Words, phrases, phrases and sentences - all this and much more is inherent in the concept of “language”. How much is hidden in it, and how little we actually know about language! We spend every day and even every minute next to him - whether we say our thoughts out loud or read or listen to the radio... Language, our speech is a real art, and it should be beautiful. And its beauty must be genuine. What helps in the search for true beauty
The direct and figurative meaning of words is what enriches our language, develops it and transforms it. How does this happen? Let's understand this endless process when, as they say, words grow from words.
First of all, you need to understand the figurative meaning of the word, and what main types they are divided into. Each word can have one or a number of meanings. Words with one meaning are called unambiguous words. In the Russian language there are significantly fewer of them than words with many different meanings. Examples include words such as computer, ash, satin, sleeve. A word that can be used in several meanings, including figuratively, is a polysemantic word, examples: house can be used to mean a building, a room for people to live, a family way of life, etc.; the sky is the air space above the earth, as well as the location of visible luminaries, or divine power, conduction.
With polysemy, a distinction is made between the literal and figurative meaning of a word. The first meaning of the word, its basis, is the direct meaning of the word. By the way, the word “straight” in this context is figurative in nature, i.e. the main meaning of the word is “something even,
without bends” - is transferred to another object or phenomenon with the meaning “literal, expressed unambiguously.” So we don’t have to go far - we just need to be more careful and observant in what words we use, when and how.
From the above example it already becomes clear that a figurative meaning is a secondary meaning of a word that arose when the literal meaning of the word was transferred to another object. Depending on what feature of the object served as the reason for the transfer of meaning, there are different types of figurative meaning such as metonymy, metaphor, synecdoche.
Direct and can resonate with each other based on similarity - this is a metaphor. For example:
ice water - ice hands (by attribute);
poisonous mushroom - poisonous character (by attribute);
star in the sky - star in hand (by location);
chocolate candy - chocolate tan (based on color).
Metonymy is the selection of some property in a phenomenon or object, which by its nature can replace the others. For example:
gold jewelry - she has gold in her ears;
porcelain dishes - there was porcelain on the shelves;
headache - my headache went away.
And finally, synecdoche is a type of metonymy when one word is replaced by another on the basis of a constant, really existing relationship of part to whole and vice versa. For example:
He is a real head (meaning very smart, the head is the part of the body in which the brain is located).
The entire village took his side - every resident, i.e. the “village” as a whole, which replaces its part.
What can we say in conclusion? Only one thing: if you know the direct and figurative meaning of a word, you will be able not only to use certain words correctly, but also enrich your speech, and learn to beautifully convey your thoughts and feelings, and maybe one day you will come up with your own metaphor or metonymy... Who knows?
Many words in Russian have both direct and figurative meanings. We will talk about what this phenomenon is, how to define a word in a figurative meaning and how this transfer occurs in our article.
About the literal and figurative meaning of the word
Even from the elementary grades of school, we know that words in the Russian language have a direct meaning, that is, a basic one, directly related to any object or phenomenon. For example, for the noun " exit" it is “an opening in a wall or fence through which one can leave a confined space” (Another exit into the courtyard, hiding behind a secret door).
But in addition to the direct meaning, there is also a figurative meaning of the word. Examples of such meanings in one lexical unit are often numerous. So, the same word " exit" This:
1) a way to get rid of the problem (Finally we came up with a decent exit from the situation);
2) quantity of products produced (As a result exit details turned out to be slightly lower than expected);
3) appearance on stage ( Exit the main character was met with a standing ovation);
4) rock outcrop (In this place exit limestone made the rocks almost white).
What influences the transfer of the meaning of a word
Depending on what specific feature can be associated with the transfer of the name of one object to another, linguists distinguish three types of it:
- Metaphor (transfer is associated with the similarity of characteristics of different objects).
- Metonymy (based on the contiguity of objects).
- Synecdoche (transferring a general meaning to its part).
The figurative meaning of the word based on the similarity of functions is also considered separately.
Now let's take a closer look at each of the listed types.
What is a metaphor
As mentioned above, a metaphor is a transfer of meaning based on the similarity of features. For example, if objects are similar in shape (the dome of a building - the dome of the sky) or in color (golden jewelry - golden sun).
