transformation. In the wake of revolutions, societies seem to be born anew. And in this sense, revolutions are a sign of the vitality of society, an indicator of its social health. If society is unable to resist the vicious political course carried out by the authorities, it may simply disintegrate, which is a much more tragic outcome than revolutionary changes.
What are the hallmarks of revolutions? How are they different from other forms of social change?
According to P. Sztompka, there are five such differences:
1.Revolutions are large-scale, all-encompassing changes that affect all levels and spheres of society: the economy, political institutions, culture, social organization, and the daily lives of individuals.
2. In all these areas, revolutionary changes are radical, fundamental in nature, permeating the foundations of the social structure and functioning of society.
3. Changes caused by revolutions are extremely fast, they are like unexpected explosions in the slow flow of the historical process.
4. For all these reasons, revolutions represent the most characteristic manifestations of change; the time of their accomplishments is exceptional and therefore especially memorable; it leaves a deep imprint on the national memory, which can become a dividing line between the “winners” and the “losers.”
5. Revolutions cause unusual reactions in those who participated in them or witnessed them. This is an explosion of mass activity, this is enthusiasm, excitement, uplifting mood, joy, optimism, hope; a feeling of strength and power, of fulfilled hopes; finding the meaning of life and utopian visions of the near future 13 .
Most revolutions are associated with modern or recent history. The great revolutions of the past - English (1640), American (1776), French (1789) - ushered in the era of modernity. The October Revolution in Russia (1917) and the Chinese Revolution (1949) marked the beginning of the period of communist construction. The anti-communist revolutions in Central and Eastern Europe (1989) completed the communist experiment. Most sociologists agree that the “century of revolutions” should rightfully be considered XXcentury, althoughXIX the century with its endless dynamism - industrialization, urbanization, the development of capitalism - was also a “golden age” for the idea of revolution, which penetrated into everyday thinking as well as into political and social theories. “It was believed that society was undergoing necessary progressive changes, that reason or history was leading it to a better, ideal future order,” notes P. Sztompka. – Revolutions were seen as inevitable, decisive processes along this path, stimulating and accelerating rational processes. With the work of Karl Marx, the concept of revolution entered the realm of ideology as a powerful tool for criticizing capitalism and as the basis for an alternative communist project." 14 .
However, in the second halfXX century, the myth of the revolution begins to collapse: instead of progress, the theme of crisis becomes the leitmotif of the era. The myth of revolution is undermined by the tragic experience of real revolutions. Ironically, they often end up with the exact opposite result, resulting in greater injustice, inequality, exploitation and oppression. This is largely explained by the need of society to streamline the awakened spontaneous energy of the masses, to return to the norms of at least some, even extremely rigid order. At the same time, the experience of the end XX century demonstrated the possibility of a relatively peaceful change of power, and then of the entire social system: it is no coincidence that the collapse of communist regimes in 1989 in Central and Eastern Europe (with the exception of Romania) were called “velvet” and “gentle” revolutions 15 .
It can be argued that social revolutions are an extreme way to resolve deep social contradictions and political crises. Another, much more acceptable way is reform . In the traditional understanding, reforms are only partial changes designed to soften the unfolding of the crisis or resolve it in favor of the ruling classes, which retain the levers of power in their hands. The reform does not fundamentally affect the nature of the social system; it is carried out gradually, evolutionarily (and not in the form of a leap), maintaining the continuity of both institutional structures and the very nature of power. However, a series of major reforms carried out by radical reformers often result in profound socio-economic and political transformations of the civilizational order, which gives some authors grounds to call them “revolutions from above.” True, other authors, for example, P. Sztompka, strongly object to this term: for a revolution, as already mentioned, a mass protest movement is typical, which does not always accompany reforms.
The main advantage of the reform process is that it is possible to maintain a certain balance of power. The struggle of interests and ideas is carried out within the framework of civil consensus, through mutual concessions that involve dialogue and compromise. This gives a favorable, positive result for social development. However, in order to achieve general civil consent around a reform course, extraordinary political skill and flexibility of the ruling elite, capable of “giving up principles” and promptly starting to reform the social system, are required. In order for it to be successful, it is necessary to remember that reforms, according to the famous Russian sociologist P. Sorokin, “should not violate human nature and contradict its basic instincts” 16 . Any practical implementation of reforming social conditions must be preceded by a thorough scientific study. Every reformist experiment must first be tested (that is, approved) on a small social scale. And only if it demonstrates positive results, the scale of reforms can be increased. Finally, a condition for a successful reform process is to implement reforms through legal and constitutional means 17 .
