The complexity and multifaceted nature of the proposal makes it difficult to develop its definition. There are many definitions of this syntactic unit, to which new ones continue to be added. An adequate definition must contain an indication of the generic affiliation of the phenomenon being defined, and, at the same time, it must indicate those of the many inherent properties that determine the specificity of this particular phenomenon, thus constituting its essence.
In the history of the development of Russian syntax, one can note attempts to define a sentence in logical, psychological and formal grammatical terms. The representative of the first direction, F.I. Buslaev, defined a sentence as “a judgment expressed in words.” [Buslaev, 1959, p.258] Buslaev also believed that “logical categories and relationships find their exact reflection and expression in language.” [Buslaev, 1959, p. 270]. Based on the fact that “a grammatical sentence is not at all identical and not parallel with a logical judgment,” the representative of the second direction, A. A. Potebnya, considered a sentence as “a psychological (not logical) judgment using a word, i.e., a connection of two mental units: the explained (psychological subject) and the explanatory (psychological predicate), forming a complex sentence.” He considered the essential feature of a sentence to be the presence of a verb in its personal form. [Potebnya, 1958, p. 81-84]. F. F. Shakhmatov built his theory of the sentence on a logical-psychological basis and defined the sentence as follows: “A sentence is a unit of speech, perceived by the speaker and listener as a grammatical whole, serving for the verbal expression of a unit of thinking.” Shakhmatov considered the psychological basis of a proposal to be a combination of ideas in a special act of thinking [Pospelov, 1990, p. 127]. The founder of the formal grammatical direction F. F. Fortunatov considers a sentence as one of the types of phrases: “Among the grammatical phrases used in complete sentences of speech, the dominant ones in the Russian language are those phrases that we have the right to call grammatical sentences, because they contain, as parts, a grammatical subject and a grammatical predicate.”
Members of the sentence by representatives of this direction were defined from a morphological point of view, that is, they were characterized as parts of speech. [Fortunatov, 1956, pp. 188-189]. V.V. Vinogradov takes the structural-semantic principle as the basis for the definition of a sentence: “A sentence is an integral unit of speech grammatically designed according to the laws of a given language, which is the main means of forming, expressing and communicating thoughts.” [Vinogradov, 1955, p. 254]. In order to give an operationally applicable definition of a proposal, one should proceed from its formal or functional characteristics. In academic linguistics we find the following definition of a sentence: “A sentence is the minimum unit of human speech, which is a grammatically organized combination of words that has a certain semantic and intonation completeness. Being a unit of communication, a sentence is at the same time a unit of formulation and expression of thought; the unity of language and thinking finds its manifestation in it. A sentence can express a question, an impulse, etc. The grammatical basis of a sentence is formed by predication, which consists of the categories of time, person, modality and intonation of the message.” [Rosenthal, 1976, p. 311]. We consider it possible to dwell on this definition as the most objective and evidence-based. Although we cannot help but notice that there is still debate over the definition of a syntactic unit, which once again proves that a sentence is a complex unit in its structure. There is no consensus on the definition of a complex sentence. If a simple sentence is a monopredicative unit and it expresses “a single correlation with the speech situation, the speaker’s assessment of the entire objective content at once” [Beloshapkova, 1981, p. 367], then a complex sentence is a polypredicative unit, it gives “a separate correlation with the speech situation , the speaker’s assessment of objective content in parts.” [ibid].
The predicative units of a complex sentence, although constructed according to the models of a simple sentence, are in such close interaction in semantic and grammatical terms that it is mostly impossible to divide complex sentences into separate independent simple sentences, since the parts of a complex sentence are combined both structurally and in meaning , and intonation. This opinion is shared by scientists such as F.I. Buslaev: “From the combination of two or more sentences, a complex one is composed, so-called in contrast to a simple one, not connected to another.” [Buslaev, 1959, p. 279]. V.V. Vinogradov calls complex sentences a “syntactic whole.” [Vinogradov, 1955, p. 287]. D. E. Rosenthal gives a broader definition of a complex sentence: “Complex sentences are sentences consisting of two or more parts, similar in form to a simple sentence, but forming a single whole, a semantic, constructive and intonational whole.” [Rosenthal, 1976, p. 432]. In German studies, the following definition: “A complex sentence in structure is opposed to a simple one, it is polypredicative, that is, a predicative relation characterizing the mutual relations of the subject and predicate is presented in the sentence two or more times. The components of a complex sentence are traditionally considered also as sentences. Perhaps, however, this is simply not perfect terminology.” (For example, in English the term “clause”* is used to denote a polypredicative unit). “A subordinate clause is not a sentence simply because it is devoid of independent communicative significance.
