Elena MURAVENKO

Continuation. See the beginning in No. 21, 22/2006

Grammatical categories of a noun

In this issue we will turn to problems devoted to nouns: proper and common nouns, categories of animation, gender and number, and in the next issue of the section we will focus on the declension of nouns.

Proper and common nouns

The classification of all nouns into proper and common nouns usually does not cause difficulties for schoolchildren, but, perhaps, it is worth emphasizing that there is no impassable barrier between these two groups of nouns and transitions of nouns from one group to another are possible. The next two tasks are dedicated to such transitions.

1. Pairs of proper and common nouns are given.

Which pair of words are related differently than the others?

(A) Boston(city) - Boston(type of cloth);
(B) Island(city) - island(part of land surrounded by water);

(IN) Astrakhan(lake) - astrakhan(a type of sheepskin);
(G) Newfoundland(island) - Newfoundland(dog breed);

(D) Volt(physicist) – volt(unit of measurement of electrical voltage).

Solution. In pair (B) we see the transition of a common noun into a proper noun: the city is called Island because it is located on an island. In all other pairs, the opposite phenomenon can be observed: the transition of a proper name into a common noun. Answer:(B).

2. Given are pairs of nouns, each of which includes a surname and a common noun. Which pair of words are related differently than the others?

(A) Diesel(German engineer) – diesel(type of engine);
(B) Ampere(French physicist) – ampere(unit of current);
(IN) Breeches(French general) – riding breeches(trousers of a certain cut);
(G) Parsnip(Russian poet) - parsnip(root vegetable of the Umbelliferae family);
(D) Revolver(Belgian designer) – revolver(special system revolver).

Solution. In pair (D) we see the transition of a common noun into a proper name: the name of the root crop has become a surname. In all other pairs, the opposite phenomenon is observed: the transition of a proper name into a common noun. Answer:(G).

Animacy category

The category of animation is a stumbling block for many schoolchildren. Based on the results of solving problems on this topic, it is clear that many people identify the meanings of the grammatical term “animate” and the biological concept “living.” Grammar classifies as animate nouns not only living beings, but also 1) images of living beings, 2) living beings, 3) chess pieces, 4) names of playing cards, 5) mythological characters. And most importantly, this category has a grammatical expression.

3. Which of the following nouns are animate:

1) [plush] bear, 2) toy, 3) jack, 4) girl, 5) dead man?

(A) 4; (B) 4, 5; (B) 3, 4, 5; (D) 1, 2, 4, 5; (D) 1, 3, 4, 5.

Solution. The grammatical category of animacy in the Russian language appears in all nouns in the accusative plural form: for animate nouns this form coincides with the genitive case form, and for inanimate nouns it coincides with the nominative case form. Let's check these nouns for animation: I see bears, jacks, girls, dead people(vin. p.) - cf. no bears, jacks, girls, dead people(genus). These nouns are animate. Remaining noun toy inanimate: I see toys(vin. p.) - cf. toys are lying(name), but no toys(genus). Thus, answer:(D).

Genus category

Among the nouns, a group of nouns of general gender stands out. Not all schoolchildren understand well that this group does not add a fourth gender to the three known genders, but only includes nouns that, depending on the context, can be either masculine or feminine.

4. How many of the following words are combined with the word small, and with the word small: dirty, boring, crybaby, stupid, beautiful?

(A) 1; (B) 2; (AT 3; (D) 4; (D) 5.

Solution. Words dirty, boring, crybaby, stupid combined with the word small, and with the word small, those. depending on the context, they can be masculine or feminine. These are nouns of the so-called general gender. Word gorgeous feminine and can only be combined with the word small. Answer:(G).

In some cases, determining the genus is difficult. Such cases include, in particular, nouns with a soft consonant.

5. How many of the following nouns are masculine:

aerosol, parcel, potato, blizzard, corn, zero, overcoat, shrapnel?

(A) 5; (B) 4; (AT 3; (D) 2; (D) 1.

Solution. The following nouns are classified as masculine: aerosol, potato And zero, the rest - to the female. Answer:(IN).

You need to know a special rule in order to correctly determine the gender of an indeclinable noun.

6. Here are five indeclinable nouns: 1) coffee, 2) chimpanzee, 3) muffler, 4) cockatoo, 5) coat.

Which of them can be used instead of an ellipsis in a phrase black...?

(A) 2, 4; (B) 1, 3; (B) 1, 2, 5; (D) 1, 2, 4; (D) 1, 2, 3, 4.

Solution. When determining the gender of indeclinable nouns, classifying them as animate or inanimate helps. Most of the inanimate ones belong to the neuter gender (muffler, coat), the exception is the word coffee(m.r.); animate ones are usually masculine (chimpanzee, cockatoo). Answer:(G).

Number category

For most nouns, the category of number is inflectional, i.e. In these cases, schoolchildren define the sign of a number as unstable. Sometimes the relationship between singular and plural forms is non-standard. Here is an example of a problem on this topic.

7. Which of these words relates the plural form to the singular form differently than the others?

(A) kittens; (B) puppies; (IN) chickens; (G) lambs; (D) ducklings.

Solution. All these words mean young. The standard suffix used to express this meaning is -enok (-onok), replaced in the plural by -yat- (-at-). Four of these five words are formed in this way: kitten - kittens, chick - chicks, lamb - lambs, duckling - ducklings. In a word puppies we also see the suffix -yat-, however, in the singular it is not used * puppy, A puppy. Thus, answer:(B).

In a word puppy the suffix is ​​highlighted -ok-/-k-, and the standard plural form of this word is puppies(cf. hawk - hawks, hamster - hamsters). However, thanks to the understanding of a puppy as a young dog, by analogy with the forms on -yat- (-at-) a form arose puppies, which in modern language is used along with the form puppies.

For collective, material, abstract nouns and type nouns scissors(specific, but not having a plural form) the attribute of a number is constant, i.e. such nouns are not inflected by number, but refer to either the singular or the plural.

8. Which of these nouns is not usually used in the plural?

(A) cold;(B) wind;(IN) heat;(G) fog; (D) rain.

Solution. Winter cold has arrived(‘weather with low air temperature’) . Fog expected in the area(‘opaque air in places, saturated with water vapor or ice crystals’). The winds blow in February… And Windswept(‘all movements, air flows’) . It's raining(‘precipitation in the form of water drops and jets’) - all these phrases are acceptable in Russian. Only with the word heat‘intense heat from the air heated by the sun’, such a phrase cannot be invented: it is precisely this phrase that is not usually used in the plural. Answer:(IN).

9. Five nouns are given. Which one has a grammatical property that the others do not?

(A) trousers;(B) railings;(IN) boots;(G) sled;(D) gates.

