At the Paris Air Show in Le Bourget these days, Chinese representatives invited Roscosmos to participate in the Chinese space station project. As the head of the state corporation, Igor Komarov, said, there is no agreement or plans: the stations have different orbital inclinations. So far, Russia has no plans to join the project. The plan of the station in question is relatively finalized. The Chinese manned space program itself is young - the first Chinese taikunaut appeared less than a decade and a half ago.
However, after the closure of the ISS project in the 20s of this century, China may be one - if not the only - of the countries with a functioning station in Earth orbit.
ISS Closed Club
Both projects stretch back almost half a century into the past of the Cold War. Plans for an international multi-module space station called Freedom were announced in 1984 under Reagan. The 40th president of the United States inherited from his predecessor one of the most expensive orbital carriers in the history of the Space Shuttle and not a single permanent orbital station, and the new leadership in the United States always likes to appoint new areas of astronautics.
Fortunately, Mir-2 did not remain just a fantasy of the Orbiter simulator modellers: through the PMA-1 adapter, the Zarya modules and the Mir-2 base unit, which became the Zvezda, were connected to the American segment.
Over eighteen years in orbit, the ISS has acquired its current scope. The station, which has become one of the most expensive structures of humanity, has been visited by citizens of several dozen countries, many countries are conducting experiments on it - you just need to be a partner.
But only the United States, its allies and Russia, which has joined, have membership in the project. Does not participate in the ISS along with others, for example, India or South Korea. Other countries have real barriers to participation. Most likely, not a single Chinese citizen will ever be on board the station. The probable reason for this is geopolitical motives and political hostility. For example, all researchers at the American space agency NASA are prohibited from working with Chinese citizens associated with Chinese government or private organizations.
Fast start
Therefore, China is walking alone in space. It seems that it has always been this way: the Soviet-Chinese split prevented us from borrowing the experience of early Soviet launches. All that China managed to do before him was to adopt experience in creating the R-2 rocket, an improved copy of the German V-2. In the seventies and eighties of the last century, as part of the Intercosmos program, the USSR launched citizens of friendly states into orbit. And there was not a single Chinese here. Technological exchanges between China and Russia resumed only in the 2000s.
The first tykunaut appeared in 2003. The Shenzhou-5 apparatus was launched into orbit by Yang Liwei. Although much later, China became the third nation in the world after the USSR and the USA to create the possibility of putting a person into Earth orbit. The answer to the question of how independently this work was carried out is a matter for those who like to argue. But the Shenzhou ship, both externally and internally, resembles the Soviet Soyuz, and one of the world-famous Russian scientists received 11 years in prison on charges of transferring space technology to China.
In 2008, the People's Republic of China completed a spacewalk on Shenzhou-7. Taikunaut Zhai Zhigang was protected from space by the “Feitian” spacesuit, created in the likeness of the Russian “Orlan-M”.
China launched its first space station, Tiangong-1, into orbit in 2011. Externally, the station resembles the early devices of the Salyut series: it consisted of one module and did not provide for expansion or docking of more than one ship. The station arrived at the specified orbit. A month later, the unmanned spacecraft Shenzhou-8 was automatically docked. The ship undocked and docked again to test the rendezvous and docking systems. In the summer of 2012, Tiangong-1 was visited by two crews of taikunauts.
"Tiangong-1"
In world history, human launch was 1961, spacewalk was 1965, automatic docking was 1967, docking with a space station was 1971. China was rapidly repeating the space records that the USA and USSR set generations ago, it was increasing its experience and technology, even if resorting to copying.
Visits to the first Chinese space station did not last long, only a few days. As you can see, this was not quite a full-fledged station - it was created to test rendezvous and docking technologies. Two crews - and they left her.
At the moment, Tiangong-1 is gradually leaving orbit; the remains of the device will fall to Earth somewhere at the end of 2017. This will probably be an uncontrolled derailment, since communication with the station has been lost.
Basic module "Tianhe"
In the design of the 22-ton Tianhe, there are noticeable similarities with the base module of the Mir and Zvezda of the ISS, which originated from the Salyut. In the front part of the module there is a docking unit; a robotic manipulator, gyrodynes and solar panels are located outside. Inside the module there is an area for storing supplies and scientific experiments. The crew of the module is 3 people.