It is used in the process and for the purposes of speech communication only as a component of a larger syntactic unit - a complex sentence. Even parts of a complex sentence are inadequate as units of communication. Often their mutual relations of cause - effect, a certain temporal organization, etc., and breaking them, isolating each part of a complex sentence into an independent sentence means weakening or breaking the syntactic and semantic connections existing between them. In addition, unfinished parts of a complex sentence can also convey their syntactic connection with their own kind through intonation. Being isolated from the rest of the complex sentence, such constructions also turn out to be intonationally different from the sentence. The connection between the parts of a complex sentence is carried out through conjunctions, demonstrative words (pronouns), other special words (adverbs, introductory words, etc.), structural incompleteness of any part and common to all parts of the predicative unit. “The order of the predicative unit in a complex sentence can be relatively free or closed:
Collocation | Offer |
|
It has no communicative function; it serves for the grammatical and semantic connection of words with each other. | The minimum communicative unit serves to formulate oral and written speech. Has predicative properties. |
|
One grammatical basis | Two grammatical bases |
|
Catch with a net, wooden table, slow down, jump high. | The forest today is extremely beautiful. He felt very sad. | I came to pay my respects. Nature comes to life: in some places you can already hear the singing of arriving birds. |
Subordinating connection
So, we said what syntax is, the basic units of syntax. Syntactic connections determine how the relationships between the latter are realized. There are two types of connections that can connect words in a phrase that make up the elements of a sentence: coordinating and subordinating.
When we talk about the latter, this implies that it is possible to identify the main part and the one that will depend on it. In other words, the main one is from which the question must be asked, the dependent one is to which it is posed.
Let's look at examples: know (what?) the exact time. In this phrase, “know” will be the main word, “time” will be the dependent word.
I don't know what tomorrow will bring me. Here we already have a complex sentence with a subordinating relationship between the parts. From the first - “I know” - we ask a question to the subordinate clause (what?) “what will tomorrow bring me.”
Methods of submission
The subordinate relationship is implemented in several ways. This is most noticeable within a phrase.
- Coordination: when an entire syntactic unit changes, the word forms included in it also change. Wicker basket; wicker basket, about wicker basket. Dependent words in this case can be participles, adjectives, ordinal numbers and adjective pronouns.
- Control: the dependent word remains unchanged, while the main word can change its grammatical form. Describes the landscape - described the landscape - describes the landscape - described the landscape. Dependent words: nouns, verbs, adjectives and cardinal numbers.
- Contiguity: connection only in meaning. They walked staggering, very handsome, he went to work. Here everyone will be dependent
Coordinating connection
Unlike subordination, a coordinating connection connects absolutely equal parts. These can be either special combinations of words: flowers and herbs, he walked and rejoiced, or components of a complex sentence: “The street soon became quiet, but anxiety grew in the house.”
Here we do not highlight the main and dependent words; this connection is formalized intonationally or with the help of coordinating conjunctions. Let's compare: “He walked, cried, did not notice anyone. - He walked and cried.” In the first case, only intonation is used, in the second - the conjunction and (coordinating connective).
Phrase. Types of phrases
So, it was described above what the basic units of syntax are. The phrase is the most minimal of them. It represents two or more words connected in meaning, intonation or grammatically. Phrases are isolated from sentences because they are their integral part. This is done as follows: It is drizzling outside.
- First, the grammatical basis is determined. It is not a phrase. The rain is drizzling.
- Next, we ask questions from the subject: light rain (what kind?).
- After this, from the predicate: it’s drizzling (where?) on the street.
According to what part of speech the main word belongs to, all phrases are divided into nominal ones (oak table, each of the guests is capable of learning); verbal (walked stumbling, speak clearly) and adverbial (very fun, to the right of the road, somewhere in the store).
Also, phrases are divided into simple and complex.
In the first, only one question is possible: the sun (which one?) is bright and radiant. Complex ones are more common. Let's compare: read (what?) a magazine (simple) and read (what) a popular science magazine. In the last example, the word magazine also asks a question about the word popular science, so the phrase is complex.
Free and integral phrases are distinguished. The first ones are distinguished by the fact that each word from their composition is a full-fledged member of the sentence. Second words in a sentence are not divided into component parts. Only two students passed the session with flying colors. “Two students” is essentially a phrase, but in the sentence it acts as the subject, so it can be characterized as integral.
Is not a phrase
It should be remembered that phrases are never:
- Subject and predicate.
- Homogeneous members of the sentence.
- Phraseologisms (they should not be confused with whole phrases that are one member of a sentence: three sisters, a boy and a girl, etc.).