The metaphor also implies the similarity of other meanings:
- by function ( heart human - the main organ, heart city - main area);
- by the nature of the sound ( grumbles old lady - grumbles kettle on the stove);
- by location ( tail animal - tail trains);
- on other grounds ( green I am youth - not mature; deep melancholy - it is difficult to get out of it; silk hair - smooth; soft the look is pleasant).
The figurative meaning of a word in the case of a metaphor can also be based on the animation of inanimate objects, and vice versa. For example: the whisper of leaves, gentle warmth, nerves of steel, an empty look, etc.
Metaphorical rethinking is also not uncommon, based on the convergence of objects according to seemingly different characteristics: gray mouse - gray fog - gray day - gray thoughts; sharp knife - sharp mind - sharp eye - sharp corners (dangerous events) in life.
Metonymy
Another trope that uses words used figuratively is - This is metonymy. It is possible under the condition of contiguity of concepts. For example, transferring the name of the premises ( Class) to the group of children in it ( Class rose to meet the teacher) is a metonymy. The same thing happens when you transfer the name of an action to its result (do baking bread - fresh bakery) or properties on their owner (have bass- the aria was sung by the talented bass).
The same principles apply to the transfer of the author’s name to his works ( Gogol- staged in the theater Gogol; Bach- listen Bach) or the name of the container for the contents ( plate- he already two plates ate). Adjacency (proximity) is also monitored when transferring the name of a material to a product made from it ( silk- she in silks walked) or tools for the person working with him ( braid- apparently here braid walked).
Metonymy is an important way of word formation process
With the help of metonymy, any word in a figurative meaning acquires more and more new semantic loads. So, for example, the word " node" even in ancient times it was obtained by transferring the meaning of “a rectangular piece of material into which some objects are tied” (take with you node). And today in dictionaries other meanings have been added to it, which appeared through metonymy:
- the place where the lines of roads or rivers intersect or converge;
- part of a mechanism consisting of tightly interacting parts;
- an important place where something is concentrated.
Thus, as you can see, the new figurative meaning of words, which arose with the help of metonymy, serves the development of vocabulary. By the way, this also allows you to save speech effort, since it makes it possible to replace an entire descriptive construction with just one word. For example: "early Chekhov" instead of "Chekhov in the early period of his work" or " audience” instead of “people sitting in a room listening to a lecturer.”
Synecdoche is considered one of the types of metonymy in linguistics.
What is synecdoche
Words with a figurative meaning, examples of which were given earlier, acquired a new meaning due to some similarity or proximity of concepts. And synecdoche is a way of pointing to an object through the mention of its characteristic detail or distinctive feature. That is, as mentioned above, this is a transfer of the general meaning of a word to its part.
Here are some of the most common types of this trope.
How and when is synecdoche used?
Synecdoche always depends on the context or situation, and in order to understand which words are used figuratively, the author must first describe the hero or his environment. For example, it is difficult to determine from a sentence taken out of context who we are talking about: “ Beard blew smoke from a clay pipe.” But from the previous story everything becomes clear: “Next to him, with the appearance of an experienced sailor, sat a man with a thick beard.”
Thus, synecdoche can be called an anaphoric trope, focused on subtext. The designation of an object by its characteristic detail is used in colloquial speech and in literary texts to give them a grotesque or humorous coloring.
The figurative meaning of a word: examples of transfer by similarity of functions
Some linguists also separately consider the transfer of meaning, in which the condition that phenomena have identical functions is met. For example, a janitor is a person who cleans the yard, and a janitor in a car is a device for cleaning windows.
A new meaning also appeared for the word “counter,” which was used to mean “a person who counts something.” Now the meter is also a device.
Depending on which words in a figurative meaning arise as a result of the named process, their associative connection with the original meaning may disappear completely over time.
How sometimes the process of transference affects the underlying meaning of a word
As already mentioned, as figurative meanings develop, a word can expand its semantic meaning. For example, the noun " the basis" meant only: "a longitudinal thread running along the fabric." But as a result of the transfer, this meaning expanded and was added to it: “the main part, the essence of something,” as well as “a part of a word without an ending.”