Violation of these canons makes every attempt at social reconstruction futile, and society pays for it not only with stagnation, but often with human lives. The reform of Russian society in the 1990s, unfortunately, confirms these conclusions. The severance of economic ties that had developed over centuries led to a decline in production unprecedented in the history of civilized states. The incompetence of power structures contributed to the growth of political instability and separatist protests that threatened the collapse of statehood. Social tension was fueled by the growing impoverishment of the population and the growth of social and interethnic conflicts. The collapse of generally accepted values, the crisis of spirituality and the expansion of the psychology of authoritarianism have created a real threat of national catastrophe, i.e. disintegration of the Russian Federation, its disappearance as a single state. Fortunately, the worst forecasts did not come true, but the contradictions and conflicts that arose during the unsuccessful reform have not been completely resolved; they only acquired latent forms. Hence, the fate of Russia depends on the ability of society to develop, gradually reforming, on the basis of creative work, cooperation, solidarity and mutual assistance of all its members and social groups.
Control questions
Social changes can occur in the following main forms: functional changes, reforms, revolutions, modernization, transformation, crises.
Functional changes. In social systems, functional changes are adaptive.
They can be compared to preventative maintenance and routine car repairs. Such “repairs” are carried out to maintain the system in “working condition”. The task of functional changes does not include radical reforms that involve qualitative structural changes. Their goal is adaptation to changing environmental conditions (natural and social) and the internal needs of the social system.
Reforms. Reform (from Latin reformare - to transform) is a transformation, change, reorganization of any aspect of social life or the entire social system. Reforms, unlike revolutions, involve gradual changes in certain social institutions, spheres of life or the system as a whole. They, as a rule, are carried out “from above” with the help of new legislative acts and are aimed at improving the existing system, without its qualitative changes. For example, the reforms of Peter 1 radically changed the country's system of government, but the foundations of autocracy remained unchanged.
Reforms can also acquire a revolutionary character. Thus, the reformation of the church, which began in the 16th century. in Western and Central Europe, took the form of a revolutionary struggle against the Catholic Church and the feudal system. The abolition of serfdom in Russia in 1861 (peasant reform), despite its compromise nature, also had revolutionary consequences.
The danger of rapid and radical reforms is that they can get out of the control of the “reformers” and the public and become unpredictable. For example, perestroika, which began in the USSR in 1985 with the goal of reforming the socialist system (creating socialism with a “human face”), got out of the control of the party-political elite and led to the collapse of the Soviet Union. In the course of their further development (liberalization and democratization), the reforms were transformed into a criminal “revolution” aimed at plundering Russia by new political and economic elites.
Reforms are usually understood as slow evolutionary changes that do not lead to mass violence, rapid changes in political elites, or rapid and radical changes in the social structure and value orientations. For example, China's transition from a state-planned economy to a market economy is carried out using reform methods that have been ongoing for more than 20 years. Starting with the privatization of small peasant farms, market relations gradually began to be introduced in medium and large enterprises. As a result of such gradual and consistent reforms, China has transformed from a backward country into one of the most steadily developing social systems. The annual growth of GDP (gross domestic product) in China is 10-12%.
Social revolutions. A revolution is a rapid fundamental socio-economic and political change, usually carried out by force.
A revolution is a revolution from below. It sweeps away the ruling elite, which has proven its inability to govern society, and creates a new political and social structure, new political, economic and social relations. As a result of the revolution, basic changes occur in the social-class structure of society, in the values and behavior of people.
The revolution involves the masses of the people in active political activity. Activity, enthusiasm, optimism, hope for a “bright future” mobilize people for feats of arms, free labor and social creativity. During the period of revolution, the activity of the masses reaches its apogee, and social changes reach an unprecedented pace and depth.
K. Marx called revolutions “the locomotives of history.”
Revolutionary is also called rapid and radical changes that occur in certain spheres (subsystems) of society, for example in the political - a change of political elites when the political opposition comes to power; radical changes in economic structures; epoch-making scientific and technical discoveries (scientific and technological revolution), etc. Large-scale (“great”) revolutions, as a rule, lead to civil wars and the senseless destruction of large numbers of people. Moreover, the outcome of the revolution is unpredictable. For the most part, they do not end with what the revolutionaries dreamed of. Therefore, many researchers consider the revolution a disaster for the country and its people. Thus, P. A. Sorokin believes that “revolution is the worst way to improve the material and spiritual conditions of life of the masses... Whatever it achieves, it is achieved at a monstrous and disproportionately high price.”