- Combinations of a function word and an independent part of speech: during the day (preposition and noun), so does he (conjunction and pronoun), what an ignoramus (particle and noun).
- Complex forms: I will read (future tense), the highest one is calmer (comparative degree), let him go (imperative mood).
Proposal and its signs
We already know that the basic units of syntax are phrases and sentences, but it is the latter that is the most important. After all, our speech consists precisely of sentences: with them we think and talk, composing a coherent text.
What characterizes a sentence as the basic unit of syntax? The grammatical basis is the indicator that distinguishes it from a phrase or a simple set of words. This feature is also called predicativeness, because it is the predicate that carries within itself an indicator of the reality or unreality of what is happening. It is expressed through the mood of the verb.
Also, the sentence as the basic unit of syntax is characterized by logical and intonational completeness. This is a short statement, the formalization of a certain thought about the subject of conversation. It cannot be confused with a phrase, because in the latter there is no logical completeness - it is simply a grammatically related set of words.
Grammar basis
Every sentence has a grammatical basis. This is an indicator of its structure - the most important characteristic.
The predicative basis can be represented by both the subject and the predicate, or each of them separately.
For example, the sentence: “We saw the long-awaited land.” There are both main members here. A sentence of this type is another matter: “The long-awaited land has become visible.” Here, from the basis, only the predicate has become visible.
It is by the number of predicative bases that the most important characteristic is given: whether the sentence before us is simple or complex.
Let us briefly examine each main term. The subject shows us the subject of speech, indicates what is being said in the sentence. The predicate denotes what the subject does, what it is, who or what it is. There are three types of this main member in structure and meaning: simple and compound, verbal and nominal.
What are the offers?
It is sentences that mostly study syntax. The basic units of syntax are characterized by many parameters.
Regardless of the number of predicative stems, sentences are distinguished by:
- Purposes of the statement. When communicating with each other, people can communicate certain facts (declarative sentences), ask (interrogative) or appeal to some action (motivating). At the end of such syntactic units, a period, question mark or exclamation mark is placed, respectively.
- Emotional coloring. There are exclamatory and non-exclamatory sentences. It should be noted that the former may not necessarily be exclusively incentive. For example, the sentence: What a ridiculous situation! We will characterize it as narrative, but exclamatory. It’s all because of what, expressing admiration.
Characteristics of simple sentences
Simple sentences are the basic units of syntax. Let us briefly examine their most important characteristics.
- One-piece or two-piece. The grammatical basis will indicate this. If it is represented by one of the members, the proposal will be one-part. Otherwise two-part. If a sentence has only a subject or predicate, it is necessary to indicate its type (definite or indefinite-personal, denominative or impersonal).
- Common or not. The secondary members are responsible for this characteristic. If there is at least one of them, the offer is widespread.
- Complete or incomplete. The latter are characteristic of oral speech: they omit some member. Thus, it is impossible to build a logical chain without neighboring sentences. For example: "Are you reading a book?" - “No, a magazine.” The answer to the question posed is an incomplete sentence.
- A simple sentence can be complicated. This is also one of its characteristics. Complicating elements are isolated and secondary members, both common and not, as well as homogeneous constructions, introductory words, and addresses.
Simple and complex sentences
Russian syntax is very diverse. The basic syntactic units are simple and Let's figure out what the difference between them is.
If a syntactic unit has one grammatical basis, then it will be a simple sentence. The wind is very noisy today. The characteristics of such a proposal will follow the plan presented above.
There are cases when a syntactic unit consists of several simple ones. Then it will be a complex proposal.
The most difficult thing is to distinguish a simple sentence with homogeneous predicates from a complex one. Here you need to look carefully at the subject. If it is one object that performs different actions, then the sentence will be simple. Let's look at examples:
"They walked the streets of the city and enjoyed their newfound freedom." “They walked the streets of the city, and their newfound freedom gave them strength.” The first sentence is simple. There is only one predicative basis, complicated by homogeneous predicates: they were walking, enjoying. The second sentence will be difficult, because there are two grammatical bases: they walked, they gave freedom.
Types of connections in complex sentences
As written above, the basic units of syntax are sentences. If we talk about complex structures, their most important characteristic will be the type of connection between the parts. Syntax also deals with these phenomena. The basic units of syntax, complex sentences, can include parts connected by subordinating and coordinating connections. Depending on this, there is a gradation into complex and complex sentences.
Let's look at each type in more detail. The components of complex sentences are equal. This equality gives them a special, creative connection. It is expressed in the use of coordinating conjunctions in the construction of sentences. Thus, a question from one simple sentence to another is impossible.
Example: “I want to get everything back, but something always gets in my way.” This sentence is complex, the parts are connected by the adversative conjunction but.
Also, intonation plays an important role in the formation of a complex sentence: at the end of each simple sentence it goes down - this characterizes logical completeness.
Complex syntactic whole
What other elements does Russian syntax include? The basic units of syntax are also complex sentences. They consist of elements where one depends on the other. That is, between the simple parts of such a sentence, you can always pose the question: “The clearing (what?) that we came to was hidden from prying eyes.”
This connection is realized through subordinating conjunctions and intonation, descending to the end of each simple sentence.
We should not forget that there is a non-union connection. It implies the absence of formal elements between parts, only intonation completeness: The river was noisy and seething; the ships sailing along it feared for their safety.
We have looked at what Russian syntax includes. The basic syntactic units, the sentence and the phrase, form other structures called the complex syntactic whole. And it, in turn, already forms the text. Within it, just like in any other element of syntax, there are connections, both grammatical and semantic, and even formal (for example, conjunctions with which the subsequent sentence begins).
What is a complex syntactic whole? This is a group of sentences, simple and complex, logically interconnected by one main idea. In other words, the syntactic whole is a micro-theme that contains an intermediate meaning. As a rule, it is limited to paragraph division.
There are often cases when the text is a syntactic whole. As a rule, these are short stories with one short plot line.
The problem of the sentence and its definition in grammar
The sentence, along with the word, is one of the two basic units of language. The study of a sentence and its categories is concerned with syntax, in which the patterns of combinations of words and the construction of sentences, the patterns of inclusion of sentences in a higher-level unit are studied. The sentence as the basic unit of syntax is a communicative unit, i.e. aimed at communication in a certain specific situation. Therefore, all the problems that reflect the patterns of speech construction are associated with the sentence. There are different approaches to studying a sentence: 1 – structural, 2 – logical, 3 – semantic. They are determined by which of the three factors reflected in the sentence is taken as a basis: linguistic form, form of thought or objective reality. One of the most difficult problems in syntax to date remains the definition of a sentence as a basic syntactic unit. Currently, it is customary to highlight the main features of a sentence as a syntactic unit. These features include: 1 - the communicative function of the sentence, 2 - its predicativeness, 3 - its modal characteristics, 4 - the relative completeness of its content and 5 - its grammatical and intonation structure. In addition to the five characteristics mentioned above, V.G. Admoni identifies seven main aspects of the proposal, which in general must be taken into account when characterizing it.
NOMINATIVE AND COMMUNICATIVE ASPECTS OF THE SENTENCE
The complexity of the problems associated with the sentence as the main syntactic unit of language is due to the fact that the sentence is a multifaceted formation that reflects three fundamental elements: linguistic structure, objective reality and the person speaking, with his thoughts and feelings, emotions and relationships. Already at the beginning of the 20th century, grammarians outlined the problem of interaction and relationship between the nominative and communicative aspects of a sentence, which revealed its severity especially in the light of the issue of the relationship between language and speech. One of the first to propose distinguishing between constant and variable elements in a sentence was the famous French linguist C. Bally, who introduced the concepts of dictum and mode.
The problem of modeling in syntax arose in the mid-20th century and was largely determined by purely applied needs. Numerous works have appeared in linguistics in which these problems are associated with the identification of sentence patterns. The main features of the proposal model were formulated. At the same time, a number of works noted that the traditional theory of sentence members actually acted as the first attempt at modeling. An important role in the modeling process was played by the theory of verb valence, which was the basis of the German sentence model. To date, many modeling issues remain controversial. A major contribution to the development of this issue was made by O.I. Moskalskaya, who was the first to propose a definition of a semantic model and outlined ways to resolve many controversial issues in this area of linguistics.
One of the important questions of theoretical grammar has always been the question of classification of sentences. Already in traditional grammar we find a variety of approaches to the classification of a simple sentence, which were based on different criteria. Thus, according to the purpose of the statement, traditional grammar distinguishes declarative, interrogative and incentive sentences. According to the composition of the main and minor members, all proposals can be divided into two-part and one-part, which in turn are not a homogeneous group. Based on the presence of sentence members, unextended and widespread sentences are distinguished. By the type of predicate, sentences with a simple verb, complex verb, and nominal predicate are distinguished; by the type of subject - personal, impersonal sentences. Some authors identify vaguely personal sentences as a special group.
The concept of predicativity is basic for all theoretical grammar. This is one of the most important syntactic categories, which, together with the categories of time and modality, forms a sentence as an actualized unit of speech - an utterance. Various points of view have been expressed on the issue of predicativity in linguistics throughout its development; in the works of leading domestic and foreign linguists we find different interpretations of this concept. One of the most difficult issues in this area is the question of the relationship between such close concepts as predicativity and predication. Most authors consider predicativity to be a grammatical expression of predication, which, in turn, establishes a connection between the subject and attribute of a given sentence with a specific situation. The ways of expressing predicativity in each language differ in their originality and specificity. Thus, in German, the linguistic expression of predicativity is the categories of person, tense and modality. An important issue is the difference between predicative relations and other types of syntactic relations in a sentence. In addition to the central concept of predicativity, in theoretical grammar there are also the concepts of polypredicativity, semi-predicativity and hidden predicativity, which also reveal specificity in each specific language.
The order of words in a particular language is directly determined by the presence or absence of inflectional elements in a given language, and therefore is directly related to the type of language. There are the following forms of word order: 1) contact - distant; 2) prepositive – postpositive; 3) fixed – non-fixed; 4) original (normal) – changed (shifted). In each language, the order of words developed throughout its entire historical development, reflected the main features of this language, and changed depending on changes in the morphological system. The peculiarities of the word order of a German sentence are associated primarily with such a phenomenon of German syntax as the frame construction.
SENTENCE MODALITY, ITS TYPES AND WAYS OF EXPRESSION
Modality is one of the most important features of a sentence. Questions related to modality, like questions related to predicativity, have always been the focus of attention of grammatical theorists. Points of view on modality as a syntactic category in the works of domestic and foreign linguists differ significantly. Academician V.V. Vinogradov made a great contribution to the development of this issue. In accordance with his concept, three aspects of the modality of a simple sentence are distinguished, among which one stands out - obligatory for the formation of a sentence, the other two are optional, i.e. may or may not be present in the sentence. Like no other syntactic category, modality reflects not only the specifics of the language system, but is also directly related to the sociocultural characteristics of the society that speaks a given language. An important function in the formation of this syntactic category is performed by modal verbs, the role of which in expressing varieties of modality in the modern German language is extremely significant. This is due, not least of all, to the distinction in the German language system between the primary and secondary meanings of modal verbs, which leaves an imprint on their relationship to the implementation of one of the types of modality.
COMMUNICATIVE MEMBER OF A SENTENCE
Problems of communication have become especially relevant in linguistics, and in particular in theoretical grammar, with the development of the functional approach to the study of linguistic phenomena. The result of numerous studies in this area was the theory of communicative (actual) division of the sentence, which received full coverage in the works of domestic and foreign Germanists. In German grammar, the origins of this theory go back to the works of G. Paul, who was one of the first German grammarians to draw attention to the role of the listener in the communication process. His ideas were further developed in the works of K. Boost and E. Drach, which ultimately led to the creation of the theory of communicative division of a sentence. These authors consider the German sentence as a dissected field, emphasizing the role of the first place in the German sentence. The concepts of “topic” and “rheme” of a sentence introduced in the theory of communicative division of sentences can be considered as fundamental for all further development of the theory of communication. An important issue in this topic is the question of linguistic means of expressing the thematic and rhematic division of a sentence, which in each language has its own distinct specifics.
DIFFICULT SENTENCE
Complex sentence and its classifications
A complex sentence is a polypredicative structure, i.e. it consists of at least two (or more) predicative relations. Traditionally, two types of complex sentences are distinguished: 1) complex sentence (parataxis) and 2) complex sentence (hypotaxis). In relation to a complex sentence, the problem arises of distinguishing it from a sequential series of simple sentences. At the same time, autosemanty and synsemancy of the components of such a complex whole are important. The theory of autosemantics and synsemantics was most fully developed by E.V. Gulyga, who presented a complete system of these types of complex sentences. Modern theoretical grammar of the German language offers various classifications of semantic connections within parataxis: 1) connective; 2) adversative; 3) dividing; 4) causal; 5) investigative; 6) explanatory, etc. The opinions of linguists on the number and nature of semantic connections between elementary sentences of parataxis differ significantly.
Complex sentence in traditional and
modern grammar
A complex sentence (hypotaxis) is one of those types of complex sentences that remains the focus of attention of grammarians to this day. Traditional grammar offered various types of classification of subordinate clauses, such as: a) according to the place of the subordinate clause in the hypotaxis; b) by type of connection with the main sentence; c) according to the degree of dependence on the main sentence; 4) according to the function that the subordinate clause performs as part of hypotaxis. The greatest interest and the greatest divergence in points of view is the last classification, according to which theoretical grammar distinguished subordinate clauses, predicative clauses, additional, attributive and various types of adverbial clauses (clauses, tenses, purposes, reasons, etc.). In the middle of the 20th century, repeated attempts were made to revise this classification, however, basically the results of new theoretical searches were reduced to the same basic semantic-syntactic types.
Text as a unit of syntax is a relatively new object of study for grammar. The novelty for the theoretical grammar of the text as a subject of research put on the agenda the problem of determining the place of the text in the system of syntactic units. As a result, text linguistics emerged as a specific branch of grammar, thanks to which many traditional problems received new coverage. One of the most controversial issues during the formation of text linguistics was the issue associated with different approaches to the definition of the term “text”. This issue remains controversial to this day. Numerous works are devoted to the study of text-forming elements of language, among which anaphoric and cataphoric elements stand out. Much attention is paid to such an issue as text composition. Intermediate forms between sentences and the whole text are identified, including such super-phrase units as paragraph, paragraph, chapter, etc.
Lexicology
2 main functions of the language:
Communicative;
Cognitive;
A sentence is the most complex multidimensional unit. Occupies a central position in the syntax.
For representatives of logicogrammat. The direction was characterized by a logical approach to the characteristics of the proposal and its members. The objects that we judge are called subjects. What we think or judge about an object is called the predicate. A judgment expressed in words is a sentence. (F.I. Buslaev).
For representatives of the psycho-grammatical direction, P. is a word or such use of combinations of words that is accompanied by a special movement of thought.
Characteristic features of the proposal:
Finished intonation;
Predicability;
A SENTENCE is an integral unit of speech, grammatically designed according to the laws of a given language, which is the main means of forming, expressing and communicating thoughts. (V.V. Vinogradov). This definition expresses 3 important things. sides.
· The logical side is the main means of forming thoughts.
· Linguistic – grammatically designed according to the laws of a given language, the main means of expressing thoughts.
· Speech – a message of thought, an integral unit of speech.
P. is characterized by a set of structural and semantic features that reflect its main aspects.
STRUCTURAL FEATURES:
1. presence of page diagram.
2. a way of expressing the components of a page diagram.
SEMANTIC FEATURES:
A means of forming thoughts.2. Predicativeness.3. Means of communication.4. Division into “given” and “new”.
STRUCTURE CX OFFERS.
With gram. from the point of view, a proposal is an organizational structure, which in its composition contains post-th components that form the page diagram of the proposal. A page diagram or model of a sentence is the abstract pattern by which specific sentences and statements are constructed in speech.
Different concepts use different approaches.
1. Grammatical completeness.
2. Structural and semantic completeness.
3. Communicative completeness.
The structural composition is also assessed differently.
1. Only the components of the predicative combination are included.
2. The components necessary to form the semantic sufficiency of the sentence are included.
3. All components necessary to form the communicative completeness of the sentence are included.
In accordance with the point of view of V.V. Babaytseva, the structural composition of the proposal. Includes those components that determine the logical side of thought.
The main positions of the sentence are: Synth position sub. and tale, which correspond to the subject and predicate of thought. Therefore, the structural thought of a two-part sentence includes mean and tale. And as part of a one-part sentence it is either mean or skaz. P.ch. they form the logical structure of thought. All other emergency situations were not included in the structural diagram of the proposal. P.ch. they are the only ones who distribute warheads.
Once upon a time in the cold winter time,
I left the forest.
In this sentence, the page diagram is formed by the components “I” and “went out”, which form the logical structure of thought. S (I), P (came out) and correspond to vile and skaz, occupying the main syntactic positions of the sentence. But in some cases, the page diagram may also include VChP if they contain an indirect characteristic of the subject. 1. ( The house is being built by workers.).
2. Without sentence ( I'm upset.).
Important to others. gram.sign of sentence – PREDICATIVITY.
Thanks to predicativity, a sentence differs from non-communal synt units (s/s and syntaxems).
In modern syntax, the most common is the definition of predicativity, forms. V.V. Vinogradov. According to his point of view, predicativity is the relation of the content of a sentence to reality. Makes it the main means of forming and expressing thoughts.
Predicativity is an abstract gram. a category that is specified in the two-part synonymous categories of modality and time. These categories specify the general meaning of predicativity in one specific aspect. The syntactic category of modality expresses the relation of content. sentence to reality in terms of its reality and unreality. The content of a sentence can be thought of as real or unreal, i.e. possible, desirable. The result of this is the opposition of two modal meanings.
A modality expressing the relation of the content of a sentence to reality in terms of real or unreal is called object.modality. A sentence can be expressed in subjective modality, expressing the speaker’s attitude to the content of the sentence, which is layered on objective modality. It will be conveyed using modal words (of course, probably, etc.). It should be remembered that objective modality is obligatory, and subjective only introduces additional shades of the synthetic category of time, expresses the relationship of the content of the sentence to reality from the point of view of the moment of speech. The content of a sentence can be thought of as a fact of the past. Predicativity in a sentence has special linguistic means of expression, namely forms of mood, tense, particle and intonation.
From a logical point of view the sentence serves as a means of forming thoughts. It is two-membered in its structure. Two-part sentences express a typical logical proposition in which a subject and a predicate receive verbal expression. In one-component sentences, only one component of thought, only the predicate, receives verbal expression. And the subject remains not verbally expressed. It is presented in the form of a visual-sensory image. Therefore, in one-component sentences there is always one emergency. In indivisible sentences there is generally no logical division into subject and predicate, which results in synthetic indivisibility in the state of emergency. They express a special implicit (hidden, verbal) judgment.
From a speech point of view a sentence is characterized by the presence of a communicative function. A structural diagram, and even a synthetic construction, is not a communicative unit. The message function is one of the most important features in a sentence.
Occupies a special place intonation. Any sentence in speech is intonationally designed. Thanks to intonation, not only the sentence, but also s/s, and even an individual syn-ma acquires the meaning of a self-statement.
2 Syntax is the highest level of the language system, at which all the resources of the language are used. In syntax as a section of grammar, there are 2 parts: the doctrine of s/s, the doctrine of P. Students receive their first information on synth in elementary school: types of P. by purpose of statements, by intonation, members of P. In 5th grade . propaedeutic (preparatory) course of synth is being studied. This short course was introduced to create an elementary basis for the development of speech and for understanding morphology: s/s, types of P. according to the purpose of the statement, emergency situations, homogeneity of members, PP and SP, synthetic analysis is provided. Objectives for teaching syntax:1. on the basis of conscious assimilation of syntactic concepts, enrich the grammatical structure of speech, taking into account the norms of the Russian literary language; 2. develop speech skills; 3. ability to form all types of competencies. Tasks for O. syntax:
1.introduce students to syntactic unities and, on this basis, ensure the assimilation of school knowledge about the structure of the Russian language. 2. improve speech on the basis of mastering synth connections; 3. create a basis for successfully mastering the rules of punctuation. Studying s/s in 5th grade. prepares students for the study of morphology on a syntactic basis (change of case forms, gender IP and ICH considered t/o in s/s). S/s, formed by secondary members, spread the grammatical basis of P. The main difference between m/u P. and s/s is that P. is a commun. unified language that . serves as “a means of forming, expressing and communicating thoughts.” The s/s of the commune did not show up. They differ both in structure and in their function in the process of utterance. In the page, P.s/s is an “element of a statement,” and outside P. it is “a complex name for various types.” One of the essential signs of P. is intonation, which manifests itself in raising and lowering the tone, speeding up and slowing down speech. A systematic synth course is studied in grades 8-9. This is the main course S. In grades 8-9, larger units of speech are studied: PP and Sp, complex synthetic whole. The 9th grade program material includes the study of PP pages, the development of skills to compose PP and use them in coherent speech. Much attention is paid to synthetic designs that have not been studied previously: single-stage and two-stage PP; PP, complicated special emergency, input.words and P., address. The 9th grade program course includes the study of the systems of joint ventures: union and non-union enterprises, SSP, SPP, main groups of SPP, joint ventures with different types of communications. At the beginning of 9th grade. it is necessary to carefully repeat the key questions of the 8th grade program: s/s (types of s/s, methods of subordination of words, semantic relations of m/y components), two-sea and one-ses P.
.3 “The Thunderstorm” was approved by dramatic censorship for performance in 1859, and published in January 1860. At the request of Ostrovsky’s friends, censor I. Nordstrem, who favored the playwright, presented “The Thunderstorm” as a play not socially accusatory, satirical, but a love affair, without mentioning a word in his report about Dikiy, Kuligin, or Feklush.
In the most general formulation, the main theme of “The Thunderstorm” can be defined as a clash between new trends and old traditions, between the desire of people to freely express their human rights, spiritual needs and the social and family order that prevailed in pre-reform Russia.
The theme of “Thunderstorm” is organically connected with its conflicts. The conflict that forms the basis of the plot of the drama is a conflict between old social and everyday principles and new, progressive aspirations for equality and freedom of the human person. The main conflict - Katerina and Boris with their environment - unites everything else. He is joined by the conflicts of Kuligin with Dikiy and Kabanikha, Tikhon with Kabanikha. The play is a true reflection of social relations, interests and struggles of its time.