Solution. All nouns are given in plural form. Only one of them - boots– varies by numbers, i.e. It also has a singular form - shoe. Other nouns are used only in the plural form. The following follows from this property: only the word boots has a gender (masculine), while the rest are not characterized by this characteristic. Answer:(IN).

To be continued

Grammatical (morphological) categories of a noun

As noted above, according to I.M. Berman, based on the morphological criterion for identifying nouns, the means of expressing grammatical subjectivity are the morphological categories of nouns.

In different languages, the number of grammatical categories is different, there are languages ​​with a very developed “grammatical profile”, in other languages ​​the set of grammatical categories is very limited (languages ​​completely devoid of grammatical meanings are still not attested, although their existence does not contradict linguistic theory). It is important to note that each part of speech is characterized by certain grammatical categories.

In most Slavic and European languages, according to I.M. Berman, for nouns there are usually 3 morphological (grammatical) categories: gender, number, case. In grammatical descriptions of recent decades, the list of morphological categories of a noun usually includes animate/inanimate.

In Russian, according to V.D. Arakin, a noun is characterized by the presence of 3 grammatical categories:

In English and German, as noted by K.N. Kachalov, the noun is characterized by the presence of an additional grammatical category - the category of determinativity (certainty - uncertainty), expressed by articles in preposition, just like in the German language.

The problem of the category of gender is complicated by the fact that the grammatical category of gender, even in the languages ​​in which it is expressed, very often does not coincide across languages. So in Russian noun. “spoon” is feminine, in German “der Loffel” is masculine. In Russian, “watch” is masculine, in German and French it is feminine – “die Wache”, “la sentinelle”.

There are languages ​​that have a common gender, examples from the Russian language are orphan, quiet, boring, crybaby, gourmand. In other cases, the impersonal pronouns he, sie, it are used to denote gender.

M.V. Davydov notes that for living beings, the methods of differentiation within the grammatical category of gender itself in different languages ​​are very diverse:

Using special endings: guest - guest, husband - wife, or special suffixes: actor - actress, bear - she-bear.

Using different words (heteronymy): father - mother, brother - sister, German. Vater - Mutter, French. Pere-mere.

Using special auxiliary words, e.g. ein mannlicher Adler - eagle, ein weiblicher Adler - eagle, English. he goat - goat, she goat - goat.

With just contextual clarification: whale, squirrel, monkey, magpie, shark, hippopotamus (both males and females).

The gender category is usually transparent in cases where the gender of a noun such as man - woman, bull - cow, rooster - hen is analyzed. In these cases, the category of grammatical gender is based on the biological gender of animate nouns. But the problem of grammatical gender becomes more complicated in cases where in modern languages ​​we analyze inanimate names or try to comprehend the nature of the neuter gender. The content of inanimate nouns now does not require any gender characteristic, but grammatically this characteristic is necessary for a name in many languages. In language, due to the very great stability of the grammatical form and its abstractness, such a conflict can persist for a very long time, because the speaker usually does not notice it.

Compared to the Russian language in the English language, according to E.I. Schendels, the category of grammatical gender (masculine, feminine, neuter) was once inherent in nouns of the Old English period. So, L.A. Vvedenskaya gives the following examples from Old English: mona - moon, steorra - star were masculine; bricg - bridge, tigol - brick - feminine; scip - ship, eage - eye - neuter. It happened that the grammatical gender was in conflict with the real gender: wlf - woman and mжgden - girl were neuter words.

The category of gender of nouns finally disappeared among many grammatical simplifications in the English language in the second half of the 17th century. The masculine gender was retained only for men, the feminine gender for women, and all concepts and objects and even animals began to be considered nouns of the neuter gender, which is conveyed by the pronoun it.

In the process of linguistic evolution, the differences between female and male speech strategies were constantly examined from different positions, the conceptual and semantic parameters of generic universals in language were contrasted, and the prospects for linguistic normalization of speech traditions in marking the gender of linguistic units were discussed.

However, the historical development of the morphological structure of the English language has led to the fact that the category of grammatical gender has been significantly modified. Thus, based on the English language, we can say that gender is a morphological (grammatical) category that in different languages ​​and even in the same language at different stages of its development characterizes the same objects and phenomena in its own way.

E.I. Schendels points out that most nouns in English do not belong to any gender and do not have grammatical inflections that indicate gender. However, unlike many linguists, M.V. Davydov believes that from a theoretical point of view, the category of gender does not exist in the morphological system of the English language. However, some linguists, for example A.A. Kholodovich, there are personal and non-personal (cat, tree, dog) grammatical gender. In turn, according to H.A. Sweet, personal gender nouns are divided into feminine (mother, girl), masculine (man, boy) and neuter (person, friend, parent, cousin, doctor, president) gender. It is important to note that I.M. Berman calls the neuter gender dual (dual gender), for example, artist, cook, criminal. In English, grammatical gender is indicated by the impersonal pronouns he, she, it.

Derived feminine forms in the English language today, as N. Chomsky writes, are marked by a suffix or some other morphological or lexical feature that distinguishes the feminine gender from the general gender and in some cases partially duplicates the form of the original masculine gender. For example, man - woman, author - authoress.

A special place in the creation of a gender module is occupied by markers of the feminine gender of English nouns that denote people in the field of their professional activities. First of all, in this subgroup it is necessary to note the traditional suffixes that form nouns of the corresponding semantics: - ess, - ette, - ine. In the British version, the normative use allows for hostess, waitress, governess, stewardess and others.

The need to clarify gender affiliation in the context of works of art or in oral communication expands the gender range due to the parallel coexistence of the forms woman doctor, she-doctor, doctress, doctorine.

The expansion of the professional range for female representatives contributed to the emergence of nouns with the suffix - ette: astronette, cosmonette, aviarette, farmarette, pickette - woman striker (protest participant), copette - woman police officer (woman police officer). Similar formations are registered among nominations in the field of show business: usherette, screenette, glamorette.

Summarizing what has been said, we note that the meaning of gender in English is conveyed, as a rule:

Lexical meaning of the word: masculine - man, boy; feminine - woman, girl; neuter - table, house.

Personal pronouns - he, she, it.

Suffixes: - ess, - ine, - er, - ette.

Compound nouns: a woman - doctor, he - cousin.

The category of determinativity (definiteness and uncertainty) is not characteristic of all languages; for example, it is absent in Slavic languages. While in languages ​​where this category is present, such as English and German, it is expressed using the article, in some cases it can be expressed in the form of affixes.

According to K. Brunner, the content of this category indicates whether the object denoted by the noun is thought of as belonging to a given class of objects (indefinite article), or as a known object, distinguished from a class of objects similar to it (definite article), or, as taken not in its volume, but in some of its part (partitive or partial article).