Scientific module "Wentian"
The two scientific modules will have approximately the same size as Tianhe and approximately the same mass - 20 tons. They want to install another smaller robotic manipulator on the Wentian for conducting experiments in outer space and a small airlock chamber.
Scientific module "Mengtian"
The Mengtian has a gateway for spacewalks and an additional docking port.
Due to the paucity of available information, the Bisbos.com illustration takes liberties with assumptions and conjectures, but gives a good idea of the future station. Here, in addition to the station modules, there is a Tianzhou model cargo ship (in the upper left corner) and a Shenzhou series crew ship (in the lower right corner).
Perhaps these plans could be combined with the Chinese project. But on June 19, the head of Roscosmos, Igor Komarov, said that there are no such plans yet:
They offered, we exchange offers to participate in projects, but they have a different inclination, a different orbit and plans that are somewhat different from ours. While there are agreements and plans for the future, there is nothing concrete.
He recalled that the Chinese space station project is a national project, although other countries can participate in it. On the other hand, Xu Yansong, director of the international cooperation department of the Chinese National Space Administration (CNSA), told RIA Novosti representatives that the project could become international.
The cited problem in the station's location is inclination, one of the most important characteristics of the orbit of any satellite. This is the angle between the orbital plane and the reference plane - in this case, the Earth's equator.
The orbital inclination of the International Space Station is 51.6°, which is interesting in itself. The fact is that when launching an artificial Earth satellite, it is most economical to increase the speed given by the rotation of the planet, that is, launch with an inclination equal to the latitude. The latitude of Cape Canaveral in the USA, where the shuttle launch pads are located, is 28°, Baikonur - 46°. Therefore, when choosing a configuration, a concession was made to one of the parties. In addition, from the resulting station you can photograph much more land. They are usually launched from Baikonur with an inclination of 51.6° so that the spent stages and the rocket itself do not fall onto the territory of Mongolia or China in the event of an accident.
The Russian modules separated from the ISS will maintain an orbital inclination of 51.6°, unless, of course, it is changed, which is very energy-intensive - it will require maneuvers in orbit, that is, fuel and engines, probably from Progress. Statements about the Russian National Space Station also hinted at operating at an inclination of 64.8° - this is necessary for launching devices to it from the Plesetsk cosmodrome.
In any case, all this is different from the announced Chinese plans. According to the presentations, the Chinese space station will be launched at an inclination of 42°-43° with an orbital altitude of 340-450 kilometers above sea level. Such an inclination discrepancy excludes the creation of a joint Russian-Chinese space station similar to the ISS.
Current life expectancy estimates that the ISS will last until at least 2024. The station has no successors. NASA has no plans to create its own space station in low Earth orbit and is concentrating its efforts on a flight to Mars. There are only plans to create the Deep Space Gateway module as a transfer point between the Earth and the Moon on the way to deep space, to the red planet. Probably, for a new round of international cooperation, the geopolitical climate of the early nineties and the present day differs significantly.
When creating the ISS, the Russian side was invited not only for the sake of technology, but also for experience. At that time, in the United States, orbital experiments were carried out on short-term flights of the reusable Spacelab laboratory, and experience at long-term orbital stations was limited to three Skylab crews in the seventies. The USSR and its specialists had unique knowledge of the continuous operation of stations of this type, the life of the crew on board and the conduct of scientific experiments. Perhaps the recent proposal of the PRC to participate in the Chinese space station project is precisely an attempt to adopt this experience.
The Russian orbital station, which will replace the ISS, will be eternal, according to the annual report. talks about the largest near-Earth laboratory currently operating, the prospects of the Russian station and the space plans of other countries, primarily the USA and China.
The ISS is planned to operate until at least 2024. After this, the work of the laboratory will be completed or extended for another four years. The ISS partners, primarily the US, Russia, and Japan, have not yet made a decision. Meanwhile, the future of the ISS is directly related to the development of new space technologies.
Deadline
After the separation of the Russian segment from the ISS, the Russian orbital laboratory will consist of three modules: a multi-purpose laboratory with improved operational characteristics “Nauka”, a hub “Prichal” and a scientific and energy module. Later, the national station is planned to be equipped with three more modules - transformable, gateway and energy.
The main goal of the laboratory is to become a platform for testing technologies for deep space exploration. As reported in the annual report of the RSC, “continuous operation of the station is expected by replacing modules that have exhausted their service life.” Although the first three modules should be part of the ISS, none of them have yet been launched to the station. The reasons are still the same. Consider, for example, the situation with the Science module.