Social modernization. Modernization refers to progressive social changes, as a result of which the social system (subsystem) improves the parameters of its functioning. For example, the transformation process
Traditional society into an industrial one is usually called modernization. The reforms of Peter I (the beginning of the 18th century), as a result of which Russia was supposed to reach the level of development of Western countries, also implied modernization. Modernization in this sense means achieving certain world standards or a modern level of development.
Social transformation. Transformation (from Latin trans-formatio) is a transformation that occurs in society as a result of certain social changes, both purposeful and chaotic.
Social crisis. Crisis (from Latin krisis) ~ decision, turning point, outcome, difficult transitional state of a social system, suggesting radical changes to solve emerging problems.
Self-test questions
1. Define the concept of “social change”.
2. What is a social process?
3. List the main forms of social processes.
4. Name the main types of social changes.
5. What are the differences between reform and revolution?
6. What is modernization?
7. What are the main causes of social change?
3. What types of social changes have occurred in the last 20 years in Soviet and Russian societies?
Forms of social change
- 1. Evolutionary social changes are partial and gradual changes that occur as fairly stable and permanent trends. These may be trends towards an increase or decrease in any qualities or elements in various social networks. systems, they can acquire an ascending or descending orientation. Evolutionary social changes have a specific internal structure and can be characterized as some kind of cumulative process, i.e. the process of gradual accumulation of any new elements, properties, as a result of which social changes. system. The cumulative process itself, in turn, can be split into two of its constituent subprocesses: the formation of new elements and their selection. Evolutionary changes can be consciously organized. In such cases, they usually take the form of social. reforms. But this can also be a spontaneous process (for example, increasing the level of education of the population).
- 2. Revolutionary social. changes differ from evolutionary ones in a radical way. Firstly, these changes are not just radical, but extremely radical, implying a radical breakdown of social life. object. Secondly, these changes are not specific, but general or even universal, and thirdly, they are based on violence. Social revolution is the center of fierce debate and debate in the field of sociology and other social sciences. Historical experience shows that revolutionary changes often contribute to more effective solutions to urgent social problems. problems, intensification of economic, political and spiritual processes, activation of significant masses of the population, and thereby accelerating transformations in society. Evidence of this is a number of social networks. revolutions in Europe, North America, etc. Revolutionary changes are possible in the future. However, in all likelihood, firstly, they cannot be violent, and secondly, they cannot simultaneously cover all spheres of social life, but should only apply to individual social groups. institutions or areas. Today's society is extremely complex and revolutionary changes can have devastating consequences.
- 3. Cyclical social. change is a more complex form of social. changes, because it can include both evolutionary and revolutionary social. changes, upward and downward trends. When we talk about cyclical social changes, we mean a series of changes that together form a cycle. Cyclical social changes occur according to the seasons, but can span periods of several years (eg, due to economic crises) and even several centuries (associated with types of civilizations). What makes the picture of cyclical changes particularly complex is the fact that different structures, different phenomena and processes in society have cycles of different durations.
There are four types of social change.
- 1. Changes relating to the structures of various social entities, or structural social changes. These are, for example, changes in the structure of the family, in the structure of any other community - a small group, professional, territorial, class, nation, society as a whole, in the structures of power, socio-cultural values, etc. This type of change also includes structural changes in social institutions, social organizations, etc.
- 2. Changes affecting social processes, or procedural social changes. Thus, we are constantly observing changes occurring in the sphere of social interactions and relationships of various communities; communities, institutions and organizations; communities, institutions, organizations and individuals. These are relationships of solidarity, tension, conflict, equality and subordination that are constantly in the process of change.
- 3. Changes concerning the functions of various social systems, institutions, organizations. They can be called functional social changes.
- 4. Changes in the sphere of motivation for individual and collective activity, or motivational social changes. It is obvious that the nature of the needs, interests, motivations in the behavior and activities of individuals, communities, and various groups does not remain unchanged.
All these types of changes are closely interconnected: changes in one type necessarily entail changes in other types. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that the relationship between social changes and others - cultural, economic - is very complex. Changes in one area of society do not automatically lead to changes in other areas.