Yes, the emerging figurative meaning of polysemantic words leads to an increase in their expressive properties and contributes to the development of the language as a whole, but it is interesting that at the same time some meanings of the word become obsolete and are put out of use. For example, the word “ nature" has several meanings:
- Nature ( Nature attracts me with its purity).
- Human temperament (passionate) nature).
- Natural conditions, environment (picture from life).
- Replacing money with goods or products (pay in kind).
But the first of the listed meanings, with which, by the way, this word was borrowed from the French language, is already outdated; in dictionaries it is designated as “obsolete.” The rest, which developed with the help of transference on its basis, are actively functioning in our time.
How words are used figuratively: examples
Words in a figurative sense are often used as an expressive means of fiction, the media, and also in advertising. In the latter case, the technique of deliberately colliding different meanings of one word in the subtext is very popular. Thus, advertisements say about mineral water: “A source of vigor.” The same technique is visible in the slogan for shoe polish: “Brilliant protection.”
The authors of works of art, to give them brightness and imagery, use not only the already known figurative meaning of words, but also create their own versions of metaphors. For example, Blok’s “silence blooms” or Yesenin’s “birch Rus'”, which over time became very popular.
There are also words in which the transfer of meaning has become “dry”, “erased”. As a rule, we use such words not to convey an attitude towards something, but to name an action or object (go to a goal, the bow of a boat, the back of a chair, etc.). In lexicology they are called nominative metaphors, and in dictionaries, by the way, they are not designated as figurative meaning.
Incorrect use of words in a figurative meaning
In order for words in the literal and figurative meaning to always be in their places in the text and be justified, you need to follow the rules for their use.
It should be remembered that the use of metaphor requires the presence of similarities in the characteristics of the object of the name and in the meaning of the word applied to it. Meanwhile, this is not always observed, and the image used as a metaphor sometimes does not evoke the necessary associations and remains unclear. For example, a journalist, speaking about a ski race, calls it a “ski bullfight” or, reporting about inanimate objects, designates their number as a duet, trio or quartet.
Such a pursuit of “beauty” leads to the opposite result, causing the reader to be perplexed and sometimes laugh, as in the case when it was said about Tolstoy’s portrait: “Tolstoy was hanging in the office by the window.”
Language is a multifaceted and multifunctional concept. Determining its essence requires careful consideration of many issues. For example, the structure of language and the relationship between the elements of its system, influence from external factors and functions in human society.
Defining figurative values
Already in elementary school, everyone knows that the same words can be used in different ways in speech. Direct (main, basic) meaning is one that is correlated with objective reality. It does not depend on the context or allegory. An example of this is the word “collapse”. In medicine it means a sharp and sudden drop in blood pressure, and in astronomy it means the rapid compression of stars under the influence of gravitational forces.
The figurative meaning of words is their second meaning. It arises when the name of a phenomenon is consciously transferred to another due to the similarity of their functions, characteristics, etc. For example, the same “collapse” was received. Examples relate to social life. Thus, in a figurative sense, “collapse” means destruction, the collapse of the unification of people as a result of the onset of a systemic crisis.
Scientific definition
In linguistics, the figurative meaning of words is their secondary derivative, associated with the main meaning by metaphorical, metonymic dependence or any associative features. At the same time, it arises on the basis of logical, spatial, temporal and other correlations of concepts.
Application in speech
Words with a figurative meaning are used when naming those phenomena that are not the usual and permanent object of designation. They come close to other concepts through emerging associations that are obvious to speakers.
Words used figuratively can retain imagery. For example, dirty insinuations or dirty thoughts. Such figurative meanings are given in explanatory dictionaries. These words are different from the metaphors invented by writers.
However, in most cases, when a transfer of meaning occurs, the imagery is lost. An example of this is such expressions as the spout of a teapot and the elbow of a pipe, the passage of a clock and the tail of a carrot. In such cases, there is a fading of imagery in
Changing the essence of a concept
The figurative meaning of words can be assigned to any action, sign or object. As a result, it moves into the category of main or basic. For example, the spine of a book or a door handle.
Polysemy
The figurative meaning of words is often a phenomenon caused by their polysemy. In scientific language it is called “Polysemy”. Often one word has more than one stable meaning. In addition, people who use language often have a need to name a new phenomenon that does not yet have a lexical designation. In this case, they use words that are already familiar to them.