The Deputy Prime Minister agreed with him. “The issue of the future of manned programs must be discussed, and not go with the flow, being responsible only for the process, but not for the result. This expert’s opinion is worth listening to and not habitually dismissing. We expect an objective analysis of the situation and specific proposals from Roscosmos. Otherwise, we will lag behind not only the United States, but also other space powers. All that will remain is nostalgia for the old days,”
We have all seen many times a wide variety of space stations and space cities in science fiction films. But they are all unrealistic. Brian Versteeg of Spacehabs uses real-world scientific principles to develop space station concepts that could one day actually be built. One such settlement station is Kalpana One. More precisely, an improved, modern version of a concept developed in the 1970s. Kalpana One is a cylindrical structure with a radius of 250 meters and a length of 325 meters. Approximate population level: 3,000 citizens.
Let's take a closer look at this city...
“The Kalpana One Space Settlement is the result of research into the very real limits of the structure and form of huge space settlements. Starting from the late 60s and up to the 80s of the last century, humanity absorbed the idea of the shapes and sizes of possible space stations of the future, which were shown all this time in science fiction films and in various pictures. However, many of these forms had some design flaws that, in reality, would result in such structures suffering from insufficient stability during rotation in space. Other forms did not effectively use the ratio of structural and protective mass to create habitable areas,” says Versteeg.
“When searching for a shape that would allow the creation of a living and habitable area under overload conditions and would have the necessary protective mass, it was found that the oblong shape of the station would be the most suitable choice. Due to the sheer size and design of such a station, very little effort or adjustment would be required to avoid its oscillations.”
“With the same radius of 250 meters and a depth of 325 meters, the station will make two full revolutions around itself per minute and create the feeling that a person, being in it, will experience the feeling as if he were in conditions of earthly gravity. And this is a very important aspect, since gravity will allow us to live longer in space, because our bones and muscles will develop in the same way as they would on Earth. Since such stations in the future may become permanent habitats for people, it is very important to create conditions on them that are as close as possible to the conditions on our planet. Make it so that people can not only work on it, but also relax. And relax with delights.”
“And although the physics of hitting or throwing, say, a ball in such an environment will be very different from on Earth, the station will definitely offer a wide variety of sports (and other) activities and entertainment.”
Brian Versteeg is a concept designer and is focused on the work of future technology and space exploration. He worked with many private space companies, as well as print publications, to whom he showed concepts of what humanity would use in the future to conquer space. The Kalpana One project is one such concept.
But for example, some more old concepts:
Scientific base on the Moon. 1959 concept
The concept of a cylindrical colony in the minds of Soviet people. 1965
Image: Magazine “Technology for Youth”, 1965/10
Toroidal Colony Concept
Image: Don Davis/NASA/Ames Research Center
Developed by the NASA aerospace agency in the 1970s. As planned, the colony would have been designed to house 10,000 people. The design itself was modular and would allow the connection of new compartments. It would be possible to travel in them on a special vehicle called ANTS.
Image and presentation: Don Davis/NASA/Ames Research Center
Spheres Bernal
Image: Don Davis/NASA/Ames Research Center
Another concept was developed at NASA Ames Research Center in the 1970s. Population: 10,000. The main idea of the Bernal Sphere is spherical living compartments. The populated area is in the center of the sphere, surrounded by areas for agricultural and agricultural production. Sunlight is used as lighting for residential and agricultural areas, which is redirected into them through a solar mirror battery system. Special panels release residual heat into space. Factories and docks for spaceships are located in a special long pipe in the center of the sphere.
Image: Rick Guidys/NASA/Ames Research Center
Image: Rick Guidis/NASA/Ames Research Center
Cylindrical colony concept developed in the 1970s
Image: Rick Guidys/NASA/Ames Research Center
Intended for a population of more than one million people. The idea of the concept belongs to the American physicist Gerard K. Onil.
Image: Don Davis/NASA/Ames Research Center
Image: Don Davis/NASA/Ames Research Center
Image and presentation: Rick Guidys/NASA/Ames Research Center
1975 View from inside the colony, the concept idea of which belongs to Onil. Agricultural sectors with various types of vegetables and plants are located on terraces that are installed on each level of the colony. Light for the crop is provided by mirrors that reflect the sun's rays.
