By analyzing dictionaries of neologisms, it is possible to identify the basic principles of the development and expansion of the lexical system in the Russian language. The following ways of appearing new words are distinguished:

1. Morphological, in which new formations in the language are the result of derivational (word-formation) processes. For example: “mental”, “small things”. Derivation involves the formation of new words according to certain models from morphemes that already exist in the language.

2. Lexico-semantic. In this case, new meanings appear for known words. For example: “pencil case” (type of garage), “zebra” - pedestrian crossing.

3. Lexico-syntactic (non-productive). With this method, word formation occurs on the basis of phrases. For example: “today”, “now”.

4. Morphological-syntactic (unproductive). This is a way in which one part of speech passes into another. For example: “thanks to” (whom?) is a gerund, (to what?) is a preposition.

5. External influence. Borrowing is one of the ways of word formation. This includes words such as “felt-tip pen”, “know-how”, “ikebana”, etc.

According to researchers, the result of word formations in our language is more than 90% of all new formations of the last few decades. The main method today remains morphological, when new words appear from stems and affixes already existing in the language. They are usually created based on existing words. For example: “PR specialist” - by analogy “argumentator”.

A neologism that has arisen together with a new object, thing, or concept is not immediately included in the active composition of the dictionary. After a new word becomes commonly used and accessible to the public, it ceases to be a neologism. For example, words have gone this way Soviet, collectivization, collective farm, link, tractor driver, Komsomol member, pioneer, Michurinets, metro builder, virgin soil worker, lunarnik, cosmonaut and many others.

Consequently, due to the continuous historical development of the lexical composition of the language, many words, even in the 19th century. perceived as neologisms with an abstract meaning (for example, fiction, liberty, reality, citizenship, humanism- humanity, idea, social, equality etc.), in modern language they are part of the active vocabulary.

And some words that arose quite recently (tax in kind, surplus appropriation, ukom, nepman, komchvanstvo, party maximum, party minimum, people's commissar etc.), managed to become obsolete.

Reasons for the appearance of new words:

1) In everyday speech, we create new words for the following purposes:

1. Using a new word, we name new objects and phenomena: Dutik boots, Dnepryanka wheat variety.

2. However, we can create a name for a phenomenon that is well known, but does not have a verbal designation in the language. For example, it is not at all new for viewers to leave the theater when they do not like a film, but we do not designate this phenomenon with a special word. But one Sverdlovsk resident stated: “ The hall was splashing».

3. Words are also created when we want to more clearly designate a phenomenon that has a name; instead of intricate, Thuringian porcelain is said to be fancy, the sealant is called a sticker.

4. You can play with words. This is readily done by children who are mastering the language, but adults are sometimes not averse to making up some little words for fun: “If there is a fountain pen, there must also be an autoleg. There is neither a new object here nor an old phenomenon without a name. There is word creation here for fun and entertainment.

2) What is observed in everyday speech occurs in artistic or journalistic speech. Here new objects created by the artist’s imagination receive new names: cybers at the Strugatskys, best in V. Zorin et al.

New words are divided into two groups depending on the reasons for their appearance in the language. Neologisms are new words created to represent new phenomena. All the rest are occasionalisms.

In addition to neologisms, which are the property of the national language, new words formed by one or another author are highlighted. Some of them entered the literary language, for example, drawing, mine, pendulum, pump, attraction, constellation, etc. (at M. Lomonosov), industry, love, absent-mindedness, touching(from Karamzin), fade away(from F. Dostoevsky), etc.

Others remain part of the so-called occasional authorial formations. They perform figurative and expressive functions only in an individual context and, as a rule, are created on the basis of existing word-formation models, for example, mandolin, unsmile, sickle, hammerfist, chamberlain and many others (by V. Mayakovsky); stormed, turmoil ( from B. Pasternak), mokhnatinki, Ant country And Muravskaya country ( from A. Tvardovsky), magic, cellophane(from A. Voznesensky), side-bodied, unfamiliarity, overworld, inflexible and others (by E. Yevtushenko), etc.

Sources of new words

The sources of new words are: word formation and borrowing from another language. Since borrowings are discussed in 3.2, here we will talk about the word formation of neologisms and occasionalisms.

A common source of new words is education based on active word-formation models or patterns: blown boots - dutiki, boiled - varenka “denim fabric, the color of which is changed during the boiling - cooking process" Wed: tanned short fur coat - sheepskin coat; dutiki- probably like walkers, panties, although these are different models of word formation.

Occasionalisms are also created according to active word-formation models; such formations are called potential words: There the fortune teller tinkered with the dinner, which was warming up on the Gratz kerosene stove, wiped her hands on her apron like a cook, took a bucket with enamel chipped off in places and went out into the yard to get water"(I. Ilf, E. Petrov. Twelve chairs).