Questions of polysemy are, as a rule, questions of nomination. In other words, the movement of things with the existing identity of the word. However, not all scientists agree with this. Some of them do not allow more than one meaning for a word. There is another opinion. Many scientists support the idea that the figurative meaning of words is their lexical meaning, realized in various variants.
For example, we say “red tomato”. The adjective used here is the direct meaning. “Red” can also be said about a person. In this case, it means that he blushed or blushed. Thus, a figurative meaning can always be explained through a direct one. But linguistics cannot give an explanation. That's just the name of this color.
In polysemy, there is also the phenomenon of unequal meanings. For example, the word “flare up” can mean that an object suddenly caught fire, or that a person blushed with shame, or that a quarrel suddenly arose, etc. Some of these expressions are more common in the language. They immediately come to mind when this word is mentioned. Others are used only in special situations and special combinations.
There are semantic connections between some meanings of a word, which make understandable the phenomenon when different properties and objects are called the same.
Trails
The use of a word in a figurative meaning can be not only a stable fact of language. Such use is sometimes limited, fleeting and within the context of only one utterance. In this case, the goal of exaggeration and special expressiveness of what is said is achieved.
Thus, there is an unstable figurative meaning of the word. There are examples of this use in poetry and literature. For these genres, this is an effective artistic technique. For example, in Blok one can recall “the deserted eyes of the carriages” or “the dust swallowed the rain in pills.” What is the figurative meaning of the word in this case? This is evidence of his unlimited ability to explain new concepts.
The emergence of figurative meanings of words of a literary-stylistic type are tropes. In other words,
Metaphor
In philology, a number of different types of name transfer are distinguished. One of the most important among them is metaphor. With its help, the name of one phenomenon is transferred to another. Moreover, this is only possible if certain characteristics are similar. Similarity can be external (in color, size, character, shape and movements), as well as internal (in assessment, sensations and impressions). So, with the help of metaphor they talk about dark thoughts and a sour face, a calming storm and a cold reception. In this case, the thing is replaced, but the attribute of the concept remains unchanged.
The figurative meaning of words with the help of metaphor occurs with varying degrees of similarity. An example of this is a duck (a device in medicine) and a tractor caterpillar. The transfer using similar forms is used here. The names given to a person can also carry a metaphorical meaning. For example, Hope, Love, Faith. Sometimes meanings are transferred based on similarity to sounds. So, the horn was called a siren.
Metonymy
This is also one of the most important types of title transfers. However, when using it, the similarities of internal and external characteristics are not applied. Here there is a contiguity of cause-and-effect relationships or, in other words, the contact of things in time or space.
The metonymic figurative meaning of words is a change not only of the subject, but also of the concept itself. When this phenomenon occurs, only the connections of neighboring links of the lexical chain can be explained.
The figurative meanings of words can be based on associations with the material from which the object is made. For example, earth (soil), table (food), etc.
Synecdoche
This concept means the transfer of any part to the whole. An example of this is the expression “a child follows his mother’s skirt”, “a hundred head of cattle”, etc.
Homonyms
This concept in philology means identical sounds of two or more different words. Homonymy is a sound coincidence of lexical units that are not semantically related to each other.
There are phonetic and grammatical homonyms. The first case concerns those words that are in the accusative or sound the same, but at the same time have a different composition of phonemes. For example, “twig” and “pond”. Grammatical homonyms arise in cases where both the phoneme and pronunciation of the words are the same, but the individual words are different. For example, the number “three” and the verb “three”. If the pronunciations of such words change, they will not be the same. For example, “rub”, “three”, etc.
Synonyms
This concept refers to words of the same part of speech, identical or similar in their lexical meaning. The origins of synonymy are foreign language and its own lexical meanings, general literary and dialect. Such figurative meanings of words also arise thanks to jargon (“to burst” - “to eat”).
Synonyms are divided into types. Among them:
- absolute, when the meanings of words completely coincide (“octopus” - “octopus”);
- conceptual, differing in shades of lexical meanings (“reflect” - “think”);
- stylistic, which have differences in stylistic coloring (“sleep” - “sleep”).
Antonyms
This concept refers to words that belong to the same part of speech, but have opposite concepts. This type of figurative meaning may have a difference in structure (“to take out” - “to bring in”) and different roots (“white” - “black”).