Image: NASA/Ames Research Center
Soviet space colony. 1977
Image: Magazine “Technology of Youth”, 1977/4
Huge orbital farms like this one in the picture will produce enough food for space settlers
Image: Delta, 1980/1
Mining colony on an asteroid
Image: Delta, 1980/1
Toroidal colony of the future. 1982
Space base concept. 1984
Image: Les Bosinas/NASA/Glenn Research Center
Moon base concept. 1989
Image: NASA/JSC
Concept of a multifunctional Mars base. 1991
Image: NASA/Glenn Research Center
1995 Moon
Image: Pat Rawlings/NASA
Earth's natural satellite appears to be an excellent place to test equipment and train people for missions to Mars.
The special gravitational conditions of the Moon will be an excellent place for sports competitions.
Image: Pat Rawlings/NASA
1997 Ice mining in the dark craters of the lunar south pole opens up opportunities for human expansion within the solar system. In this unique location, people from a space colony powered by solar energy will produce fuel to send spacecraft from the lunar surface. Water from potential ice sources, or regolith, will flow within the dome cells and prevent exposure to harmful radiation.
Image: Pat Rawlings/NASA
Dragon (SpaceX) is a private transport spacecraft of the SpaceX company, developed by order of NASA, designed to deliver and return payload and, in the future, people to the International Space Station.
The Dragon ship is being developed in several modifications: cargo, manned "Dragon v2" (crew of up to 7 people), cargo-passenger (crew of 4 people + 2.5 tons of cargo), the maximum weight of the ship with cargo on the ISS can be 7.5 tons, also a modification for autonomous flights (DragonLab).
On May 29, 2014, the company presented a manned version of the Dragon reusable vehicle, which will allow the crew not only to get to the ISS, but to return to Earth with full control of the landing procedure. The Dragon capsule will be able to accommodate seven astronauts at a time. Unlike the cargo version, it is capable of docking with the ISS independently, without the use of the station’s manipulator. Main astronauts and control panel. It is also stated that the descent capsule will be reusable, the first unmanned flight is scheduled for 2015, and a manned flight for 2016.
In July 2011, it became known that the Ames Research Center was developing the concept of the Red Dragon Mars exploration mission using the Falcon Heavy carrier and the SpaceX Dragon capsule.
SPACESHIPTWO
SpaceShipTwo (SS2) is a private, manned, reusable suborbital spacecraft. It is part of the Tier One program founded by Paul Allen and is based on the successful SpaceShipOne project.
The device will be delivered to the launch altitude (about 20 km) using the White Knight Two (WK2) aircraft. The maximum flight altitude is 135-140 km (according to BBC information) or 160-320 km (according to an interview with Burt Rutan), which will increase the weightlessness time to 6 minutes. Maximum overload - 6 g. All flights are scheduled to begin and end at the same airport in Mojave, California. The initial expected ticket price is $200 thousand. The first test flight took place in March 2010. About a hundred test flights are planned. Commencement of commercial operation - no earlier than 2015.
DREAM CHASER
Dream Chaser is a reusable manned spacecraft being developed by the American company SpaceDev. The ship is designed to deliver cargo and crews of up to 7 people to low Earth orbit.
In January 2014, it was announced that the first uncrewed orbital test flight was scheduled to launch on November 1, 2016; If the test program is successfully completed, the first manned flight will take place in 2017.
Dream Chaser will be launched into space on top of an Atlas 5 rocket. Landing - horizontal, airplane. It is assumed that it will be possible not only to plan, like the Space Shuttle, but also to fly independently and land on any runway of at least 2.5 km in length. The body of the device is made of composite materials, with ceramic thermal protection, the crew is from two to seven people.
NEW SHEPARD
Designed for use in space tourism, New Shepard is a reusable launch vehicle from Blue Origin that will have vertical take-off and landing capabilities. Blue Origin is a company owned by Amazon.com founder and businessman Jeff Bezos. New Shepard will begin traveling to suborbital altitudes, and will also conduct experiments in space, then perform a vertical landing to power and recover and reuse the vehicle.
The New Shepard reusable spacecraft is capable of vertical takeoff and landing.