Adverb like a cook formed according to the productive model “by- + adjective + -and”. We can use it to form a large number of words like: like a chef, like a student, like a journalist, like a driver and so on depending on our imagination. The model is open. The education we receive in some cases seems unacceptable, like chef's style, in others - as if even existing, normative. This is the property of the productive model, in which the boundary between formative and occasional formations is blurred due to units that exist as if at the tip of the pen, so that it is impossible to say whether we chose them from our vocabulary or just created them in connection with a need. expressions of thought.

Occasionalisms are also formed according to a sample word. In V. Konyakhin’s “Newspaper Portraits” the following series of words was created: “ The most hard-working, most selfless patriots of their newspaper and their city are made from former worker correspondents, engineer correspondents, rural correspondents, military correspondents, junior correspondents and housewife-correspondents. Their special advantage is their excellent knowledge of the geography and demography of all enterprises and dynasties of the city».

Words " engineercore" and "housewifecocore" are created on the model of neighboring words. If desired, this series can be continued again, because there are many professions: teachercore, doctorcore.

Occasionalism can be obtained through semantic transformation of an existing model. For example, in Yu. Bondarev’s novel “The Shore” the following adverbs are used: “ The attic turned red with tiles in the hot lu the sun is fading, nearby there are pine trees, illuminated in the morning on one side of the trunks”; “The lilac blossomed in the snow”; “Senior Sergeant Zykin, in gloomy isolation, stared stonyly at the light of the bowl”; “...the tinny sound of corn ringing in the wind».

Adverbs using the suffixes -о/-е are formed from qualitative adjectives and denote a characteristic related to an action: good writing - good writing. Here adverbs are formed from relative adjectives: morning, snowy, stone, tin. Has the general meaning of the received adverbs changed? Certainly. They mean
sign of action through comparison: the trunks are illuminated by the sun as
it happens in the morning; the lilacs bloomed like snow; stared as motionless as a stone; the horns rang like tin. And again we can add to the list of similar formations: brick-red, woodenly walked, heavenly smiling.

Sometimes occasionalism is a word-formative synonym for an existing word. For example, instead of the normative talking shop V. Konyakhin in “Newspaper Portraits” uses the following: “ He won’t be offended because, on principle, he doesn’t follow these talkers.».

The root of occasionalism is the same as that of a normative lexical unit, but the word-forming element has changed: instead of the suffix -ln- the suffix -lovk- is used. Here the scope for our imagination has been significantly reduced; we can only try on two or three suffixes for this root: talker, talker, talker, and absolutely
sounds strange" talk" It must be said that these new formations are much less natural than the one used by the writer, and, therefore, if we were planning to include them in our text, most likely we would need some kind of justifying clause, explanation, assessment, in general - an apology to the reader for a clumsy creation. Or we would have to create a special context that would justify our education.
For example: " There was not a hubbub around, but rather a chatter - everyone broke into groups and talked, talked, talked about their business».

Finally, occasionalism can be created by the author, so to speak, according to an original project, as a result of an original combination of morphemes. For example, S. Kirsanov in the poem “Max-Emelyan” created from the verbs “ fall asleep" And " wake up» two nouns: from usnyavin to prosnyavin. Nouns do not have such a model; this method of combining morphemes belongs to the poet.

Until now, we have considered occasionalisms that were built from the real morphemic material: existing roots, suffixes, interfixes, prefixes. However, cases have already been shown where the author constructed a word directly from sounds, let us remember Marshakov’s “alinon”. There is also a sword in “Smart Things” zing-zeng- the word is also made up of sounds, and not of morphemes. These cases are rare and are always artistically justified, for example, as an experiment. Here is V. Khlebnikov’s poem “The Thunderstorm”:

Wey, wey, ew!

Take zocern. Ve-tserci.

Wrapped, wrong!

Wrap, wrap, wrap!

Gugog. Hook. Gakri.

Vivavevo...

Some people are given, others are not given the opportunity to hear the rumble of a thunderstorm and the sound of rain in this set of sounds. For our topic, the very fact of trying to paint a picture not with musical, but with linguistic sounds is important. This is an extreme case of co-creation. And for completeness of description it is necessary to mention it.

1.6.3 Test questions for consolidation of material

1. What groups is the vocabulary of the national language divided into?

2. What words belong to the active vocabulary of the language? Give examples.

3. What words belong to the passive vocabulary of the language? Give examples.

4. What are the features of the process of loss of words in a language?

5. What groups are obsolete words divided into? Tell us about each in detail. Give examples.

6. How can you use outdated words?

7. What are the ways to explain outdated words in the text?

8. What words are called neologisms?

9. What are the reasons for the emergence of new words?

10. What are the sources of new words?

Basic methods of word formation.