2. By nature, internal structure, degree of influence on society, social changes can be divided into two large groups: evolutionary and revolutionary. The first group consists of partial and gradual changes, which occur as fairly stable and constant trends towards an increase or decrease in any qualities or elements. They can take on an ascending or descending direction.
All four types of changes described above can be evolutionary in nature: structural, functional, procedural and motivational. In the case of a conscious organization, evolutionary changes usually take the form of social reforms. But they can also be a purely spontaneous process.
Evolutionary changes are distinguished by a specific internal structure and can be characterized as some kind of cumulative process, that is, the process of gradual accumulation of some new elements and properties, as a result of which the entire social system changes. The accumulation process itself, in turn, can be divided into two components: the formation of innovations (new elements) and their selection. Innovation is the origin, emergence and strengthening of new elements. Selection is a process carried out spontaneously or consciously, through which some elements of the new are preserved in the system and others are rejected.
Innovation is a complex process of creating, disseminating and using a new practical means to satisfy human needs, as well as changes in the social and material environment associated with this innovation. Social innovations include economic, organizational, cultural, and material innovations include product, technological, etc.
Currently, innovation is considered as a certain stage in the process of social change. The following elements are distinguished in the phenomenon of innovation: a) innovation itself; b) innovators, i.e. its creators; c) distributors; d) evaluators, perceivers.
Revolutionary social changes differ from evolutionary ones in a significant way: firstly, because they are extremely radical, implying a radical breakdown of the social object, secondly, because they are not particular, but general or even universal, and, finally, third, as a rule, rely on violence.
Cyclical social change is a more complex form of social change, including evolutionary and revolutionary changes, upward and downward trends. In addition, we do not mean separate individual acts of any changes, but a certain series of changes, which together form a cycle.
It is known that many social institutions, communities, classes and even entire societies change according to a cyclical pattern.
What makes the picture of cyclical social changes particularly complex is the fact that different structures, phenomena and processes in society have cycles of different durations. Thus, at any given moment in history we have the simultaneous coexistence of social structures, phenomena, processes that are at different stages of development of their cycle. This largely determines the far from simple nature of the interaction between them, mutual inconsistencies, discrepancies and conflicts.
Particular attention of specialists is drawn to the cyclical nature of social changes over relatively long periods of time - several decades, in particular the theory of long waves. An outstanding contribution to the development of these theories was made by the Russian economist N. D. Kondratiev (1892-1938). To date, large cycles (long waves) have been recorded by other researchers using a large material of economic and social indicators. Various authors believe that the mechanism of long waves is based on the process of dissemination of innovations, changes in leading sectors of the economy, generations of people, long-term dynamics of the rate of profit, etc. Most scientists consider the phenomenon of long waves not only as economic, but also as social, historical and socio-psychological. As a result, the following understanding emerged: large cycles (long waves) are periodic repetitions of characteristic social, economic, and technological situations. These characteristic situations are regularly repeated approximately every 25-50 years. They are almost synchronous for most leading developed countries.
3. Sources of social change can be both economic and political factors, as well as factors located within the sphere of social structures and relations of society. The latter include the interaction between different social systems, structures, institutions, as well as communities at the level of groups, classes, parties, nations, and entire states.
Particular attention should be paid to technological and ideological factors as sources of social change.
The most obvious influence of technological factors on social life has become since the industrial revolution of the 17th-18th centuries. On the one hand, scientific and technological innovations led to consolidation and integration within various communities - social and professional groups, classes, changed the nature of relationships between them, aggravated conflicts and struggles both between groups and classes, and between states. On the other hand, new technology has unprecedentedly expanded the possibilities of communication, exchange of information and cultural values, essentially changed the entire nature of communications between people, and was the basis on which the entire mass information system was formed. Processes such as horizontal and vertical social mobility and all social movements have acquired a new quality.
Ideology has become the most significant factor in social change in different countries of the world in the last two or three centuries. All social changes caused by socio-economic and political reasons are ideological in nature. And the more fundamental changes occur, the more noticeable the role of ideology in them. After all, ideology is a certain set of ideas and ideas that expresses the interests of classes, other social groups, the whole society, explains social reality through the prism of these interests and contains directives (programs) for action (behavior).
Ideologies cannot be neutral in relation to social changes: with their help, social groups and classes demand corresponding changes or resist them.
The role of ideology is more noticeable when deep transformations are carried out, and less when relatively small, shallow changes occur.