In accordance with the developers' idea, New Shepard can be used to deliver people and equipment into space to a suborbital altitude of about 100 km above sea level. At this altitude it is possible to conduct experiments in microgravity conditions. It is noted that the spacecraft can accommodate up to three crew members on board. After the vertical start of the device, the engine compartment (occupies about 3/4 of the entire device, located in the lower part) operates for 2.5 minutes. Next, the engine compartment is separated from the cockpit and makes an independent vertical landing. The cabin with the crew, after completing all the planned work in orbit, is capable of landing on its own; it is planned to use parachutes for its descent and landing.
ORION, MPCV
Orion, MPCV, is a US multi-mission, partially reusable manned spacecraft developed since the mid-2000s as part of the Constellation program. The goal of this program was to return Americans to the Moon, and the Orion ship was intended to deliver people and cargo to the International Space Station and for flights to the Moon, as well as to Mars in the future.
Initially, the test flight of the spacecraft was scheduled for 2013, the first manned flight with a crew of two astronauts was planned for 2014, and the start of flights to the Moon for 2019-2020. At the end of 2011, it was assumed that the first flight without astronauts would take place in 2014, and the first manned flight in 2017. In December 2013, plans were announced for the first unmanned test flight (EFT-1) using the Delta 4 launch vehicle in September 2014, The first unmanned launch using the SLS launch vehicle is planned for 2017. In March 2014, the first unmanned test flight (EFT-1) using the Delta 4 carrier was postponed to December 2014.
The Orion spacecraft will carry both cargo and astronauts into space. When flying to the ISS, the Orion crew can include up to 6 astronauts. It was planned to send four astronauts on the expedition to the Moon. The Orion ship was supposed to ensure the delivery of people to the Moon for a long stay on it in order to subsequently prepare a manned flight to Mars.
LYNX MARK
The main purpose of the Lynx Mark I will be tourism. Taking off horizontally from a conventional airfield, the machine will gain altitude up to 42 kilometers, maintaining a speed twice the speed of sound. Then the engines will turn off, but the Lynx Mark I will rise by inertia another 19 kilometers. At the very peak of the altitude range available to the ship, it will experience approximately four minutes of weightlessness, after which it will re-enter the atmosphere and, gliding, land on the airfield. The maximum overload during descent will be 4 g. The entire flight will take no more than half an hour. At the same time, the rocket plane is designed for intensive work: four flights per day with maintenance after every 40 flights (10 days of flights).
From the point of view of space tourism, the device has a number of undeniable advantages, the main one of which is its not too high speed both on ascent and descent. This allows the thermal protection shell to be reliable, but not disposable, like the SpaceX Dragon.
Considering that the cost of a two-seat orbital plane, according to the company’s promises, will not exceed $10 million, with four flights a day the device will quickly pay for itself. After this, the more ambitious Lynx Mark II and III will be created, with an orbital flight altitude of 100 kilometers, capable of carrying a load of up to 650 kilograms.
CST-100
CST-100 (from the English Crew Space Transportation) is a manned transport spacecraft developed by Boeing. This is Boeing's space debut, created as part of the Commercial Manned Spacecraft Program, organized and funded by NASA.
The CST-100 head fairing will be used to increase the air flow around the capsule, and after leaving the atmosphere it will be separated. Behind the panel is a docking port for docking with the ISS and, presumably, other orbital stations. To control the device, 3 pairs of engines are designed: two on the sides for maneuvering, two main ones that create the main thrust, and two additional ones. The capsule is equipped with two windows: front and side. CST-100 consists of two modules: the instrumentation compartment and the descent module. The latter is designed to ensure the normal existence of astronauts on board the vehicle and storage of cargo, while the former includes all the necessary flight control systems and will be separated from the descent vehicle before entering the atmosphere.
The device will in the future be used to deliver cargo and crew. The CST-100 will be able to transport a team of 7 people. It is assumed that the device will deliver crew to the International Space Station and the Bigelow Aerospace Orbital Space Complex. Duration when docked with the ISS is up to 6 months.
The CST-100 is designed for relatively short trips. The "100" in the ship's name means 100 km or 62 miles (low Earth orbit).
One of the features of the CST-100 is additional orbital maneuvering capabilities: if the fuel in the system separating the capsule and the launch vehicle is not used (in the event of an unsuccessful launch), it can then be consumed in orbit.
It is planned to reuse the descent capsule up to 10 times.
The return of the capsule to Earth will be ensured by disposable thermal protection, parachutes and inflatable cushions (for the final stage of landing).
In May 2014, the first unmanned test launch of the CST-100 was announced in January 2017. The first orbital flight of a manned spacecraft with two astronauts is planned for mid-2017. The launch will use the Atlas-5 launch vehicle. Also, docking with the ISS is not excluded.
PPTS -PTK NP
Perspective Manned Transport System (PPTS) and New Generation Manned Transport Ship (PTK NP) are the temporary official names of the Russian launch vehicle and multi-purpose manned partially reusable spacecraft projects.
Under these temporary official names lie Russian projects represented by a launch vehicle and a multi-purpose manned spacecraft, which is partially reusable. It is this that in the future will have to replace the manned spacecraft represented by the Soyuz series, as well as the automatic cargo ships of the Progress program.
The creation of the PCA was determined by certain government goals and objectives. Among them is the fact that the ship will have to ensure national security, be technologically independent, allow the state to have unhindered access to outer space, fly into lunar orbit and land there.
The crew can consist of a maximum of six people, and if it is a flight to the Moon, then no more than four. The delivered cargo can reach 500 kg in weight, and the weight of the returned cargo can be the same.
The spacecraft will enter orbit using the new Amur launch vehicle.
As for the engine compartment of the descent vehicle, it is planned to use only environmentally friendly fuel components, including ethyl alcohol and gaseous oxygen. Up to 8 tons of fuel can fit inside the engine compartment.
It is expected that the territory of the landing sites will be located in the south of Russia. Landing of the descent vehicle will be carried out using three parachutes. This will also be facilitated by the soft landing jet system. Previously, developers had stuck to the idea of using a fully reactive system, which would have included backup parachutes for situations when the engines turned out to be faulty.
Humanity has been exploring outer space with manned spacecraft for more than half a century. Alas, during this time it, figuratively speaking, has not sailed far. If we compare the Universe to the ocean, we are just wandering at the edge of the surf, ankle-deep in water. One day, however, we decided to swim a little deeper (the Apollo lunar program), and since then we have lived with memories of this event as the highest achievement.
Until now, spaceships have primarily served as delivery vehicles to and from Earth. The maximum duration of autonomous flight achievable by the reusable Space Shuttle is only 30 days, and even then theoretically. But perhaps the spaceships of the future will become much more advanced and versatile?
Already the Apollo lunar expeditions have clearly shown that the requirements for future spacecraft can be strikingly different from the tasks for “space taxis”. The Apollo lunar cabin had very little in common with streamlined ships and was not designed for flight in a planetary atmosphere. Photos of American astronauts give some idea of what the spaceships of the future will look like more than clearly.
The most serious factor that hinders occasional human exploration of the Solar System, not to mention the organization of scientific bases on the planets and their satellites, is radiation. Problems arise even with lunar missions that last a week at most. And the year and a half flight to Mars, which seemed to be about to take place, is being pushed further and further away. Automated research has shown that it is deadly to humans along the entire route of interplanetary flight. So the spaceships of the future will inevitably acquire serious anti-radiation protection in combination with special medical and biological measures for the crew.
It is clear that the faster he gets to his destination, the better. But fast flight requires powerful engines. And for them, in turn, highly efficient fuel that does not take up much space. Therefore, chemical propulsion engines will give way to nuclear ones in the near future. If scientists succeed in taming antimatter, that is, converting mass into light radiation, the spaceships of the future will acquire. In this case, we will be talking about achieving relativistic speeds and interstellar expeditions.
Another serious obstacle to man’s exploration of the Universe will be the long-term provision of his life. In just one day, the human body consumes a lot of oxygen, water and food, releases solid and liquid waste, and exhales carbon dioxide. It is pointless to take a full supply of oxygen and food on board due to their enormous weight. The problem is solved by an on-board closed circuit. However, so far all experiments on this topic have not been successful. And without a closed life support system, spaceships of the future flying through space for years are unthinkable; The artists' pictures, of course, amaze the imagination, but do not reflect the real state of affairs.
So, all projects of spaceships and starships are still far from real implementation. And humanity will have to come to terms with studying the Universe by undercover astronauts and receiving information from automatic probes. But this, of course, is temporary. Astronautics does not stand still, and indirect signs show that a major breakthrough is brewing in this area of human activity. So, perhaps, the spaceships of the future will be built and make their first flights in the 21st century.