Laws of word formation with examples:

1) Take into account the lexical meaning of the word (handcuffs<= рука (ручники по смыслу не подходят)-приставочно-суффиксальный)

2) The derivative and productive stems must differ by a minimum of morphemes (for free => for free - prefix)

3) Take into account parts of speech (behind our FOREST - non-productive, but to go FOREST - transition from one part of speech to another)

I) Suffixal

• Adverbs ending in -o, -e (lightning-fast)
• Verbs with the suffixes -yva-, -iva-, -va- (consider – consider)
• Nouns with the suffixes -eni-, -ni-, -i-, -ti- (position – put)

II) Transition from one part of speech to another (I think it’s not worth explaining, since everything is clear)

III) Prefix (if the word exists in the language and explains the original word)

• Verbs (affects-acts...)
• Adverbs (forever – always...)
• Noun (superman – man...)
• Adjective (hyperactive – active….)
• Pronoun (never – when, nowhere – where..)

IV) Prefix-suffixal (the main thing is that the word logically explains the original)

• Verbs (scatter - run...)
• Adjective (helpless - help...)
• Noun (snowdrop - snow, pomorie - sea...)
• Adverbs (in my opinion - my..., firstly - first..., again - new..., to the right - right)

V) Suffixless (only nouns by cutting off the ending and suffix from the generating word)

• Image. from the verb (meaning of action) (heating - to heat, looking - to look, running - to run....)
• Image. from adjectives nouns with “-ь” (width - wide, distance - distant...)

VI) Addition of stems (easy, but not to be confused with suffixation: Agricultural<= земледелие, суффиксальный )

VII) Addition and suffixation (there is no such thing on the Unified State Examination).

VIII) A method that is also not in the Unified State Examination. Postfixal is an affixal way of word formation, which uses a postfix as a means of word formation: bathe - bathe.

More about word formation methods

Word-formation analysis answers the questions:

• What word is this word derived from?
• How is this word formed?

The following methods of education are distinguished:

1) petitionerprostrateA ← petitioner(suffixal method, using the suffix –nits-);

3) underwindowsNickA ← windows o (prefix-suffix method, using the prefix sub- and suffix –nik-);

4) explosion← explosion at (same general part, method of formation – without suffix);

5) heels And floor ny ← five floor her (addition of two roots).

Rule #1.

Work only with the initial form of the word (for inflected parts of speech - nominative case, singular and, if possible, masculine gender, for verbs - indefinite form).

Trap!

re-read l ← re-read t (suffixal method). Error! –т and –л- are formative suffixes, i.e. these are forms of the same word.

Right: re-read, n.f. re chita th – chita t ( prefix method).

Rule #2.

If a word has a prefix, then try first of all to find a cognate word with a prefix.

Trap!

input ← move (additional method). Error! Progress – not the closest cognate word!

Right: entrance← entrance it (no suffix method).

Remember!

When analyzing word formation, remember that there are historical alternations of vowels and consonants:

E/o/i/a/zero sound (with br at - with bir at - with ber y);

Error: vish← whish nya (suffixal method, suffix –enn).

Right: cherries ny ← cherry I (suffixal method, suffix -n).

Hissing w, sh, ch, ts alternate with g-k, z-s, d-t ( start ah, empty it, Pushcha y);

B/bl, p/pl, v/vl, f/fl, m/ml ( love it, love yu, in love ennobled).

When choosing a cognate word, remember the following:

Part of speech	from what part of speech can it be formed	how
noun	noun	prefix, suffix, prefixal-suffixal
	adjective	suffixed, unsuffixed
	verb
adjective	noun	suffixal, prefix-suffixal
	adjective	prefixal
	verb	suffixal
verb	verb	prefix, suffix
	noun	suffixal, prefixal-suffixal
	adjective
adverb	noun, adjective, adverb, numeral, pronoun	suffixal, prefixal-suffixal
	participle	suffixal
participle, participle	verb only	suffixal only

Ways of word formation:

1) First of all, it is necessary to eliminate the method of transition from one part of speech to another.

Transition- This is a non-morphological method of word formation, which consists in changing the morphological characteristics of a word. Outwardly, this is manifested by the preservation of all morphemes and endings characteristic of the original part of speech, but by a change in the question asked of this word.

To the past (which?) Sunday we went to the circus. – It is necessary to remember (What?) past.

In the first case, by the way past the question is asked which?, i.e. the question is an adjective, and in the second What?– noun question. This means there has been a transition in the second sentence.

2) Prefix method.