This category has a grammaticalized character in English: the definite article the and the indefinite article a(an), in German - ein(e), der (die,das). It follows from this that different languages ​​have different articles. In English, German, and French there are analytical articles, while in Bulgarian and Norwegian there are synthetic articles (village - a village, village - the village). In Turkish there is only one indefinite article, the. As for the English language, it should be noted that the indefinite article a(an) comes from the numeral one, while the definite article the contains the meaning of the pronoun this.

In English, articles not only express definiteness or indefiniteness, but also the number of countable nouns. Also, with the help of articles, we can turn abstract nouns into concrete ones, for example, I loved her with a love, that was more than love.

Man has long distinguished between one object and many objects, and this distinction could not but find its expression in language.

The category of number can be called universal. Its universality lies in the fact that it covers not only nouns and adjectives, but also pronouns and verbs.

V.D. Arakin will define the category of number as an inflectional category of nouns, with the help of which, thanks to the opposition of correlative forms of the singular and plural, the grammatical meanings of singularity / plurality of objects are expressed: horse - horses, train - trains, glass - glass, cow - cows, boy - boys, der Student - die Studenten. It is important to note that in German the plural can also be conveyed by the article (die).

I.P. Ivanova adds that the category of number indicates the number of animate and inanimate objects. The main content of the category of number is the opposition between the meaning of the real singularity of an object and the meaning of a real separate set of the same objects. The category of number is formed by the grammatical meanings of the singular and plural, which is expressed in the opposition of the case forms of the singular and plural. It should be noted that singular forms can denote both a single object (A boy is reading a book) and many objects (A man is destined for love).

Category of number, according to V.D. Arakina, interacts with a certain lexical meaning of those words through which it is expressed. Let's take, for example, nouns that have a collective meaning, that is, when many objects are thought of as a single whole (game, greens, foliage, linen). These nouns usually do not form plurals. Consequently, the grammatical category of number, as if rising above individual names and uniting them, is at the same time not indifferent to the semantics of these words.

Speaking about the meaning of plurality as the grammatical meaning of plural forms, as N. Chomsky notes, one must keep in mind that this is usually the so-called dismembered, not collective plurality - each of the many objects is presented as if by itself, separately from other objects. With their semantic connotation of dismemberment, grammatical forms of the plural differ in meaning from collective nouns, which serve to name an undivided, collective (aggregate) set of objects that represent some kind of indivisible integrity. Wed: The road does not gather dust, the leaves do not tremble... (M. Lermontov). - Light fell from the windows through the lilac foliage onto the white path (V. Veresaev).

The category of number in English, according to H.A. Sweet, expresses quantitative relationships that exist in reality, reflected in the minds of native speakers of a given language and having morphological expression in the corresponding forms of the language.

In relation to the category of number, all nouns are divided into two groups: nouns used in the forms of both numbers, and nouns used in the form of one number. The category of number has the meaning of real singularity or the meaning of real plurality only in specific nouns that can be counted.

A.I. Smirnitsky points to the peculiarity of the Russian language, in which there are nouns used only in the plural form. These include:

Concrete nouns are the names of objects consisting of two or more parts: trousers, gates, stretchers, sleighs.

Real nouns - ink, sawdust, wallpaper, perfume, canned food.

Abstract nouns are names of actions, processes, states: elections, runs, races.

Names of time periods: day, weekdays, holidays, twilight.

The names of some games: chess, hide and seek, blind man's buff.

Some proper nouns denoting the names of cities, mountain ranges, etc.: Alps, Lyubertsy, Libra, Zhiguli.

Really - abstract nouns denoting a plural collection of something: shoots, jungle, finance, money.

O. Jespersen also adds that the grammatical category of number is inflectional in nouns and is constructed as a contrast between two series of forms - singular and plural. In cases where singular words can form plural forms, such formation is necessarily accompanied by certain semantic complications: cf. “species plural” type wine - plural. vimna, beauty - krasomty, “emphatic plural” when designating a large amount of the type water - plural. womdy, snow - snow, etc. .

T.A. Rastorgueva notes that the main opposition in the category of number is uniqueness - plurality. Some languages ​​also have a dual number and, less commonly, a triple number. Plural forms can also denote a generic concept (gender plural), for example “there are wolves in this area.” The use of the plural form in the meaning of the singular is observed in the cases of the polite plural (“you” when addressing one person) and the plural of greatness (“we” in the speech of reigning persons).

As an independent category, number is characteristic of nouns and personal pronouns; other parts of speech (verb, adjective, other categories of pronouns) receive numerical characteristics by agreement (syntactic number).

Agreement by number is obligatory in Indo-European languages: “he works” - “they work”, English. he works - they work. However, with the destruction of morphology, agreement can also disappear, for example, in English there is no longer agreement in number between adjectives and nouns (clever child - “smart child” - clever children - “smart children”).

The ways of expressing the plural are different: affixal (“table” - “tables”, English table - tables), suppletive (“man” - “people”), broken number (Arabic radћulun - “man”, ridћalun - “men” ; the vowel of the root changes), plural with repetition (Indonesian orang - “person”, orang-orang - “people”).

In Indo-European languages, the plural form is required if the noun has a quantity word (ten books, many books). In some languages, the noun in such constructions is used in the singular form (in Hungarian könyv - “book”, tiz könyv - “10 books”, sok könyv - “many books”). In many languages ​​of Asia and America, to express the plural of nouns in a construction with a numeral, special elements are used - classifiers (numeratives), different for different lexical groups of nouns; the latter do not change their form (in Vietnamese hai con meo - “two cats”, where con is a classifier).

According to A.I. Smirnitsky, the number of nouns is also expressed syntactically - by the numerical form of the agreed or coordinated word or by a numeral: new book - plural. new books, the student is reading / read - plural. students read / have read, I'm glad - plural. we are glad. For indeclinable nouns and nouns denoting countable objects, the syntactic way of expressing number is the only one: new coat, one coat - plural. new coats, three coats; just scissors - plural two scissors, one day - plural. four / several / many days.

According to V.D. Arakin, the grammatical category of case is basic for many Slavic and European languages ​​and is a form of a name that expresses the relationship of a given name to other words in a phrase or sentence. Agreeing with V.D. Arakin, S.S. Linsky also points out that case represents the unity of form and meaning.

Case is a morphological category. Therefore, only in those languages ​​in which there are forms of inflection (such as Russian - stol, stola, stolou) and cases can exist, in different languages ​​there are different numbers of cases. If the case system in a particular language is not developed, then the language can do without it, using other methods to express grammatical relations (prepositions, word order, and so on).

24.1. Classes of nouns: common nouns, concrete nouns, collective nouns.

Depending on their lexico-grammatical features, nouns are divided into:

• common nouns (names of homogeneous objects, actions or states): house, bed
• proper (names of individual objects, isolated from a number of homogeneous ones - first names, surnames, geographical names, etc.): Vanya Petrov, Pluto, Moscow;
• concrete (name specific objects and phenomena from real reality): boy, station and abstract (name an object or sign abstractly from the actor or bearer of the sign): hatred, love, care;
• collective (denote a collection of identical or similar individual objects as one whole): students, sheet.

24.2. Lexical-grammatical categories of nouns:

24.1. The category of animate-inanimate: animate nouns denote living beings (people and animals), and inanimate nouns denote an object in the proper sense of the word, as opposed to living beings. This category is manifested in the declension of nouns, namely in the accusative plural: the accusative plural form of animate nouns coincides with the form of the genitive case, and of inanimate ones with the form of the nominative case. For masculine nouns (except for -a, -я), the same thing happens in the singular.

The masculine gender is a type of category of gender, characterized by a certain form change, and in animate nouns, by the belonging of masculine creatures to it (father, cat, table, house).

The feminine gender is a type of category of gender, characterized by a certain form change, and in animate nouns - by the belonging of feminine creatures to it (mother, cat, bench, terrace).

There are common nouns that can be associated with both masculine and feminine persons: slob, orphan, incognito, protégé.

The neuter gender is a type of category of gender, characterized by a certain form change (partially coincides with the form change of the masculine gender) and the meaning of inanimateness (window, sky, sun);

24.2.3. Category of number: in Russian there is a singular form (denotes one item in a series of homogeneous objects): chair, sock, boy, and a plural form (denotes an indefinite set of homogeneous objects): chairs, socks, boys.

The singular and plural numbers differ in different endings and different compatibility with other parts of speech.

There are nouns that have only a singular form: some abstract nouns (love, care), collective nouns (foliage, students), proper names (Moscow, Siberia), some nouns denoting substance (milk, gold).

There are nouns that, on the contrary, have only a plural form: some abstract nouns (vacations, twilight), some nouns denoting a substance (cabbage soup, cream), the names of some games (chess, hide and seek), some concrete nouns that consist of several components (scissors, trousers);

24.2.4. Case category: this category is based on the opposition of case forms and denotes the relationship of the object designated by the noun to other objects, actions or characteristics. There are six cases in Russian: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, prepositional.

24.3. Declension of nouns is the change of nouns by case.

There are three declensions in the Russian language.

Notes: in masculine and neuter nouns, in which a vowel is written before the case ending and, in an unstressed position in P.p. the ending is written -i; For feminine nouns, this rule applies to D.p. and P.p.

I. p. police, genius, blade
R.p. police, genius, blades
D.p. police, genius, blade
V.p. police, genius, blade
etc. police, genius, blade
P.p. about the police, about the genius, about the blade

For more information about difficult cases of writing the endings of nouns, see the “Spelling” section.

There are differently inflected nouns in the Russian language: these are 10 neuter nouns ending in -mya (flame, burden, time, udder, banner, seed, stirrup, shchemia, tribe, name) - inflected with the increasing suffix -en- in the singular in all cases , except for the instrumental, according to the 3rd declension, and in the instrumental case of the singular - according to the 2nd declension, in the plural they are declined according to the 2nd declension; the words mother, daughter (declined according to the 3rd declension with the increase -er-), path (declined in all cases according to the 3rd declension and only in the instrumental - according to the 2nd), child (this word is now not used in indirect cases singular).

There are also indeclinable nouns (that is, they do not change in case or number). These mainly include words of foreign origin that denote both inanimate objects (cafe, radio) and masculine and feminine persons (attaché, lady); they can also represent animals (kangaroos, chimpanzees), first and last names (Helen Frankenstein), place names (Baku, Helsinki), etc.

24.4. Syntactic functions of nouns

In a sentence, a noun can be; any member:

• subject: Mom goes to the store,
• addition: I asked him to give me the book.
• definition: Mom bought me a notebook with squared paper.
• application: The Volga River is very beautiful.
• circumstance: He achieved his goal despite difficulties.
• predicate: My father is an engineer.

ADJECTIVE- this is an independent part of speech that combines words that denote non-procedural characteristics of an object and answer the questions: what? whose? This meaning is expressed in the non-independent inflectional categories of gender, number and case (perform the grammatical function of agreement). In a sentence, adjectives act as a modifier or a nominal part of a compound nominal predicate.

25.1. Classes of adjectives: qualitative, relative, possessive.

Lexico-grammatical categories of adjectives.

• qualitative adjectives - denote an object directly, that is, without relation to other objects (red, beautiful, kind), have forms of comparison and short forms;
• relative adjectives - indicate a characteristic through a relationship to another object, they are derived from nominal bases (laboratory, wooden);
• possessive adjectives - denote belonging to a person or animal, that is, they contain an indication of the owner (foxes, fathers).

25.2. Short adjectives are formed from full qualitative adjectives and correlate with them semantically. Short adjectives are those which in the masculine singular have zero endings (black, beautiful), in the feminine singular - endings -а, -я (black, beautiful), in the neuter singular - endings -о, -е (black, beautiful), and in the plural of all genders - endings -и, -ы (black, beautiful). Short adjectives in a sentence act as a predicate. (“How beautiful, how fresh the roses were...”)

25.3. Degrees of comparison of adjectives are a grammatical category of adjectives that expresses the relative difference or superiority in quality inherent in objects. In Russian, three forms are contrasted:

Positive,
- comparative
- excellent.

A positive degree names a characteristic without any opposition to another characteristic. The comparative degree indicates a characteristic that a given object has to a greater or lesser extent. The superlative degree indicates the highest degree of manifestation of this quality compared to other objects (cf.: kind - kinder - kinder).

Formation of forms of comparison.

Adjectives are declined, i.e. vary by gender, case and number, but their form depends on the form of the word on which they depend. (For the spelling of endings of adjectives, see the “Spelling” section)

25.4. Syntactic function of an adjective.

In a sentence, adjectives can act as:

Definitions (The girl had a very beautiful doll),
- the nominal part of a compound nominal predicate (The doll was beautiful).

PRONOUN- an independent part of speech, which includes words indicating objects, signs, etc., but not naming them. In a sentence, pronouns can act as various parts of the sentence.

Groups of pronouns in relation to other parts of speech:

• noun pronouns (I, who, nothing);
• pronouns-adjectives (none, own);
• numeral pronouns (some, not at all).