In the 20th century science began to directly influence the development of programs of social change, ways and means of their implementation, management decision-making in advanced countries, the social sciences acquired new social functions related to the identification of specific social problems, their analysis and the development of recommendations for practical solutions. These functions are performed by the so-called social engineering, which carries out practical ordering and rationalization of the spheres of the economy, business, social and other relations. Social sciences have acquired particular significance in transforming the sphere of organization and management (state, municipal, intra-company), and decision-making systems.
4. Social development as a real process is characterized by three interrelated features - irreversibility, direction and regularity. Irreversibility means the constancy of the processes of accumulation of quantitative and qualitative changes; direction - the line or lines along which accumulation occurs; regularity is not a random, but a necessary process of accumulation of such changes. A fundamentally important characteristic of social development is the time during which it occurs. Even more important is that only over time the main features of social development are revealed. The result of the process of social development is a new quantitative and qualitative state of a social object, which can be expressed in an increase (or decrease) in the level of its organization, a change in its place in social evolution, etc. The history of the development of social communities, structures, institutions, their evolution, origin and extinction - an integral part of the subject of sociology as a science.
Social progress is the improvement of the social structure of society and human cultural life. It presupposes a direction of social and development in general, which is characterized by a transition from lower to higher forms, from less perfect to more perfect.
In general, the development of human society follows the line of increasing progressive social changes. It is important to note such indicators as the improvement of working conditions, the individual gaining greater freedom, political and social rights, the increasing complexity of the tasks facing modern societies, and the increase in technical, social and other possibilities for solving them.
But social progress is ambiguous. Most often we have to deal with social structures and processes in the evolution of which progress can be recorded, but is carried out very contradictorily. In addition to the concept of progress, there is also the concept of regression. This is a movement from higher to lower, from complex to simple, degradation, lowering the level of organization, weakening and attenuation of functions, stagnation. There are also so-called dead-end lines of development, leading to the death of certain sociocultural forms and structures.
The contradictory nature of social progress is revealed primarily in the fact that the development of many social structures and processes simultaneously leads to their progress in some respects and to regression in others.
One of the important criteria of social progress is its humanistic meaning. It is not enough to talk about social changes, including social development, only as objectively occurring processes. No less important are their other aspects - their appeal to individuals, groups, society as a whole - whether they lead to a person’s well-being, his prosperity, or to a decrease in the level and deterioration of his quality of life.
5. The problem of stability has not only scientific, but also actual practical significance, since in the conditions of social changes, mass ideas arise that the stability of society, people’s confidence in their future are identical to the immutability of social systems and structures. But social stability is not synonymous with immutability and immobility of social systems and relationships. In society, such immobility is, as a rule, a sign not of stability, but of stagnation, which sooner or later leads to instability, social tension, and ultimately to instability.
Social stability is the reproduction of social structures, processes and relationships within the framework of a certain integrity of society itself. Moreover, this reproduction is not a simple repetition of previous stages, but necessarily includes elements of variability.
A stable society is a society that develops, but maintains its stability, a society with a streamlined process and mechanism of social change that does not violate its stability and excludes such political struggle that leads to the shaking of foundations. A stable society in the full sense of the word is a democratic society.
Thus, stability in society is achieved not through immutability, immobility, but through the skillful implementation of urgent social changes at the right time and in the right place.
Social stability is due to the existence of mechanisms of social control, that is, a set of methods through which society seeks to influence people's behavior in order to maintain the necessary order. Among the conditions of social stability, factors related to the social-class structure of society and its stratification are highlighted. Among them is the presence in society of a fairly large so-called middle class, with average income for a given society and average private property. The presence of such a class determines the existence and strengthening of centrist political forces capable of attracting the most active sections of the population to their side.
An alarming signal of potential instability of society is the presence of a significant layer of lumpen people. This layer, especially if it grows in numbers and merges with criminal elements, may turn out to be the most destabilizing factor.
Social stability largely depends on the stability of the political system of society, primarily the state, and the interaction of the executive, legislative and judicial powers.
In strengthening political stability, an important role belongs to such a factor of social life as consensus on fundamental values between the main political parties, social movements, and representatives of the branches of government. The need for consensus is most clearly revealed in periods of transition, when public consent can and does play a decisive role.
Forms of social change
The most studied forms of social implementation. changes are evolutionary, revolutionary and cyclical.
1. Evolutionary social changes are partial and gradual changes that occur as fairly stable and permanent trends. These may be trends towards an increase or decrease in any qualities or elements in various social networks. systems, they can acquire an ascending or descending orientation. Evolutionary social changes have a specific internal structure and can be characterized as some kind of cumulative process, i.e. the process of gradual accumulation of any new elements, properties, as a result of which social changes. system. The cumulative process itself, in turn, must be split into two components - the subprocess - the formation of new elements and their selection.
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Evolutionary changes can be consciously organized. In such cases, they usually take the form of social. reforms. But this should also be a spontaneous process (for example, increasing the level of education of the population).
2. Revolutionary social. changes differ from evolutionary ones in a radical way. Firstly, these changes are not just radical, but extremely radical, implying a radical breakdown of social life. object. Secondly, these changes are not specific, but general or even universal, and thirdly, they are based on violence. Social revolution is the center of fierce debate and debate in the field of sociology and other social sciences. Historical experience shows that revolutionary changes often contribute to more effective solutions to pressing social problems, intensification of economic, political and spiritual processes, activation of large masses of the population, and thereby accelerating transformations in society. Evidence of this is a number of social networks. revolutions in Europe, North America, etc.
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Revolutionary changes are possible in the future. However, in all likelihood, firstly, they cannot be violent, and secondly, they cannot simultaneously cover all spheres of social life, but should only apply to individual social groups. institutions or areas. Today's society is extremely complex and revolutionary changes can have devastating consequences.
3. Cyclical social. change is a more complex form of social. changes, because it can include both evolutionary and revolutionary social. changes, upward and downward trends. When we talk about cyclical social changes, we mean a series of changes that together form a cycle. Cyclical social changes occur according to the seasons, but can span periods of several years (eg, due to economic crises) and even several centuries (associated with types of civilizations). What makes the picture of cyclical changes particularly complex is the fact that different structures, different phenomena and processes in society have cycles of different durations.
The concept " social change“denotes various changes that occur over a period of time within social systems and in the relationships between them, in society as a whole as a societal system.
Forms of social change:
Evolution in a broad sense, it is synonymous with development; more precisely, these are processes that in social systems lead to complexity, differentiation, and an increase in the level of organization of the system (although it happens the other way around). Evolution in the narrow sense includes only gradual quantitative changes, as opposed to qualitative changes, i.e. Revolutions.
Reform- transformation, change, reorganization of any aspect of social life or the entire social system. Reforms involve gradual changes in certain social institutions, spheres of life or the system as a whole. Reform may also be spontaneous, but it is always a process of gradual accumulation of some new elements and properties, as a result of which the entire social system or its important aspects change. As a result of the process of accumulation, new elements are born, appear and strengthen. This process is called innovation. Then comes the selection of innovations, consciously or spontaneously, through which elements of the new are fixed in the system and others are, as it were, “culled out.”
Revolutions represent the most striking manifestation of social change. They mark fundamental changes in historical processes, transform human society from the inside and literally “plow up” people. They leave nothing unchanged; old eras end and new ones begin. At the time of revolutions, society reaches its peak of activity; there is an explosion of its self-transformation potential. In the wake of revolutions, societies seem to be born anew. In this sense, revolutions are a sign of social health.
Revolutions differ from other forms of social change in their features. 1. They affect all levels and spheres of society: economics, politics, culture, social organization, daily life of individuals. 2. In all these areas, revolutionary changes are radical, fundamental in nature, permeating the foundations of the social structure and functioning of society. 3. The changes caused by revolutions are extremely rapid, they are like unexpected explosions in the slow flow of the historical process. 4. For all these reasons, revolutions are the most characteristic manifestations of change; the time of their accomplishments is exceptional and therefore especially memorable. 5. Revolutions cause unusual reactions in those who participated in them or witnessed them. This is an explosion of mass activity, this is enthusiasm, excitement, uplifting mood, joy, optimism, hope; a feeling of strength and power, of fulfilled hopes; finding the meaning of life and utopian visions of the near future. 6. They tend to rely on violence.
Social modernization. Modernization refers to progressive social changes, as a result of which the social system improves the parameters of its functioning. For example, the process of transforming a traditional society into an industrial one is usually called modernization. The reforms of Peter I, as a result of which Russia was supposed to reach the level of development of Western countries, also implied modernization. “Modernization” in this sense means achieving certain “world standards” or a “modern” level of development.
Typology of social changes:
Scope | Small changes | Marginal changes | Comprehensive changes | Revolutionary changes |
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Direction of change | Decline | |||||