Remember!The prefix does not change the part of speech!

Common models:

times/ras, over, super, ultra, extra + noun/adjective = noun/adjective.

anti, dez, counter, not, nor + noun/adjective = noun/adjective.

prefix + any unprefixed verb = verb.

3) Suffixal method (more often forms a new part of speech).

4) Prefix-suffix method.

5) Addition

When adding, usually two roots, parts of roots, words in a certain case are distinguished in a word, or the word is an abbreviation (MSU, Unified State Examination).

Algorithm of actions.

1) Write down the word in the initial form and highlight the ending or formative suffix (-ть, -ч or –ти for verbs).

2) Select the closest related word (it should include as many morphemes as possible of the word being analyzed) and highlight the ending or formative suffix.

3) Identify the common part of two words (matching morphemes)

4) Determine the method of formation using a morpheme that is not included in the general part.

Analysis of the task.

From the sentences, write down a word formed in a prefix-suffix way.

And I, first in kindergarten and then at school, bore the heavy cross of my father’s absurdity. Everything would be fine (you never know what kind of fathers anyone has!), but I didn’t understand why he, an ordinary mechanic, came to our matinees with his stupid accordion. I would play at home and not disgrace myself or my daughter!

Let's talk. If you need to find a word formed using a prefix and suffix, then they must be present in the word that needs to be written down. Let's try to find these words. There weren't that many of them: at first, absurdity, incomprehensible. Now let’s select the closest cognate “relative” to these words.

First - the beginning (they differ in both prefix and suffix, i.e. prefix-suffix method),

Absurdity – awkward (formed using the suffix –ost, method of formation – suffixal),

It’s unclear - it’s clear (they differ only in the prefix, which means this is a prefix method).

Thus, the correct answer is the word at first.

Practice.

1. From this sentence, write down a word formed in a prefix-suffix way.

I suddenly felt scared, as if the earth had broken off under me and I found myself on the edge of a bottomless abyss.

2. From this sentence, write down a word formed by a prefix.

But in the “virtual” he can appear as a prince on a white horse.

3. From these sentences, write down words formed in a suffixless way (using a zero suffix).

Insulting shouts and threats were heard. Barclay's adjutant had to draw his saber to pave the way to the carriage.

1) bottomless

2) appear

Everything about everything. Volume 3 Likum Arkady

What is the speed of thought?

What is the speed of thought?

Is it true that thought has the greatest speed imaginable? Once upon a time, in ancient times, this was considered indisputable, which explains such expressions as “faster than thought.” Today we know that a thought is an impulse that travels along the nerve fibers of our body and that the speed of this impulse can be measured quite accurately. An amazing thing turns out: it turns out that thought is a very slow process.

The nerve impulse travels at a speed of only 155 mph (about 250 km/h)! This means that any information can be transmitted faster outside our body than inside it, from one organ to another! Television, radio, telephone - all these means transmit information much faster than our nervous system. A thought transmitted along nerves from New York to Chicago will arrive at its destination several hours later than the same thought transmitted by radio, telephone or telegraph. When something happens to our toe, it takes some time for the impulse with information about it to reach the brain.

Imagine that you are a giant whose head is in Alaska and whose feet are in South Africa. If a shark bites your toe on Monday morning, your brain won't know anything about it until Wednesday evening. And if you decide to pull your toe out of the water, the rest of the week will be spent communicating the command to your feet! Different types of signals cause us to react at different speeds. We react faster to sound than to light, to bright light faster than to dim light, to red faster than to white, and to something unpleasant faster than to something pleasant. The speed at which mental impulses travel is slightly different for each person. Therefore, some people react much faster than others to certain signals.

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Question from apis on the subject Russian language 03/02/2020:

1. To the question: “What is the rate of emergence of new words in the modern Russian language?” , perhaps it is very difficult to answer. But we know how they appear. We have prefixes, suffixes and different ways to connect them. What word is formed using a prefix and a suffix at the same time? Smart, bathroom, white-handed, glass holder, look younger 2. Read an excerpt from the story by M.A. Gorky's "Childhood": "Soon I was already reading the Psalter in the warehouses; they usually did this after evening tea, and every time I had to read a psalm. - Buki-people-az-la-bla; live-you-more-blessed “Our-er-blessed,” I said, moving my pointer along the page, and out of boredom asked: “Blessed is the husband, is this Uncle Yakov?” Try to read the words as the hero of the story read them, and write them in modern spelling. chambers, rtsy, izhe, sha, er, people, er, qi, er 3. The morphemic model is the patterns, patterns by which words are created in the Russian language. Find “extra” words that differ in morphemic pattern. Prevalence, maturity, praise, glorification, excitement, return