Pronoun classes:

• personal (indicate a person or object): I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they;
• reflexive (indicates the attitude towards the character): oneself;
• possessive (indicate belonging to one of three persons): my, yours, yours;
• demonstrative (in general indicate objects, their quality or quantity): this, this, that;
• interrogatives (convey a question): who, which, whose;
• relative (in form they coincide with interrogative pronouns, but act as allied words): who, which;
• negative (indicate the absence of an object): no one, nothing;
• indefinite (indicate indefinite objects or their signs): someone's, someone;
• definitive (indicate a generalized attribute of an object): everyone, any.

In a sentence, a pronoun can be the same member of the sentence as the part of speech in which it is used:

• subject: I came home very tired.
• definition: I want to buy some book.
• addition: I want to ask her about this.
• circumstance: The boys went to her.

NUMERAL- an independent part of speech that combines words that denote abstract numbers or the number of objects and their order when counting. Numerals are combined as a quantitative determinant only with nouns and form with them an indivisible phrase, which in a sentence is one member of the sentence. Numerals cannot be determined by adjectives.

Based on their composition, numeral names are divided into:

• simple (non-derivative base: two, eight, one hundred),
• complex (derivatives: eighteen, seven hundred, five hundred),
• compound (consisting of two or more words: six hundred thirty-five).

Number categories:

• quantitative (denote an abstract number or the number of homogeneous objects): two, twenty-five;
• fractional (indicate a fractional value: two-fifths);
• collective (denote the number of objects as a totality: three, both);
• ordinal (denote the order in which objects appear when counting: first, third, twenty).

Cardinal numbers are inflected (change according to cases, but have neither a gender category nor a number category). Exceptions: Numerals one and two have gender forms. They agree with the noun in case, the numeral two - in case and gender, the numeral one - in gender, number and case. If a compound numeral ends in one, then the noun is put in the singular form (three hundred fifty-one rubles).

Fractional numbers are formed by combining a cardinal number in the nominative case and an ordinal number in the genitive case (three-fifths, six-eighths).

The collective numerals eight, nine, ten are practically not used in modern Russian; the numerals two, three, four, five, six, seven, both, both are much more often used. Collective numbers can only be used in certain cases:

• with masculine or general nouns that name male persons: two boys, both professors;
• with nouns that have only a plural form: three days, two sleighs);
• with nouns guys, people, children, face (meaning “person”): six guys, two faces;
• with personal pronouns in the plural (there were three of us);
• with the names of baby animals: (three kittens);
• as substantivized numerals (five in white);
• with the names of paired items (three mittens (=three pairs of mittens)).

Ordinal numbers are formed from their corresponding cardinal numbers (three is the third, five is the fifth), exception: one is the first. They change by gender, number and case and agree with nouns.

For more information on the endings of numeral names during declension, see the “Spelling” section.

19Verb. Basic grammatical categories. Spelling personal endings of verbs.

28. VERB- this is an independent part of speech that combines words denoting an action and answering the question what to do? what to do? This meaning is expressed in the categories of aspect, voice, tense, person and mood. In a sentence, verbs act mainly as predicates.

28.1. Conjugated and inconjugated forms of the verb, infinitive.

Verbs, depending on the ability or inability to change in persons, numbers, moods and tenses, have inconjugated forms (infinitive - indefinite form of the verb) participles and gerunds; conjugated forms include all other forms.

The infinitive is the initial form of the verb, with which all other forms of the verb are lexically and word-formatively connected. Verbs in the infinitive name the process itself, without attributing it to any person or time. The indefinite form of the verb is characterized by the suffixes -t, -ti (revenge, buy), some verbs in the infinitive end in -ch (to lie down).

28.2. Verb type

Aspect is a grammatical category that expresses differences in the course of an action. Imperfective verbs denote an action in development, without indicating its limit, and answer the question what to do? (receive, buy, wear); and perfective verbs denote an action as limited by a certain limit and answer the question what to do? (get, buy, demolish).

28.3. Transitivity of the verb

Transitivity - intransitivity is a category on the basis of which verbs are distinguished with the meaning of an action directed at an object (it is the object of this action) - transitive verbs read a magazine, paint a wall), and verbs with the meaning of an action that does not imply the object on which it is the action is naturally directed - intransitive verbs (to be sick, to sit). In practice, this difference) is manifested in control: transitive verbs are combined with nouns or pronouns in the accusative case without a preposition (treat the boy, read a book), and intransitive verbs are combined with objects expressed by nouns or pronouns in the indirect case with prepositions (walk down the street, play in the yard). A special group of intransitive verbs consists of reflexive verbs, the formal sign of which is the suffix -sya (to return, to wash).

28.4. Voice of the verb

Pledge is a category that expresses various relationships between the subject and object of an action. Active voice verbs are verbs in which the subject names the actor (subject of the action): mom washed the frame; verbs of the passive voice are verbs that appear in a passive construction (when the subject names the object of the action, and the object in the instrumental case names the subject of the action (the window was washed by my mother)).

28.5. Verb mood

1. indicative - expresses an action that really exists, has existed or will exist (bought, read); verbs in the indicative mood have forms of tense (present, past and future), person (1, 2 and 3) and number (singular or plural);
2. conditional (or subjunctive) - expresses an action that does not really exist, but is only possible or desirable (would buy, read); it is formed using a verb in the past tense of the indicative mood and the particle would;
3. imperative - expresses an action that is not real, it expresses a request, order, etc. (buy, read); it is formed from the stem of the present or simple future tense using the suffix -i- (buy, read) or the zero suffix read, smear), the plural is formed by adding the suffix -te (buy, read) to the singular imperative form, also imperative the mood can be formed by adding the particles let, let, to verbs in the explanatory mood of the present tense.

Time is a category that expresses the relationship of action to the moment of speech. There are three tenses in Russian: present, past and future. The tense category is associated with the aspect category: imperfective verbs have 3 forms (buy - present tense, bought - lrosh tense, will buy (future fold, tense), and perfective verbs have 2 forms (bought - past tense and will buy - future simple, tense).

For verb conjugation, see the “Spelling” section. In a sentence, verbs can act as:

• simple predicate: I bought a book;
• complex verb predicate: I decided to go to the library;
• inconsistent definition: I didn’t like the plan to go there right away.

The spelling of personal names varies verb endings in present or future simple tense:
in I conjugation: -eat, -eat, -eat, -eat, -ut or - ut;

in II conjugation: -ish, -it, -im, -ite, -at or -yat.
The II conjugation includes (among those with unstressed endings) Verbs on - it in the infinitive, except verbs shave, build up (you shave - they shave, it is built - it is built), and the following 11 exception verbs, as well as their derivatives. Verb disdain has shapes glimmering - glimmering.
The remaining verbs belong to the I conjugation (grind - grind - grind).
Verb lay used only in the infinitive and past tense, personal verb forms are formed from the verb I conjugation lay (lay - lay).
Verbs recover, get sick of, get sick of and some others of this type are conjugated in the literary language according to the first conjugation: if you get well, they will get better; if you get sick of it, they will get sick of it; if you get sick of it, they will get sick of it..
Transitive verbs with prefix un- (obes-) conjugated according to the II conjugation, and intransitives - according to the I conjugation:
to weaken (someone): to weaken - to weaken - to weaken;
become weak (oneself): if you become weak - if you become weak - you become weak.