The general theme of “Thunderstorms” entails a number of specific themes:
1. through the stories of Kuligin, the remarks of Kudryash and Boris, the actions of Dikiy and Kabanikha, Ostrovsky gives a detailed description of the financial and legal situation of all layers of society of that era;
3. By depicting the life, interests, hobbies and experiences of the characters in “The Thunderstorm”, the author reproduces from different sides the social and family life of the merchants and philistines. This illuminates the problem of social and family relations. The position of women in the bourgeois-merchant environment is clearly depicted;
4. The life background and problems of that time are depicted. The characters talk about social phenomena that were important for their time: the emergence of the first railways, cholera epidemics, the development of commercial and industrial activities in Moscow, etc.
5. Along with socio-economic and living conditions, the author skillfully depicted the surrounding nature and the different attitudes of the characters towards it.
So, in the words of Goncharov, in “The Thunderstorm” “a broad picture of national life and morals has settled down.” Pre-reform Russia is represented in it by its socio-economic, cultural, moral, and family and everyday appearance.
4 Drama (ancient Greek - action). D., like epic, is a visual genre of literature. In dram The work depicts a personality in action and conflict.
When analyzing DP, conflict will be the main category. K. organizes the plot of dramas. Works. In dram The narrative and descriptive part of the work has been weakened. Req. Work on activating creative imagination. K. identifies a group of characters. Pay special attention. characteristics of the poster. Speaking names.
Ways of analysis: 1. study of drama as literature. Works. Particular attention is paid to the textual analysis of the play.2. “stage” - from watching a performance to staging it in the classroom.3. "synthetic" presupposition studied HT with elements of staging and viewing of the performance.
Basic techniques for studying a dramatic work:
1. comparison of the text of the play and its scenes. Howl.
2. role-playing
3. technique of mis-enactment
4. Directing technique
When analyzing the DP, we studied. ideological and thematic content. The character of the heroes is created exclusively by speeches. When analyzing DP, a large ideological one, for example. carries subtext. To reveal it is to reveal the essence of the play, the relationship between reasons and actions.
Tragedy (acute, insoluble conflicts are recreated. Strong personalities act; one of the parties dies).
Comedy (the private life of people with the purpose of ridiculing the backward, outdated).
Drama (the individual is portrayed in dramatic situations, relationships with society and difficult experiences).
Ticket number 22. SBP– SPs whose PCs are connected t/o using intonation, without basic formal means of communication. In addition to the main means of communication (inton.) in design and communication and semantic rel. m/u inverter also participates and additional. average contact:
1) common component for all inverters
2) syntactic paral-zm
3) correspondence of forms of G-talk.
4) string incompleteness
5) anaf places words
6) fixed order of IF traces
7) typified lexical elements
The place of SBP in the general syntactic system was determined relatively recently - in the middle of the 20th century. The view prevailed, according to which complex non-union constructions were considered as P. with omitted conjunctions. In accordance with this approach, SBP were divided into non-union SSP and non-union SPP. In the 50s of the 20th century, in the works of Prof. Pospelov, SBP began to be considered as a special type of joint venture. This is due to a number of factors:
1) the absence of soch and subordinate conjunctions
2) the impossibility of accurately distinguishing op. and subordinate intonations
3) the presence of constructs with unclear meaning
4) the degree of semantic unity: maximum in SPP, average in SPP, minimum in SBP.
Depending on the structural features and civil protection, SBPs are divided into open and closed structures; on P. homogeneity and heterogeneity of composition.
I. SBP homogeneous composition
a) P.with the transfer value
b) P. with comparison value
Unconjunct complex sentences with the meaning of enumeration. These non-union complex sentences are close to homogeneous complex sentences with a conjunction And, which is confirmed by the possibility of inserting between parts of such non-union proposals of the union And, and by the use in one sentence of predicative parts connected without a union and with the help of a conjunction And. Wed, for example: Bands play in the park, various attractions operate, and a boat station is open And Bands play in the park and various attractions operate. And boat station is open.
Sentences of this type can be either two-term or... polynomial (see examples below); the first part often contains a common member. For example : In the fog that shrouded the road , wheels creaked, people talked and called to each other(Perventsev).
According to their meanings, sentences of this type are divided into two groups: 1) with the meaning of the simultaneity of the events listed and 2) with the meaning of their sequence. For example: Cannonballs are rolling, bullets are whistling, cold bayonets are hanging(Pushkin); The horses started moving, the bell rang, the wagon flew away(Pushkin).
Unconjunct complex sentences with the meaning of comparison. In these sentences, the message contained in the first part is compared with the message contained in the second (or contrasted with it). Sentences of this type are characterized by the presence in the predicative parts of words that are opposite or contradictory to each other in meaning. This type is characterized by a two-member structure. Wed, for example: On the right was a swampy impenetrable forest, on the left- reddish pillars of rocks(Sedov); He is a guest- I'm the owner(Bagritsky).