Antonymy is observed in those words that express the opposing orientation of characteristics, states, actions and properties. The purpose of their use is to convey contrasts. This technique is often used in poetic and
Summary of a Russian language lesson in 6th grade
(teacher: Nesvat L.N., teacher of Russian language and literature MKOU OOSH village.
Ershovka, Vyatskopolyansky district, Kirov region)
LESSON TOPIC:
Direct and figurative meaning of words.
Goals: 1)
To introduce students to the literal and figurative lexical meaning of a word
2)
To develop the ability to find words with a figurative meaning in the text,
4)
Develop skills in working with spelling and punctuation.
During the classes:
Motivation.
1) Teacher's word:
Friends, before announcing the topic of today's lesson, I want to ask you a question,
related to literature, do you know who Ilya Muromets is?
(People's hero, hero of many epics)
In one of the epics about Ilya Muromets there are the following words: “The word is like an apple: from one
green on one side, ruddy on the other, you know how to turn it, girl...”
Think about the meaning of this sentence: The word, if we consider it from different sides,
miscellaneous - “Green on one side”, “Ruddy on the other”. And most importantly: "You know how to do it, girl
turn over", i.e. know how to use your words, as a word can have more than one meaning
It turns out that a word, in addition to its direct meaning, can also have another meaning,
portable. This is the topic of the lesson: “Direct and figurative meaning of the word”
(write in notebooks).
2) Write on the board:
iron nails, iron health.
Teacher's explanation: In the phrase iron nails the adjective means
What is the meaning of the word green? (Unripe,
unripe)
11)
Information on the use of figurative words in fiction
works. (Information from the textbook).
Vocabulary work: personification, metaphor
13) Execute exercise 339
Teacher:
Words with a figurative meaning make it bright and expressive not only
poetic speech, but also prose.
15) Let's turn to exercise 342.
a) Reading the text.
b) Determination of speech style, type of speech.
c) Determining the title of the text.
d) Vocabulary work: azure, coral, sapphire.
16) Recording text, explaining spelling.
: I hope you will be able to determine the literal and figurative meaning of a word. A
When you were very little, you probably didn’t understand a lot. Famous
children's writer K.I. Chukovsky recorded several statements of children who did not know
Reading the roles of the following statements and explaining the words used in
figurative meaning:
“I won’t go to school,” said fifth-grader Seryozha. - There on exams
cutting.
b) - Here In winter it will snow and frost will hit
-And then I won’t go outside.
- Why?
- So that the frost doesn’t hit me.
V) The boy is asked about his sister
- What does your sister Irinka lie down with the roosters?
She doesn’t lie down with the roosters - they peck: she goes to bed alone in her crib.
Mom washed the shirt and asked Petya to hang it to dry in the sun.
Petya left, but soon returned with the shirt.
- Why didn't you hang it up to dry?
- I don't “reached the sun,” answered Petya.
19)
Teacher:
Children, you have heard funny stories. No less fun, I think
will seem to you ex. 340.
20) Exercise: In each pair of sentences, indicate the words used directly
figurative meaning.
The wind howls and whistles in the chimney. The dog howls.
The tired day turned to night. The tired boy bowed his head to
mother's shoulder.
Dad came home from work. The long-awaited day of departure has finally arrived.
The hostess warmed the water. A cheerful song warmed us on the way.
21) Let's summarize the lesson.
a) How does a figurative meaning differ from a direct one?
b) Why are words with figurative meanings used in speech?
) Homework:
Theoretical information on pp. 132-133, exercise 338
- to step on a rake, in a figurative sense - to get a negative experience.
- prick up your ears - become very attentive,
- reel in fishing rods - leave, and not necessarily from fishing,
- a heart of stone is an insensitive person,
- sour face - dissatisfied facial expression.
- work hard - work hard
- sharp tongue - the ability to formulate accurate, accurate and even caustic information.
Examples of words and expressions with figurative meaning:
As we see, words acquire a figurative meaning when they are used together with certain words (which do not have such a quality in the literal sense). For example, nerves cannot literally be made of iron, so this is a figurative meaning, but iron ore is precisely made of iron (the phrase has a direct meaning).