The corresponding infinitive suffixes are And- And - e- stored in past tense forms: The loss of blood weakened the wounded man. - The sick girl became weak.
Unstressed words that are similar in sound differ in spelling graduation future tense - yeah and imperative mood -ite: choose - choose, come out - come out, sweep out - sweep out, write out - write out, wipe away - wipe away, send out - send out, shout - shout out, knock - knock.

20 Participles and gerunds

29. PARTICIPLE- this is a special unconjugated form of a verb that denotes an action, but represents it as a sign of an object. The participle combines the characteristics of a verb and an adjective:

Verb features:

1. transitivity - intransitivity,
2. repayment - irrevocability,
3. pledge,
4. time (present and past);

Adjective features:

1. number,
2. case,
3. acts as a definition in a sentence,
4. Passive participles have both full and short forms.

Formation of participles:

note:

1. perfective verbs that do not have a present tense form do not form present participles;
2. Passive participles are formed only from transitive verbs.

For more information about spelling participles, see the “Spelling” section.

In a sentence, full participles act as a determiner (The girl who came in was very pretty.), and short participles act as a nominal part of a complex predicate (The floor was washed.)

30. Participle- this is a special unchangeable form of the verb, which denotes a sign, but acts as a sign of another action. The participle combines the characteristics of a verb and an adverb:

Verb signs:

1. lexical meaning,
2. syntactic control,
3. repayment - irrevocability;

Adverb features:

1. immutability,
2. type of subordinating connection - adjacency.

Formation of participles:

For more information about spelling adverbs, see the “Spelling” section.

21Service parts of speech.

SERVICE PARTS OF SPEECH

Functional parts of speech are categories of words that serve to express the relationship between concepts that express significant words, and are used only in conjunction with them. They are not members of the sentence.

Functional parts of speech include:

prepositions, conjunctions, particles.

33. PREPOSITION- these are function words that, in combination with indirect cases of nominal parts of speech, express various relationships between the forms of the name and other words.

By origin, prepositions are divided into:

Antiderivatives (unmotivated from the point of view of the modern Russian language): in, on, before, etc.;

Derivatives (you can trace word-formation connections with the significant words from which these prepositions are formed). Derivative prepositions, in turn, are divided into:

1. adverbial (along, around),
2. denominative (sort of, like),
3. verbal (excluding, thanks).

According to their structure, derivative prepositions are divided into:

1. simple (except, about)
2. compound (at the time, for the reason).

Almost all prepositions are used with one specific case, but they can express different relationships:

• spatial (living in a village),
• temporary (wait in the morning),
• objective (tell about what happened),
• causal (to die from a wound),
• targeted (send for repairs), etc.

34. UNIONS- these are function words that express grammatical relationships between members of a sentence, parts of a complex sentence or individual sentences in the text.

34.2.1. Union ranks

By origin, unions are divided into:

• non-derivative (unmotivated in modern Russian): and, or, yes;
• derivatives (you can trace the formational connections with the significant words from which these conjunctions are formed): so that, as if.

According to their structure, derivative conjunctions are divided into:

1. simple (as if)
2. compound (since, in order to).

Conjunctions are distinguished by use:

• single (or non-repeating): but, however;
• repeating: and...and, neither...nor;
• double (or paired): if...then, how...and.

34.2.2. Coordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions According to their syntactic function, conjunctions are divided into:

Coordinating (linking syntactically equal units: homogeneous members of a sentence, simple sentences as part of complex sentences).

According to their meaning, coordinating conjunctions are divided into:

1. connective (express enumeration relations): and, yes (in the meaning and), and...and, too, also;
2. adversatives (express relations of opposition): a, but, however, same;
3. divisive (express relations of mutual exclusion): or, or...or, then...that;
4. explanatory (express explanatory relationships): exactly, like that;
5. connecting (expressing relations of accession) yes and, and also.

Subordinates (connect syntactically unequal units: the main and subordinate parts of a complex sentence, members of a simple sentence).

By meaning, subordinating conjunctions are divided into:

1. temporary: when, as soon as, not yet;
2. explanatory: how, what, so that;
3. causal: since, because;
4. consequences: so;
5. concessive: let, although, despite the fact that;
6. comparative: as if, as if;
7. target: in order to, in order to;
8. conditional: if, once.

35. PARTICLES- these are function words that give sentences additional semantic or emotional shades.

Particles are divided into.

MORPHOLOGY

Lecture No. 1

Morphology is a section of grammar that studies the grammatical properties of words that ensure their ability to participate in the construction of a statement. Morphology studies a word in the system of its forms, taking into account its grammatical meaning. Grammatical forms of a word are modifications of the same word that. By expressing one lexical meaning, they show the difference in the relationship of one and the same object of thought to other objects of thought. The set of forms of one word is called its grammatical paradigm.

Grammatical forms of the same word differ in different grammatical meanings ( table - tables, grammatical meaning of singular and plural, read - reads, grammatical meaning of past and present tense). Grammatical meanings are never isolated; for each grammatical meaning there is a correlative one, for example: the grammatical meaning of the present tense is correlated with the grammatical meaning of the future and past tense, the grammatical meaning of the masculine gender is correlated with the grammatical meaning of the feminine and neuter gender. Grammatical meaning is a generalization of the meanings of identical forms of words.

The generalization of grammatical meanings represents a grammatical category: the case category is a generalization of 6 case meanings, the person category is a generalization of the grammatical meanings of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd person. Grammatical categories are divided into classified categories, which cannot be represented by forms of one word (the transitivity category of the verb), and inflectional categories, which are represented by the forms of one word (the gender category of adjectives).

In addition to those listed, the basic concepts of morphology is also the concept of “parts of speech.” Parts of speech are classes of words that are distinguished taking into account generalized lexical features and grammatical features; these are lexico-grammatical classes of words. The identification of parts of speech in the Russian language is based on the following principles: semantic - the presence of components in the meaning of the word: objectivity, attribute, procedurality, etc.; grammatical – the presence of general grammatical categories: verbs are associated with a mood category; syntactic – the presence of typical syntactic functions in words of one part of speech: the adverbial function is typical for an adverb.

In the Russian language, there are traditionally 10 parts of speech, which are divided into independent parts of speech that have an independent lexical meaning, perform a nominative function and a specific role in a sentence: numeral, pronoun, verb, adverb - and auxiliary parts of speech that do not have these characteristics: prepositions , conjunctions, particles, interjections.

Lecture No. 2

Noun

A noun is a lexico-grammatical class of words denoting objectivity. Nouns have gender, change in number and case, and act as subject or object in a sentence: book, abstraction.

Taking into account semantic and grammatical features, the following categories of nouns are distinguished: proper and common nouns, animate and inanimate; concrete, abstract, material, collective. Proper nouns name an object, distinguishing it from similar ones: Paris, Victory Day, Himalayas. They usually have the form of only one number. Common nouns serve as generalized names for homogeneous objects. They change according to numbers: mountain - mountains, city - cities. Common nouns can be concrete or abstract. Specific nouns denote the concept of an object and the object itself, which can exist separately from other similar objects: class, program. Concrete nouns are divided into animate and inanimate. Animate nouns denote people or animals; in the plural, the accusative case form of animate nouns coincides with the genitive case form: beast, beasts, beasts, (r.p.) = animals(v.p.). The division of nouns into animate and inanimate is, first of all, grammatical: for inanimate nouns, the accusative plural form coincides with the nominative plural form: people, peoples, (ip.) = peoples (v.p.).

Among common nouns, real and collective nouns also stand out. Real nouns denote a substance and are used to name any quantity of that substance. They are characterized by immutability in numbers: yeast – plural, sugar – singular, lack of compatibility with cardinal numbers , Correlative words with the meaning of singularity are possible: tea - tea leaves, raisins - raisins.

Collective nouns denote a collection of persons as a unity, as something whole: students, raven. Collective nouns do not have a plural form, are not combined with cardinal numerals, and for the most part in their morphemic structure they have a morpheme with the meaning of aggregates: poor from a, be[j]e. When identifying collective nouns, grammatical features are significant, therefore the nouns people, squad, herd, denoting a collection, do not belong to collective nouns, since they have a singular and plural form.

Abstract (abstract) nouns denote an action or attribute in abstraction from the producer of the action or the bearer of the attribute. Like collective and real ones, they do not vary in number and are not combined with numerals: fidelity, redness, sleep, work, warmth.

A noun as a part of speech is connected with other parts of speech through its relationship to an object, objectivity: with an adjective denoting a feature of an object, a numeral noun indicating the number or order of objects when counting, a pronoun that is equivalent to the name of an object or feature. All classes of names are characterized by the grammatical categories of gender, number and case.

Lecture No. 3

Gender, number, case as grammatical categories of names

The meaning of the gender category is determined by its meaning in the class of nouns, where the gender category is represented by the grammatical meanings of masculine, feminine and neuter gender. The category of gender is semanticized only in animate nouns, where the distinction between masculine and feminine gender is associated with biological sex; in other cases, the category of gender is formal in nature. For nouns, the category of gender is classification; the gender of nouns is manifested in the features of declension. Moreover, for indeclinable nouns denoting a person, the gender is determined by the gender of the designated creature: lady-zh.r.; nouns denoting animals are masculine: kangaroo, cockatoo: nouns denoting objects, neuter: highway, jury, but coffee – m.r. The gender of abbreviations is determined by the gender of the main word in the phrase: LLP– s.r., since the main word partnership.

Although the category of gender in Russian for nouns is a classification one, there are nouns that, depending on the contact, can be used in the meaning of either masculine or feminine gender: these are nouns of general gender. Their typical features: ending - A, the presence of most colloquial coloring: slob, bully, crybaby. (Do not mix with nouns like doctor, teacher, which, according to grammatical characteristics, are masculine nouns.) Outside the category of gender are nouns that do not have a singular form, since gender differences appear only in singular forms: scissors, glasses.

For adjectives, unlike nouns, the category is inflectional. It is formalized more clearly: adjectives in full and short forms have gender indicators - endings.

In numerals, the category of gender appears in ordinal numbers, where it is of a concordant nature: in cardinal numerals, the category of gender appears only in numerals one, partially two - two. Numerals have a gender category thousand, million, but as a classification one.

The category of number reflects the quantitative side of objects, contrasting singularity and multiplicity: beast - animals, tree - trees. In indeclinable nouns, the meaning of number is manifested in forms of agreement; in some nouns, the singular and plural forms differ in the basis: person - people, child - children. For adjectives, the number category is a means of agreement with nouns; for numerals, ordinal numbers and some cardinal numbers are associated with the number category: one, thousand, million. In pronouns similar to adjectives, the category of number is similarly manifested; contrast in number is observed in personal pronouns. For all classes of names, the category of number is inflectional.

The case category is also a general noun; its content is largely determined by the content of the case category of nouns. The category of case of nouns through the forms of specific cases expresses the different relationship of objects to actions, characteristics, and other objects: father's briefcase, write to brother. The category of case has a morphological and syntactic beginning. Case is a morphological category, its function is syntactic. Specific cases differ from each other both in form and in meaning. Formal indicators of case - endings, additional indicators - place of stress, prepositions.

In the most general form, the meanings of cases are expressed in case questions. The forms and meanings of the cases differ from each other. A noun in the nominative case can denote the subject of an action: The dog barks; in passive form: The book has been read; name the item: It is a table; define the subject: A girl doctor came in (girl (what?) doctor).

Nouns in the genitive case, dependent on the verb, indicate the object of the action: wait for the letter; dependent on the name indicate a characteristic by affiliation: father's house; on the bearer of the sign: soldier's bravery; on the subject of action in an action indicated by a noun: arrival of the delegation. The applied meaning of the genitive case can be generally called attributive.

Nouns in the dative case indicate the addressee of the action: give it to your son; to the subject of an action or state: the child is unwell.

Accusative nouns depend only on the verb and indicate the object of the action: to fish.

Nouns in the instrumental case can indicate the instrument of action: write with a pen; for transformation: elected chairman; to the action object: play music; to space and time: came back at night; for comparison: flies like an arrow.

The meaning of the prepositional case, always complicated by a preposition, can be temporary or spatial: work in the field; or object: think about the problem.

Full adjectives have 6 cases and agree in case with nouns. Short adjectives do not change by case. Ordinal numbers vary by case like adjectives; cardinal numbers also have 6 case forms.

Pronouns have 6 case forms, but some pronouns have an incomplete paradigm: much, nothing, yourself– no I.p., something– only I.p. and V.p.

Lecture No. 4

Declension of names

Declension is the change of names by cases or by cases and numbers, as well as a class of words united by a common inflection.

There are three main types of declension for nouns in the school textbook. Outside the types of declension there are nouns in – me, word path, nouns that do not have a singular form: trousers, nouns formed in a lexico-grammatical way: counselor, which are declined as adjectival adjectives.

Adjectives are inflected, which is determined by their connection with the noun, and form a special system of endings, which is called the adjective type of declension. All full qualitative and actual relative adjectives change according to the adjective type. Possessive adjectives on -in-, -ov- change according to a mixed type of declension, since their endings partially coincide with the endings of full adjectives, partially with the endings of nouns (see. fathers house).

Declension of numerals is less systematized: one– according to the adjective type; two three four– unproductive type: five – according to the substantive type, like third declension nouns: 40, 90, 100 have only two forms. When declension of complex numerals 50, 60, 70, 80, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900 both parts change, since they have internal inflection; 1000 changes according to the first declension of nouns, 1000000 - according to the second. When declension of compound cardinal numerals, all components change.

Features of the declension of pronouns are manifested: the presence of suppletive forms : I, me etc., cohesion of bases with inflections: you - you, in the defectiveness of case paradigms.

Lecture No. 5

Adjective

An adjective is a lexical and grammatical class of words that denote a characteristic of an object and change according to gender, number and case. In a sentence, adjectives act as a definition or a nominal part of a compound nominal predicate.

Taking into account semantic and grammatical features, two main categories of adjectives are distinguished: qualitative; relative. Qualitative adjectives denote a feature directly inherent in an object: new house; relative adjectives denote a characteristic that a given object has in relation to other objects: stone house - house made of stone, hare path - hare path. All relative adjectives are derivatives: field - field, medicinal– treat; qualitative ones are mostly non-derivative, but golden, spotted; from qualitative adjectives adjectives with the meaning of subjective assessment are formed: white - white; qualitative adverbs -O: distant – far; nouns, verbs with attribute meaning: white – whiteness, turn white; short form: smart - smart; forms of degrees of comparison: long(positive degree of comparison) – longer (synthetic form of comparative degree) – more or less long(analytical superlative form).

Possessive adjectives are defined as a type of relative adjective that indicates belonging to a person or animal: fox, uncle. They are derivatives and have suffixes in their morphemic structure: -ov, -in, -ii-: bearish.

Lecture No. 6

Numeral

A numeral is a lexical-grammatical class of words indicating the number or order of objects when counting, associated with the category of gender, number and case.

Taking into account semantics and grammatical features, numerals are divided into quantitative, ordinal, and collective.

Cardinal numbers are divided into definite quantitative numbers: ten, one hundred and indefinite-quantitative: a lot, a little.

Ordinal numbers indicate the order of objects when counting: first, tenth. Collective numerals denote quantity as a collection: two, three, eight. This is a group of 9 words formed from cardinal numbers of the first ten using - oh-, -er-.

As a type of numerals, fractional numerals are distinguished, which are cardinal and ordinal numbers: two-thirds.

Lecture No. 7

Pronoun

A pronoun is a lexical and grammatical class of words that act instead of names to indicate objects, characteristics, quantity, order when counting. The pronoun is associated with the categories of gender, number, and case.

Taking into account the peculiarities of semantics, personal pronouns are distinguished ( I); returnable ( myself); possessive ( my); index ( this); attributives ( any); interrogative ( Who?); relative - the same interrogatives, but without the interrogative function ( which); negative (nobody); uncertain (someone).

Taking into account heterogeneous grammatical properties and therefore proximity to a particular part of speech, pronouns are distinguished - nouns: anyone, yourself, nobody; adjective pronouns: how many, several.

Noun- a significant (independent) part of speech, includes the names of objects and animate beings and can appear in a sentence as a subject and an object. In Russian, it is an independent part of speech that denotes an object and answers the question “who?”/“what?”.

Morphological characteristics:

Change by case

Availability of grammatical categories:

c) Animation and inanimateness

Constant features of a noun:

Household name

Animation

Discharge (concrete, real, abstract, collective)

Declension

Basic grammatical categories of a noun: gender, number, case.

Number is a grammatical category capable of expressing quantitative characteristics. As an independent grammatical category, number is characteristic of nouns and some pronouns, the rest parts of speech have a syntactic category of number: their number forms are consistent with the form of a noun or pronoun.

Rank:

Specific (name an object and phenomena)

Abstract (name actions, signs, states)

Collective (a collection of objects or persons)

Real (substance or mass)

19. Adjective. Classes of adjectives, full and short form, degrees of comparison

Adjective- an independent part of speech, denoting a feature of an object and answering the questions “which”, “which”, “which”, “which”, “whose”, etc. In Russian, adjectives change to gender, case, number, and can have a short form. In a sentence, an adjective is most often a modifier, but can be distorted. The semantic basis of the adjective is the designation of the quality, attribute, belonging of an object as a relatively constant property.

Morphological feature – variability in: childbirth , case numbers. But unlike nouns, the morphological features of adjectives are not an independent means of expressing lexical and grammatical meanings, since they completely depend on these parameters of the words being defined.

Discharge- the only constant morphological feature of this part of speech. There are three categories of adjectives: qualitative, relative and possessive.

1. High quality- (answer the question “which one?”); form forms of degrees of quality (red - reddish, reddish); have degrees of comparison: comparative (kinder - kinder) and superlative (kinder - kinder, stronger - stronger, etc.);

speak in full and short form (cheerful - cheerful); form adverbs ending in -о/-е and -и (cheerful - fun);

2. Relative- (answer the question “which one?”), do not have degrees, indicate the material from which the object is made, the spatial and temporal characteristics of the object: wood - wooden, January - January, yesterday - yesterday;

3. Possessives- answer the question “whose?” and denote belonging to something, someone (father’s, sister’s);

There are threedegrees of comparison qualitative adjectives: positive (Beautiful), comparative (prettier) and excellent (most beautiful). The degree of comparison can be expressed not in one word, but in several (smarter, most beautiful). In this case, they speak of a composite or analytical form. If the degree of comparison is expressed in one word, as in all the examples from the previous paragraph, the form is called simple, or syntactic.

Qualitative adjectives have full and short form. Full form adjective denotes a feature that is conceivable outside of time (steep bank, cheerful girl, round face). Short form an adjective denotes a feature of an object at a given specific moment in time (steep bank - the bank is steep, a cheerful girl - the girl is cheerful, a round face - a round face). Adjectives in short form do not change by case, but change by gender and number, that is, they take the corresponding endings of masculine, feminine, neuter and plural, which are attached to the stems of full adjectives.

Syntactic functions of the adjective: the endings of adjectives indicate the syntactic connection of adjectives with nouns, that is, they perform the functions of grammatical forms of agreement with nouns. In a sentence, adjectives are most often a definition or a nominal part of the predicate.