Any word in Russian initially has one or more direct meanings. That is, the word Key can mean something like what we use to close the lock on the front door and can mean water gushing out from under the ground. In both cases, this is the direct meaning of a polysemantic word. But almost every word in the Russian language can also be given a figurative meaning. For example in the expression key to all doors, not a word key, not a word doors are not used in their direct meaning. The key here is the possibility of solving the problem, and the doors are this very problem. The figurative meaning of words is often used by poets, for example in Pushkin’s famous poem, every word has a figurative meaning:
Or here is the famous young man from Bryusov, who had a burning gaze, of course, burning in a figurative sense.
The direct meaning of the word strictly correlates with a certain thing, attribute, action, quality, etc. A word can have a figurative meaning based on points of contact, similarity with another object in form, function, color, purpose, etc.
Examples of the meaning of words:
table (furniture) - address table, table 9 (diet);
black color - back door (auxiliary), black thoughts (dreary);
bright room - bright mind, bright head;
dirty rag - dirty thoughts;
cold wind - cold heart;
golden cross - golden hands, golden heart;
heavy burden - heavy look;
heart valve - heart valve;
gray mouse - gray man.
A large number of words and figures of speech in the Russian language can be used both in a literal and figurative (figurative) sense.
The direct meaning usually completely coincides with the original meaning; the narrator means exactly what he says.
We use words in a figurative sense in order to give our speech figurativeness, to especially emphasize some quality or action.
The examples below will help you feel the difference:
The language is in constant development, those words that a few decades ago were used only in a literal meaning can begin to be used in a figurative sense - birdhouse - starling house, birdhouse - traffic police post, zebra - animal, zebra - pedestrian crossing.
Direct is the primary meaning of a word, figurative is secondary. Let me give you examples:
Gold earrings - direct meaning.
My husband's gold hands - figurative meaning.
Rain worm- direct.
Book worm- portable.
Silver ring - straight.
Silver century - figurative.
The sky is burning star- direct.
Star screen - portable.
Icy sculpture - straight.
Icy smile - figurative.
Sugar buns - straight.
Mouth sugar- portable.
Woolen blanket- direct.
Winter covered everything around with snow blanket- portable.
Mink fur coat- direct.
Herring under fur coat- portable.
Marble plate - straight.
Marble cupcake - portable.
Black suit - straight.
Leave on black day - portable.
Sweet tea - sweet kitty, sweet music.
Crying in pain - the prison is crying (for someone).
Soft plasticine - soft light, soft heart.
Sunny day - sunny soul, sunny smile.
Plastic bag - social package (vacation, sick leave).
Wolverine skin is a sellable skin.
Garden flowers are flowers of life (about children).
Green fruits - green generation.
Woodpecker (bird) - woodpecker (informer).
To poison with pills is to poison with moral violence.
The direct meaning of a word is when the word is used in its original sense. For example: sweet porridge.
The figurative meaning of a word is when the word is used in a non-literal sense, such as sweet deception.
In Russian, words can have both direct and figurative meanings. Under direct meaning understand words naming an object of reality or its property. Moreover, the meaning of such words does not depend on the context; we immediately imagine what they mean. For example:
Based on the direct meaning of a word, additional lexical meanings may arise, which are called portable. The figurative meaning is based on the similarity of objects or phenomena in appearance, properties or actions performed.
Compare: stone house and stone face. In the phrase stone house, the adjective stone is used in the literal meaning (solid, motionless, strong), and in the phrase stone face, the same adjective is used in a figurative meaning (insensitive, unfriendly, stern).
Here are some examples of the literal and figurative meaning of words:
Many stylistic figures or literary tropes are built on the basis of figurative meaning (metonymy, personification, metaphor, synecdoche, allegory, epithet, hyperbole).
There are a lot of words with direct and figurative meanings in the Russian language. And as a rule, all these meanings are reflected in dictionaries. It is very useful to look there from time to time.
Examples of words and phrases with figurative meaning:
Now, I remember.
But in fact, a very interesting fact is that words can have not only a direct meaning, but also a figurative one.
If we talk about the direct meaning, then in the text we mean exactly the lexical meaning of a specific word. But figurative meaning means transferring the meaning of the lexical original as a consequence of comparison
And here are some examples:
