FOLK LATIN - the once-go-vor-form of the la-Tin-language, the pro-ti-post-installation of its writing-li-te-ra-tur -no form.
The term “folk Latin” and the equally meaningful term “vulgar la-tyn” (from the Latin vulgaris - simple-to-native) arose in -zi with a question about the origin of Romance languages. In the 15th century, L. Bru-ni, in a dispute about the origin of the Italian language, expressed the idea that folk Latin, which Bru-ni is -val-Italian vulgar language, is-to-no su-st-vo-va-la next to the written Latin language. At the beginning of the 19th century, in connection with the emergence of a comparative historical method of studying Romance languages, folk Latin became -it is considered as their ancestral language. During the 19th century, folk and written Latin of most scientists (G. Schuhardt, German scientists A. Fuchs, G. Gröber, etc.) op-re-de- wow, like two different languages. At the end of the 19th century, this opinion was expressed by M. Bonnet (France) and the Prague linguist J. Mol. They believed that folk Latin was widely seen in its historical development in different regions of the Roman Empire colloquial Latin, on the basis of which a literary language arose, in turn having a known influence on colloquial speech.
The appearance of the word “folk Latin” is due to the fact that the Latin language is for-fi-si-ro-van only in writing (as the pra- vi-lo, whether-te-ra-tur-noy) form and spoken Latin speech can be judged primarily on the basis of indirect data. In connection with this, the traditional method of describing folk Latin is reduced to the analysis of those phenomena that are not from in literary language. At the same time, it is clear that the basic lexical and grammatical fund of the language, common to colloquial and literary speech, is not described. ka.
Since “no-one has ever written in the national language” (J. Mol), the main source com information about her is a method of re-con-st-ru-tion of ling-gvis-ti-che-skaya. It makes it possible to restore pro-no-she-ness, vocabulary composition and grammatical features of colloquial speech. chi. The data obtained by this method must be verified by the text. Written memories of the Latin language (for the use of Pompeii over-pi-sey, some over-pi-sey of Ri-ma and , perhaps, the speeches are free-from-pu-schen-ni-kov Tri-mal-khio-na in “Sa-ti-ri-ko-ne” Pe-tro-niya) not from-ra -they have full special features of colloquial speech.
Exactly folk Latin serves archaic texts dating back to that period when it has not yet been composed - the literary language, the later texts, created then, when the influence of the literary language was os-la-be-lo, and the texts, the genre of which stipulating the use of spoken language. The first, in addition to the archaic texts, include legal and sacred texts and pro-iz-ve-de-tions of the which style, due to its specificity, preserves ancient formulas and ancient expressions. To the second - a large number of tombstones and, above all, Christian texts. The third is ko-media (especially ben-but Plav-ta) and atel-la-ny, sa-ti-ry, letters, special literature [for example, tract-tat Vit-ru-viya “Ten books about art-hi-tek-tu-re” (“De architectura libri de-cem”; published in Russian in 1936, 3rd edition in 2005), “Mulomedicina Chironis” ( “Ve-te-ri-nar-noe art-art-st-vo Khi-ro-na”), etc.]. Dr. source of information about spoken speech - works of Roman grammars (especially the so-called “Appendix Probi”), glosses and similarities (small comments in the margins and between the lines of the ru-ko-pi-si).
The pro-ble-ma dialect-no-sti of folk Latin has its own sides and opponents. G. Shu-hardt (“Vo-ka-lism of the native la-ty-ni”, 1866-1868) gave a gi-po-thesis about the dialect of the people Latin, and the known uniformity of written sources was explained by the work done within the boundaries of the Roman Empire. rii ed-but-about-the-mo-not-swarm of letters. He allowed the influence of local languages on the formation of these dialects. In his opinion, the oldest dialects were in the territory of Italy [southern, developing under the influence of wasps -which languages (see Italic languages), Middle and Northern, which were influenced by the Umbrian language and Gallic language], then a dialect was created in Is-pa-nia, from which the dialect of Lu-zi- ta-nii, later the dialect of Gaul appeared and, most recently, Da-kia.
A special opinion about the role of the local substratum was expressed by J. Mol, who insisted that he had more knowledge -what is the case with the interaction of languages that belong to one language group. According to this theory, the Latin language was much more influenced by the Italian languages, and not by the languages of the Roman provinces. Many ro-ma-ni-sties adhere to this gi-po-te-zy [M. V. Ser-gi-ev-sky, V. Vää-nya-nen (Finland), V. Pi-za-ni, etc.]. The study of modern dialects of Italy (see Italian language) and other territories of the former Roman Empire based on their use next-to-va-te-lam [V. von Wartburg, G. Rolfs (Germany), M. Kshepinsky (Poland), G. Lausberg (Germany), Piza-ni] Let us conclude that the modern Romanesque dialects are based on folk Latin dialects. Based on the unity of written Latin monuments, there is a gi-po-te-za about the unity of folk Latin.
At the end of the 19th century, it was held up before the sta-vi-te-li-mla-do-gram-ma-tiz-ma, because of how re-zul-ta-you their re- kon-st-ru-tsii at-in-di-li to the presentation of the existence of a single pro-to-ro-man-skogo language (Urromanisch). Their point of view is distinguished by the American linguist G. F. Maller, who originates the dialectal division of folk Latin right up to end of the 8th century. The question of the chronological framework of folk Latin is being resolved in different ways. Most scientists (A. Fuchs, G. Gröber, G. Schuhardt, J. Mol, M. V. Sergievsky, etc.) they draw folk Latin from archaic latin. Mla-do-gram-ma-ti-ki consider that folk Latin is the re-zul-tat of the development of the classical literary language, and from-but-si-li-it- phenomenon by the 1st century (V. Meyer-Lub-ke). Torturing the perio-di-za-tion of folk Latin based on cultural (Fuchs) or linguistic (Schu-hardt) factors.
In folk Latin there are a number of patterns that were developed in the Romance languages. Musical impact is pre-formed in di-na-mi-che-skoe, in some cases because -nya-this is the place of the hit. In vo-ka-lyz-me, the accumulation of di-phtones occurs, how many different vowels replace - there are ka-che-st-ven-ny-mi, there are 3 dialectal regions, different sys-te-ma-mi voices -nyh [Sar-di-niya, with a system of 5 vowels (i, e, a, o, u); Balkan Peninsula, with a system of 6 vowels (i, ẹ, Çе, a, o, u), and other regions of Ro-ma-nii, with system of 7 vowels (i, ̣e, Ç e, a, Ç o, ̣o, u)]. In connection with the har-rak-te-ra of accentuation, the os-lab-le-nie of unstressed vowels occurs, with - leading to the mixing of e and i, sometimes to the prominence of the vowel (in the middle syllables). In kon-so-nan-tiz-me ut-ra-chi-va-et-sya h, the process of moving u ̂ Ow>v, as well as i ^, e ̂ O j, pa-la-ta-li-za-tion of the group “con-vowel + j”, back-vowel-before vowels before-no-rya -yes, oz-v-n-che-nie of the inter-in-cal-deaf, up-ro-sche-nie of he-mi-nat, from-pa-de-nie of the final con- vowels, disappearance of n before s, appearance of pro-te-che-s (looks at Pro-te-za) vowel . mi-la-tion and dis-si-mi-la-tion, typical for spoken language.
In morphology, the sus-st-vi-tel-noe ut-ra-chi-va-et ka-te-go-ria of the neuter genus, is reduced to two or up to one number of steps, the 4th and 5th declinations disappear, with two and one th windows. Pro-is-ho-dit for the analytic degrees of comparison of syn-te-ti-che-ski-mi (see Ana-li-tism in languages knowledge, Syn-the-tism). Often the demonstrative places ille 'that' and ipse 'himself' are used in a role close to the op-re-de-len-but- mu art-tik-lyu Roman languages; differential-fe-ren-tsi-ru-yut-sya accented and unaccented forms of personal and possessive places. The merging of the 2nd and 3rd conjugations is taking place, the root vowel of the water is being restored but the gla-go-la, the de-substantial verbs, as well as the syn-the-tic windows of the passive voice, disappear. Difficult tenses of the passive form produce new meanings. Ras-pro-stra-nya-et-sya per-fect on ui. Pe-ri-phrases with in-fi-ni-ti-vom have a mod-distance meaning (see mod-distance).
In the syn-so-si-se, the pro-is-ho-dit replaces the pa-de-forms of the pre-false con-st-hands, from-me-et - a number of words (“subject+pre-di-cat+object” instead of “sub-ect+ object+ pre-di-cat”), more simply -ra-nen-now-mi [compared with sub-de-mining con-st-ru-tions (see Sub-division)] become-but-vyat-sya- chi-nitelnaya kon-st-ru-tion (see So-chi-ne-nie), more often in comparison with classical La-you-new used-re-la-et-Xia in- di-ka-tiv (see On-clination) in the pre-exact pre-lo-same-yahs, the turn accusativus cum infinitivo you-close-to-xia complete prepositions with soyu-za-mi quod 'what; in some way that' and quia 'in a way that', union si 'if' na-chi-na-et is referred to in kos-ven-nyh in -pro-sah in the meaning of 'li', new unions are being formed.
In the word-about-ra-zo-va-nii shi-ro-ko there are diminutive suffixes, nouns with suff-fik-s -arius, pri-la-ga-tel-nye with suf-fik-sa-mi -a̅nus and -o̅sus, intensive verbs, verbs with several additions. In the lexicon there appears to be a large layer derived from the Greek language, semantic origins come from me-no-niya.
Distributed in Italy, and later in other provinces of the Roman Empire.
1. Meaning of the term
The term folk or vulgar Latin can be used in different meanings. It could mean:
- Spoken Latin of the Roman Empire;
- Spoken Latin from Pisno-Roman times became the basis of the Romance languages;
- In the narrow sense, the Proto-Romance language of Western Romania is the proto-language of those languages that were distributed northwest of the La Spezia-Rimini line isogloss in France and the Iberian Peninsula, as well as the Romance languages of North Africa.
- In a broader sense that goes beyond linguistics, folk Latin refers to the innovations of late antique texts from the 2nd century that differ from classical Latin.
2. Proto-language of the Romance group
It is Vernacular Latin (not Classical Latin) that is the immediate ancestor of the Romance languages. On the other hand, not all regions of its distribution now have Romance languages. Folk Latin reached its greatest geographical spread in the 3rd century AD. That is, during the period of maximum expansion of the borders of the Roman Empire. From the end of the 3rd, and especially between the 5th and 15th centuries, during the Great Migration, the linguistic boundaries of the Vernacular Latin (Romance) area in the regions of the so-called Old Romania were significantly reduced. Thus, in North Africa, folk Latin was completely supplanted by Arabic, and in Great Britain - by German dialects (although folk Latin had a significant influence on local Celtic languages). Regions where the Latin language gradually disappeared (Pannonia, Illyria, Great Britain, Roman Germany, Roman Africa) were called Romania Submersa.
3. History
Cantar de Mio Cid (Song of my Cid) is the earliest text in Spanish.
Vulgar Latin developed differently in different provinces of the Roman Empire, and various Romance languages gradually emerged from it. The priests were ordered to preach in their native language, since ordinary people could not understand Latin. Within a whole generation, the oath of Strasbourg (842), a treaty between Charles's grandsons Charles the Bald and Louis the German, was proposed and written down in a language that was already different from Latin.
4. Examples
The first to break away from the general folk Latin area of the Roman Empire were the speakers of the so-called Balkan Latin, who continued to inhabit Roman Dacia (now Transylvania), which the Roman administration officially abandoned in the year. Thus began the process of formation of modern Romanian and Moldavian languages.
See also
Notes
- Vulgar Latin - not from the modern adjective "vulgar", but in the meaning of "general"
Literature
- Frederick Bodmer: Die Sprachen der Welt. Geschichte - Grammatik - Wortschatz in vergleichender Darstellung. Parkland-Verlag, Kln 1997, .
- Eugenio Coseriu: Das sogenannte "Vulgrlatein" und die ersten Differenzierungen in der Romania. Eine kurze Einfhrung in die romanische Sprachwissenschaft. In: Reinhold Kontzi (Hrsg.): Zur Entstehung der romanischen Sprachen. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1978,
The history of the Latin language can be divided into three periods: archaic, classical and late.
Archaic period. Covers the period of time from the first written evidence of the Latin language to the end of the 2nd century. BC. This period is known from very few monuments (only a few religious hymns and some inscriptions found during excavations). Despite this, these documents indicate the difference between the archaic period of the language and its later forms, such as no doubling of consonants (mitat – mittat), ancient diphthongs (duenos – bonus), preservation S in the position between vowels(iovesat – iurat), and also final D (ted, med – te, me). By the middle of the 3rd century. BC. Rome's conquest of other Italian tribes ends and its struggle with the Greek tribes in the south of the Apennine Peninsula begins, after which all of Italy is united under the rule of Rome. The speech of traders, sailors, slaves and artisans is filled with Greek loanwords - reflected in Latin. The material that allows us to judge the state of the language at that time belongs to to the Greek poet Andronicus, the comedy of Plautus and Terence help to judge the literature of that time (how the art of oratory began and how it initially relied on the Greek analogue). Comedies are interesting because they remain words and expressions from the spoken language of the time, those linguistic features that were not developed in artistic literature, but passed into the Romance languages.
Classical period. Conventionally dated to the 1st century. BC. (81 – Cicero's speeches). II century BC We call this period "Golden Age of Latin", from Cicero to the death of Augustus (14 AD). Second half (I-II centuries AD) is called the “Silver Age”", TV refers to it Seneca, Apuleius and Petronius. Despite the variety of stylistic means, the language does not change throughout the period. 'Cause this is the century literary, not linguistic. How is it different from the previous period? In the huge Roman state Latin replaced all other languages, the dialects remained. A single literary language has emerged that allows people from different areas to understand each other. They had a hand in the formation of the language Caesar, Sallust, Titus Livius, Catullus, Cicero. A literary language is a language with a fixed norm of use, based on grammarians who differed among different authors only in stylistic features. In parallel, the everyday language of the Romans and the vernacular of the lower strata of the population coexist in the Roman Empire. Different segments of the population have different features of vernacular. Cicero writes letters in simple, everyday language, but his literary works are in classical language. However, very little is known about the spoken language of that time, because it was practically not recorded anywhere.
Late period . Covers III-IV centuries. AD – crisis of Rome and division into Western and Eastern parts, fall of the Western Roman Empire(V century) and the formation of barbarian states on its territory. This entails colossal changes: schools are closing, art and literature are in decline, the language norm is losing authority. However, for administrative functions, interpretation of documents, etc. (where Latin remains the norm) literate people are needed. Schools modeled on the imperial ones, where Latin was studied (for the aristocracy), remained, but over time they were replaced by ordinary schools, where teaching was conducted in a vulgar language - they belonged to the clergy. Most of the population was completely illiterate. The clergy considered thin literature to be pagan and prohibited it. It taught Latin grammar and simplified the Latin language so that it would be understandable to the common people. However, at this time the difference between literary Latin and colloquial Latin becomes even greater. After all, the oral language is developing, and the literary language, although being simplified, remains stagnant. Over time, “mistakes” penetrate into fiction, and oral speech can be recreated from them. These errors occur in a similar way to the archaic period: omission of n before s, displacement of unstressed u and o, loss of final m.
Folk Latin - is the commonly spoken Latin language in all periods of its existence, with special consideration for all those innovations that appeared in the late period of its development, immediately preceding the period of formation of the Romance languages. However, the basis of the Romance languages is the lexical and grammatical fund of the Latin language , common to all his styles. The question of the unity of folk Latin is very acute, because written forms are stable, but the oral form is rarely recorded, but has regional differences. So V.Veenan sees the influence of Oscan in a number of Latin forms of Pompeian inscriptions (fata – facta, isse, issus – ipse), J.Pearson distinguishes among the features of Latin in Gaul mixing v and b (laudavelis – laudabilis, vibus – vivus), t And d (aput-apud, reliquit-reliquid), use of the genetive of time, expansion of the meaning of the word filius(son > boy), infants(child, child), A. Carnoy in Iberian inscriptions notes the nominative for as – ae, H. Miheescu writes about shock closed transition o > u , and metathesis : iseplucrum – sepulcrum, indicating that these phenomena are typical of the Eastern Romanesque area.
When folk Latin developed into Romance languages is a mystery. Most scientists ( Schuchardt, Ascoli), it is believed that in the VI-VII centuries; Muller- that until VIII the only spoken language was folk Latin.
Written and spoken Latin have always been different. The phonetics of folk Latin in the late period was characterized changing the musical accent to dynamic. Vowels no longer differ in length and shortness , maintaining only timbre differences ĭ And ē merged into e, A ŭ And ō - V O: menus-minus, column-columna. This caused in unstressed syllables frequent mixing i And e/ u And o : senatus non sinatus, ductrinae – doctrinae, and loss of an unstressed vowel (syncopation): speculum non speclum. Diphthongs disappeared: Emilio - Aemilio, Phebus - Phoebus, Olo - Aulo.
Significant changes have occurred in consonatism of folk Latin of the late period . The most important of them are palatalization[k] before [e], [i], evidence of which is the confusion in spelling ci And ti: terminacions – terminationes(delimitation); weakening of intervocalic consonants - transition of deaf to voiced : pagatus – pacatus(peaceful), amadus-amatus(Darling); voiced into fricatives and the related reverse phenomenon, Betacism (transition v V b): plebes non pelvis, bibere-vivere; germinate into simple consonants: bela – bella. Of the other changes, the most general ones are dropping of final consonants : ama, valia, peria (amat, valeat long live, pereat let him die); silencing of aspirates : orti-horti; dropping n before s : omnipotes – omnipotens(omnipotent); in combination s+consonant, at the beginning of the word the so-called “ prosthetic vowel » ispose – sponsae(to the wife). In morphology occurs replacement of some syntactic forms with analytical ones . In the verb system it is widespread use of paraphrases , celebrated back in the classical period, mainly with the verb habere, preceding the formation of the secondary periphrastic verbal system: nihil habeo ad te scribere, plura mandare habebam. In the name system occurs replacing cases with prepositional constructions , mixing of case forms: Saturninus cum discentes (cum discentibus with students). It is also noted simplification of the declination system (reduction of five types to three): senati (senatus Senate), mani (manus hands), materiam caedere - materiam(to cut down the forest), the disappearance of the neuter category: balneus, caelus, vinus (balneum bathhouse, caelum sky, vinum wine). Adjectives have development of descriptive forms to express degrees of comparison : plus dulce, plus felix, plus popularis, magis praeclarum(more clear). Becomes regular use of personal pronouns : sequimur nos ( we follow) ego stupeo(I'm numb). The Paradigm of Personal Pronouns replenished with the pronoun 3l – ille, illa, previously appearing along with other demonstrative pronouns: ille inquit(He said). The use of this pronoun before a noun is also approved to convey the general meaning of definiteness: ille locus(place).
The syntax of Vernacular Latin is characterized by tendency towards direct word order , which returns to normal in the late period, when they become regular silencing of final consonants, reduction of unstressed vowels in the final syllable . Word order begins to perform a grammatical function, compensating for the loss of case forms : itaque intravimus balneum(so we entered the bathhouse). Syntactic phrases accum inf and nomin cum inf are replaced by subordinate clauses: scis enim quod dedi epulum(you know that I gave a feast). Many non-finite forms of the verb are either falling out of use ( supinum, participium futuri, gerundivum, infinitives bud.vr), or limit the scope of their use ( partecipium praesentis, gerundium).
The lexical composition of a language changes due to a large number of new formations and shifts in the meaning of words. Is becoming widespread emotional vocabulary (words with diminutive, augmentative, derogatory and other connotations ), gradually losing its stylistic coloring from constant use: auris non oricla (auriculum- ear-ear). With the help of prefixes and suffixes, many new nouns, adjectives and verbs are formed: dormit ORIUM (bedroom), nat IVITAS (birth), culpa BILis (reprehensible), PRO longare(prolong). Many of these word formations are not recorded in Latin texts, but are reconstructed from Romance languages ( it.Usare, isp. usar, fr. user = la t. usare); (it. Arrivare, fr. Arriver = lat. adripare). Changes in the meaning of words occur due to the metaphor inherent in colloquial speech ( lat. Testa- pot, it. testa, fr. tête head), expansion and limitation of meaning ( LAT. camera– vault, it. camera, isp. camara, fr. chambre– room), abbreviation of descriptive expressions in oral use ( lat. tempus hibernum- winter time, it. inverno, isp. invierno, fr. hiver, rum. iarnă- winter).
Widely used complex adverbs and prepositions : de retro (rear), ab ante (in front), de inter (inside), a foras (outside). Numerous borrowings from the languages of neighboring peoples appear.
Folk Latin.
Folk Latin concept.
Folk (vulgar) Latin - from Lat. vulgus, "people". In the 19th century this term was understood as sermo vulgaris, the language of the social lower classes, opposed to the language of classical Latin works. At the moment, most novelists believe that folk Latin is the generally spoken Latin language in all periods of its existence, taking into account all the innovations that appeared in the late period of its development, which preceded the period of formation of the Romance languages. But when studying Romance languages, it is necessary to take into account all varieties of Latin and all aspects of the linguistic material.
The problem of the unity of folk Latin
.
All texts are relatively uniform in terms of language. But different Romance languages developed from Latin, hence there were territorial differences. Rome conquered various territories, leading to regional variants.
! Schuchardt: narlat is “the sum of linguistic levels and dialects.”
The problem of the chronology of folk Latin
.
The decline of folk Latin and the emergence of Romance languages most likely occurred in the period from the 6th to the 7th centuries. There is also the idea of the death of classical written Latin, which took place in the process of degeneration of oral speech into Romance languages. As soon as schools ceased their activities and the literary tradition ended (the period of the collapse of the Roman Empire), the connection between written language and oral speech was broken. Oral speech continues to develop, written language freezes in development and loses expressiveness.
Features of folk Latin
.
Discrepancies with the literary norm are characteristic. Becoming regular, they find their development in Romance languages.
Phonetics. Changing musical stress to dynamic. Vowels cease to differ in length and shortness, retaining only timbre differences. i-short and e-long merge into e, u-short and o-long into o: minus à menus, columna à colomna. Frequent confusion of i and e, u and o: senatus à sinatus, doctrinae à ductrinae. There is also a loss of an unstressed vowel - syncopation: speculum à speclum. Diphthongs go: Phoebus à Phebus.
The changes in consonantism are also significant. Pathalization of k before e, i, as a result - confusion in the spelling of ci and ti: terminationes à terminaciones. Weakening of intervocalic consonants, transition of voiceless to voiced: pacatus à pagatus. The transition of voiced to fricatives and the associated betacism (transition of v to b): vivere à bibere. Transition of geminate into simple consonants: bella à bela.
The loss of final consonants also plays a significant role: amat, valeat à ama, valea. Silencing aspirates h: horti à orti. Dropping n before s: omnipotens à omnipotes. A prosthetic vowel appears before the combination “s + sogl” at the beginning of the word: sponsae à ispose.
Morphology. Replacement of synthetic forms with analytical ones. For a verb - the use of paraphrases, especially with the verb habere: nihil habeo ad te scribere. For the name - replacement of cases with prepositional constructions: Saturnus cum discentibus à Saturnus cum discentes. Simplification of declination (from 5 to 3x). Disappearance of the neuter gender: caelum, vinum à caelus, vinus. Adjectives develop descriptive forms to express the degree of comparison: plus dulce. Personal pronouns are regularly used and the 3rd singular pronoun appears. ille/illa.
Syntax. Tendency towards direct word order. The order begins to compensate for the loss of case forms. Accusativus cum inf/nominativus cum inf are replaced by subordinate clauses: scis enim quod dedi epulum. Non-finite forms of the verb are falling out of use: supin, participium futuri, gerund, infinitives of the future tense.
Vocabulary. The composition of vocabulary changes due to new formations and shifts in meaning. Emotional vocabulary is widespread, losing its stylistic connotation: auris à auricula. New words are formed using prefixes and suffixes: dormitorium, prolongare (this can be recovered from Romance languages). The meanings change thanks to the metaphor: testa “pot” à tête “head”. Complex adverbs/prepositions are used: de post, de sub, de inter.
Below are 170 Latin catchphrases and proverbs with transliteration (transcription) and accents.
Sign ў denotes a non-syllable sound [y].
Sign g x denotes a fricative sound [γ] , which corresponds to G in the Belarusian language, as well as the corresponding sound in Russian words God, yeah and so on.
- A mari usque ad mare.
[A mari uskve ad mare].
From sea to sea.
Motto on the coat of arms of Canada. - Ab ovo usque ad mala.
[Ab ovo uskve ad malya].
From eggs to apples, that is, from beginning to end.
The Romans' lunch began with eggs and ended with apples. - Abiens abi!
[Abiens abi!]
Leaving go! - Acta est fabŭla.
[Acta est fabula].
The show is over.
Suetonius, in The Lives of the Twelve Caesars, writes that Emperor Augustus, on his last day, asked his friends as they entered whether they thought he had “played the comedy of life well.” - Alea jacta est.
[Alea yakta est].
Die is cast.
Used in cases where they talk about an irrevocably made decision. The words spoken by Julius Caesar as his troops crossed the Rubicon River, which separated Umbria from the Roman province of Cisalpine Gaul, i.e. Northern Italy, in 49 BC. e. Julius Caesar, breaking the law according to which he, as a proconsul, could command an army only outside of Italy, led it, finding himself on Italian territory, and thereby started a civil war. - Amīcus est anĭmus unus in duōbus corporĭbus.
[Amicus est animus unus in duobus corporibus].
A friend is one soul in two bodies. - Amīcus Plato, sed magis amīca verĭtas.
[Amicus Plato, sed magis amika veritas].
Plato is my friend, but truth is dearer (Aristotle).
Used when they want to emphasize that truth is above all. - Amor tussisque non celantur.
[Amor tussiskve non tselyantur].
You can't hide love and a cough. - Aquila non captat muscas.
[Aquila non captat muscas].
The eagle doesn't catch flies. - Audacia pro muro habētur.
[Aўdatsia about muro g x abetur].
Courage replaces walls (literally: there is courage instead of walls). - Audiātur et altĕra pars!
[Audiatur et altera pars!]
Let the other side be heard too!
On impartial consideration of disputes. - Aurea mediocritas.
[Aўrea mediocritas].
The Golden Mean (Horace).
About people who avoid extremes in their judgments and actions. - Aut vincere, aut mori.
[Aut vintsere, aut mori].
Either win or die. - Ave, Caesar, moritūri te salūtant!
[Ave, Caesar, morituri te salutant!]
Hello, Caesar, those going to death salute you!
Greeting of the Roman gladiators, - Bibāmus!
[Beebamus!]
<Давайте>Let's have a drink! - Caesărem decet stantem mori.
[Tesarem detset stantem mori].
It is fitting for Caesar to die standing. - Canis vivus melior est leōne mortuo.
[Canis vivus melior est leone mortuo].
A living dog is better than a dead lion.
Wed. from Russian proverb “Better a bird in the hand than a pie in the sky.” - Carum est, quod rarum est.
[Karum est, kvod rarum est].
What is valuable is what is rare. - Causa causārum.
[Caўza kaўzarum].
Cause of causes (main reason). - Cave canem!
[Kawe kanem!]
Be afraid of the dog!
Inscription on the entrance of a Roman house; used as a general warning: be careful, attentive. - Cedant arma togae!
[Tsedant arma toge!]
Let the weapon give way to the toga! (Let peace replace war.) - Clavus clavo pellĭtur.
[Klyavus klyavo pallitur].
The wedge is knocked out by the wedge. - Cognosce te ipsum.
[Kognosce te ipsum].
Know yourself.
Latin translation of a Greek saying inscribed on the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. - Cras melius fore.
[Kras melius forê].
<Известно,>that tomorrow will be better. - Cujus regio, ejus lingua.
[Kuyus regio, eius lingua].
Whose country is, whose language is. - Curriculum vitae.
[Curriculum vitae].
Description of life, autobiography. - Damnant, quod non intellĕgunt.
[Damnant, quod non intellegunt].
They judge because they don't understand. - De gustĭbus non est disputandum.
[De gustibus non est disputandum].
There should be no arguing about tastes. - Destruam et aedificābo.
[Destruam et edifikabo].
I will destroy and build. - Deus ex machina.
[Deus ex makhina].
God from the machine, i.e. an unexpected ending.
In ancient drama, the denouement was the appearance of God in front of the audience from a special machine, who helped resolve a difficult situation. - Dictum est factum.
[Diktum est factum].
No sooner said than done. - Dies diem docet.
[Dies diem dotset].
One day teaches another.
Wed. from Russian proverb “The morning is wiser than the evening.” - Divĭde et impĕra!
[Divide et impera!]
Divide and rule!
The principle of Roman aggressive policy, adopted by subsequent conquerors. - Dixi et anĭmam levāvi.
[Dixie et animam levavi].
He said it and relieved his soul.
Biblical expression. - Do, ut des; facio, ut facias.
[Do, ut des; facio, ut facias].
I give that you give; I want you to do it.
A Roman law formula establishing the legal relationship between two persons. Wed. from Russian with the expression “You give me - I give you.” - Docendo discĭmus.
[Dotsendo discimus].
By teaching, we learn ourselves.
The expression comes from a statement by the Roman philosopher and writer Seneca. - Domus propria - domus optima.
[Domus propria - domus optima].
Your own home is the best. - Dónec erís felíx, multós numerábis amícos.
[Donek eris felix, multos numerabis amikos].
As long as you are happy, you will have many friends (Ovid). - Dum spiro, spero.
[Dum spiro, spero].
While I breathe I hope. - Duōbus litigantĭbus, tertius gaudet.
[Duobus litigantibus, tertius gaўdet].
When two people quarrel, the third one rejoices.
Hence another expression - tertius gaudens ‘third rejoicing’, i.e. a person who benefits from the strife of the two sides. - Edĭmus, ut vivāmus, non vivĭmus, ut edāmus.
[Edimus, ut vivamus, non vivimus, ut edamus].
We eat to live, not live to eat (Socrates). - Elephanti corio circumtentus est.
[Elephanti corio circumtentus est].
Endowed with elephant skin.
The expression is used when talking about an insensitive person. - Errāre humānum est.
[Errare g x umanum est].
To err is human (Seneca). - Est deus in nobis.
[Est de "us in no" bis].
There is God in us (Ovid). - Est modus in rebus.
[Est modus in rebus].
There is a measure in things, that is, there is a measure for everything. - Etiám sanáto vúlnĕre, cícatríx manét.
[Etiam sanato vulnere, cikatrix manet].
And even when the wound has healed, the scar remains (Publius Syrus). - Ex libris.
[Ex libris].
“From Books”, bookplate, sign of the owner of the book. - Éxēgí monument(um)…
[Exegi monument (mind)…]
I erected a monument (Horace).
The beginning of Horace's famous ode on the theme of the immortality of the poet's works. The ode caused a large number of imitations and translations in Russian poetry. - Facile dictu, difficile factu.
[Facile diktu, difficile factu].
Easy to say, hard to do. - Fames artium magister.
[Fames artium master]
Hunger is a teacher of the arts.
Wed. from Russian proverb “The need for invention is cunning.” - Felicĭtas humāna nunquam in eōdem statu permănet.
[Felitsitas g x umana nunkvam in eodem statu permanet].
Human happiness is never permanent. - Felicĭtas multos habet amīcos.
[Felicitas multos g x abet amikos].
Happiness has many friends. - Felicitātem ingentem anĭmus ingens decet.
[Felicitatem ingentem animus ingens detset].
A great spirit deserves great happiness. - Felix criminĭbus nullus erit diu.
[Felix crimibus nullus erith diu].
No one will be happy with crime for long. - Felix, qui nihil debet.
[Felix, qui nig x il debet].
Happy is the one who owes nothing. - Festina lente!
[Festina tape!]
Hurry slowly (do everything slowly).
One of the common sayings of Emperor Augustus (63 BC - 14 AD). - Fiat lux!
[Fiat luxury!]
Let there be light! (Biblical expression).
In a broader sense, it is used when talking about grandiose achievements. The inventor of printing, Guttenberg, was depicted holding an unfolded sheet of paper with the inscription “Fiat lux!” - Finis corōnat opus.
[Finis coronat opus].
End crowns the work.
Wed. from Russian proverb “The end is the crown of the matter.” - Gaúdia príncipiúm nostrí sunt saépe dolóris.
[Gaўdia principium nostri sunt sepe doleris].
Joys are often the beginning of our sorrows (Ovid). - Habent sua fata libelli.
[G x abent sua fata libelli].
Books have their own destiny. - Hic mortui vivunt, hic muti loquuntur.
[G x ik mortui vivunt, g x ik muti lekvuntur].
Here the dead are alive, here the dumb speak.
The inscription above the entrance to the library. - Hodie mihi, cras tibi.
[G x odie mig x i, kras tibi].
Today for me, tomorrow for you. - Homo doctus in se semper divitias habet.
[G x omo doktus in se semper divitsias g x abet].
A learned man always has wealth within himself. - Homo homini lupus est.
[G x omo g x omini lupus est].
Man is a wolf to man (Plautus). - Homo propōnit, sed Deus dispōnit.
[G h omo proponit, sed Deus disponit].
Man proposes, but God disposes. - Homo quisque fortūnae faber.
[G x omo quiskve fortune faber].
Every person is the creator of his own destiny. - Homo sum: humāni nihil a me aliēnum (esse) puto.
[G x omo sum: g x umani nig x il a me alienum (esse) puto].
I am a man: nothing human, as I think, is alien to me. - Honōres mutant mores.
[G x onores mutant mores].
Honors change morals (Plutarch). - Hostis humāni genĕris.
[G x ostis g x umani generis].
The enemy of the human race. - Id agas, ut sis felix, non ut videāris.
[Id agas, ut sis felix, non ut videaris].
Act in such a way as to be happy, and not to appear (Seneca).
From "Letters to Lucilius". - In aquā scribĕre.
[In aqua skribere].
Writing on water (Catullus). - In hoc signo vinces.
[In g x ok signo vinces].
Under this banner you will win.
The motto of the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great, placed on his banner (IV century). Currently used as a trademark. - In optĭmā formā.
[In optimal form].
In top shape. - In tempŏre opportūno.
[In tempore opportuno].
At a convenient time. - In vino veritas.
[In wine veritas].
The truth is in the wine.
Corresponds to the expression “What is on the sober mind is on the tongue of the drunk.” - Invēnit et perfēcit.
[Invenit et perfecit].
Invented and improved.
Motto of the French Academy of Sciences. - Ipse dixit.
[Ipse dixit].
He said it himself.
An expression characterizing the position of thoughtless admiration for someone's authority. Cicero, in his essay “On the Nature of the Gods,” quoting this saying from the students of the philosopher Pythagoras, says that he does not approve of the manners of the Pythagoreans: instead of proving their opinion, they referred to their teacher with words ipse dixit. - Ipso facto.
[Ipso facto].
By the very fact. - Is fecit, cui prodest.
[Is fecit, kui prodest].
It was done by someone who benefits (Lucius Cassius).
Cassius, the ideal of a fair and intelligent judge in the eyes of the Roman people (hence Yes another expression judex Cassiānus ‘fair judge’), in criminal trials always raised the question: “Who benefits? Who benefits from this? The nature of people is such that no one wants to become a villain without calculation and benefit for themselves. - Latrante uno, latrat statim et alter canis.
[Latrante uno, latrat statim et alter canis].
When one barks, the other dog immediately barks. - Legem brevem esse oportet.
[Legham bravem essay opportet].
The law should be brief. - Littĕra scripta manet.
[Littera scripta manet].
The written letter remains.
Wed. from Russian proverb “What is written with a pen cannot be cut out with an axe.” - Melior est certa pax, quam sperāta victoria.
[Melior est certa pax, kvam sperata victoria].
Better is certain peace than hope of victory (Titus Livius). - Memento mori!
[Memento mori!]
Memento Mori.
The greeting that was exchanged at a meeting by the monks of the Trappist order, founded in 1664. It is used both as a reminder of the inevitability of death, the transience of life, and in a figurative sense - of a threatening danger or of something sorrowful or sad. - Mens sana in corpŏre sano.
[Mens sana in korpore sano].
A healthy mind in a healthy body (Juvenal).
Usually this saying expresses the idea of harmonious human development. - Mutāto nomĭne, de te fabŭla narrātur.
[Mutato nomine, de te fabula narrative].
The tale is told about you, only the name (Horace) is changed. - Nec sibi, nec altĕri.
[Nek sibi, nek alteri].
Neither yourself nor anyone else. - Nec sibi, nec altĕri.
[Nek sibi, nek alteri].
Neither yourself nor anyone else. - Nigrius pice.
[Nigrius pice].
Blacker than tar. - Nil adsuetudĭne majus.
[Nil adsvetudine maius].
There is nothing stronger than habit.
From a cigarette brand. - Noli me tanĕre!
[Noli me tangere!]
Dont touch me!
Expression from the Gospel. - Nomen est omen.
[Nomen est omen].
“A name is a sign, a name foreshadows something,” that is, a name speaks about its bearer, characterizes him. - Nomĭna sunt odiōsa.
[Nomina sunt odioza].
Names are hateful, that is, naming names is undesirable. - Non progrĕdi est regrĕdi.
[Non progradi est regradi].
Not going forward means going backwards. - Non sum, qualis eram.
[Non sum, kvalis eram].
I am not the same as I was before (Horace). - Nota bene! (NB)
[Nota bene!]
Pay attention (lit.: notice well).
A mark used to draw attention to important information. - Nulla dies sine lineā.
[Nulla diez sine linea].
Not a day without a touch; not a day without a line.
Pliny the Elder reports that the famous ancient Greek painter Apelles (IV century BC) “had the habit, no matter how busy he was, not to miss a single day without practicing his art, drawing at least one line; this gave rise to the saying.” - Nullum est jam dictum, quod non sit dictum prius.
[Nullum est yam diktum, quod non sit diktum prius].
They don’t say anything anymore that hasn’t been said before. - Nullum pericŭlum sine pericŭlo vincĭtur.
[Nullum periculum sine perikulyo vincitur].
No danger can be overcome without risk. - O tempŏra, o mores!
[O tempora, oh mores!]
Oh times, oh morals! (Cicero) - Omnes homĭnes aequāles sunt.
[Omnes g x omines equales sunt].
All people are the same. - Omnia mea mecum porto.
[Omnia mea mekum porto].
I carry everything I have with me (Biant).
The phrase belongs to one of the “seven wise men” Biant. When his hometown of Priene was taken by the enemy and the residents tried to take more of their things with them in flight, someone advised him to do the same. “That’s what I do, because I carry everything that’s mine with me,” he answered, meaning that only spiritual wealth can be considered an inalienable property. - Otium post negotium.
[Ocium post negocium].
Rest after work.
Wed: If you’ve done the job, go for a walk with confidence. - Pacta sunt servanda.
[Pakta sunt sirvanda].
Contracts must be respected. - Panem et circenses!
[Panaem et circenses!]
Meal'n'Real!
An exclamation that expressed the basic demands of the Roman crowd in the era of the Empire. The Roman plebs put up with the loss of political rights, being satisfied with the free distribution of bread, cash distributions and the organization of free circus shows. - Par pari refertur.
[Par pari refertur].
Equal is given to equal. - Paupĕri bis dat, qui cito dat.
[Paўperi bis dat, kwi tsito dat].
The poor are doubly benefited by those who give quickly (Publius Sirus). - Pax huic domui.
[Pax g x uik domui].
Peace to this house (Gospel of Luke).
Greeting formula. - Pecunia est ancilla, si scis uti, si nescis, domĭna.
[Pekunia est ancilla, si scis uti, si nescis, domina].
Money, if you know how to use it, is a servant; if you don’t know how to use it, then it is a mistress. - Per aspĕra ad astra.
[Per asper ad astra].
Through thorns to the stars, that is, through difficulties to success. - Pinxit.
[Pinksit].
Wrote.
The artist's autograph on the painting. - Poētae nascuntur, oratōres fiunt.
[Poete naskuntur, oratores fiunt].
People are born poets, they become speakers. - Potius mori, quam foedāri.
[Potius mori, kvam fedari].
It's better to die than to be disgraced.
The expression is attributed to Cardinal James of Portugal. - Prima lex historiae, ne quid falsi dicat.
[Prima lex g x history, ne quid falsi dikat].
The first principle of history is to prevent lies. - Primus inter pares.
[Primus inter pares].
First among equals.
A formula characterizing the position of the monarch in the state. - Principium - dimidium totus.
[Principium - dimidium totius].
The beginning is half of everything (anything). - Probātum est.
[Probatum est].
Approved; accepted. - Promitto me laboratūrum esse non sordĭdi lucri causā.
[Promitto me laboraturum esse non sordidi lukri ka "ўza].
I promise that I will not work for the sake of despicable gain.
From the oath taken when receiving a doctorate in Poland. - Putantur homĭnes plus in aliēno negotio vidēre, quam in suo.
[Putantur g x omines plus in alieno negocio videre, kvam in suo].
It is believed that people see more in someone else’s business than in their own, that is, they always know better from the outside. - Qui tacet, consentīre vidētur.
[Kwi tatset, konsentire videtur].
It seems that the one who is silent agrees.
Wed. from Russian proverb “Silence is a sign of consent.” - Quia nomĭnor leo.
[Quia nominor leo].
For I am called a lion.
Words from the fable of the Roman fabulist Phaedrus (end of the 1st century BC - first half of the 1st century AD). After the hunt, the lion and the donkey shared the spoils. The lion took one share for himself as the king of beasts, the second as a participant in the hunt, and the third, he explained, “because I am a lion.” - Quod erat demonstrandum (q. e. d.).
[Kvod erat demonstrandum]
Q.E.D.
The traditional formula that completes the proof. - Quod licet Jovi, non licet bovi.
[Kvod litset Yovi, non litset bovi].
What is allowed to Jupiter is not allowed to the bull.
According to ancient myth, Jupiter in the form of a bull kidnapped the daughter of the Phoenician king Agenor Europa. - Quod tibi fiĕri non vis, altĕri non fecĕris.
[Kvod tibi fieri non vis, alteri non fetseris].
Don't do to others what you don't want to do to yourself.
The expression is found in the Old and New Testaments. - Quos Juppĭter perdĕre vult, dementat.
[Kvos Yuppiter perdere vult, dementat].
Whomever Jupiter wants to destroy, he deprives of reason.
The expression goes back to a fragment of the tragedy of an unknown Greek author: “When a deity prepares misfortune for a person, he first of all takes away his mind with which he reasons.” The above briefer formulation of this thought was apparently first given in the edition of Euripides, published in 1694 in Cambridge by the English philologist W. Barnes. - Quot capĭta, tot sensūs.
[Kvot kapita, tot sensus].
So many people, so many opinions. - Rarior corvo albo est.
[Rarior corvo albo est].
More rare than the white crow. - Repetitio est mater studiōrum.
[Repetizio est mater studiorum].
Repetition is the mother of learning. - Requiescat in pace! (R.I.P.).
[Requieskat in patse!]
May he rest in peace!
Latin gravestone inscription. - Sapienti sat.
[Sapienti sat].
Enough for those who understand. - Scientia est potentia.
[Sciencia est potentia].
Knowledge is power.
An aphorism based on a statement by Francis Bacon (1561–1626) - an English philosopher, the founder of English materialism. - Scio me nihil scire.
[Scio me nig h il scire].
I know that I know nothing (Socrates). - Sero venientĭbus ossa.
[Sero venientibus ossa].
Those who come late (are left) with bones. - Si duo faciunt idem, non est idem.
[Si duo faciunt idem, non est idem].
If two people do the same thing, it is not the same thing (Terence). - Si gravis brevis, si longus levis.
[Si gravis brevis, si lengus lewis].
If the pain is excruciating, it is not long-lasting; if it is long-lasting, it is not painful.
Citing this position of Epicurus, Cicero in his treatise “On the Supreme Good and the Supreme Evil” proves its inconsistency. - Si tacuisses, philosŏphus mansisses.
[Si takuisses, philosophus mansisses].
If you had remained silent, you would have remained a philosopher.
Boethius (c. 480–524) in his book “On the Consolation of Philosophy” tells how someone who boasted of the title of philosopher listened for a long time in silence to the abuse of a man who exposed him as a deceiver, and finally asked with mockery: “Now you understand that I am really a philosopher ?”, to which he received the answer: “Intellexissem, si tacuisses” 'I would have understood this if you had remained silent.' - Si tu esses Helĕna, ego vellem esse Paris.
[Si tu ess G x elena, ego vellem esse Paris].
If you were Helen, I would like to be Paris.
From a medieval love poem. - Si vis amāri, ama!
[Si vis amari, ama!]
If you want to be loved, love! - Sí vivís Romaé, Romā́no vivito more.
[Si vivis Rome, Romano vivito more].
If you live in Rome, live according to Roman customs.
New Latin poetic saying. Wed. from Russian proverb “Don’t meddle in someone else’s monastery with your own rules.” - Sic transit gloria mundi.
[Sic transit glöria mundi].
This is how worldly glory passes.
These words are addressed to the future pope during the installation ceremony, burning a piece of cloth in front of him as a sign of the illusory nature of earthly power. - Silent legs inter arma.
[Silent leges inter arma].
Laws are silent among weapons (Livy). - Similis simili gaudet.
[Similis simili gaudet].
The like rejoices in the like.
Corresponds to Russian. proverb “A fisherman sees a fisherman from afar.” - Sol omnĭbus lucet.
[Salt omnibus lucet].
The sun is shining for everyone. - Sua cuīque patria jucundissĭma est.
[Sua kuikve patria yukundissima est].
Everyone has their own best homeland. - Sub rosā.
[Sub rose].
“Under the rose,” that is, in secret, secretly.
For the ancient Romans, the rose was an emblem of mystery. If a rose was hung from the ceiling above the dining table, then everything that was said and done “under the rose” was not to be disclosed. - Terra incognita.
[Terra incognita].
Unknown land (in a figurative sense - an unfamiliar area, something incomprehensible).
On ancient geographical maps, these words denoted unexplored territories. - Tertia vigilia.
[Terzia vigilia].
"Third Watch"
Night time, i.e. the period from sunset to sunrise, was divided among the ancient Romans into four parts, the so-called vigilia, equal to the duration of the changing of guards in military service. The third vigil is the period from midnight to the beginning of dawn. - Tertium non datur.
[Tertium non datur].
There is no third.
One of the provisions of formal logic. - Theātrum mundi.
[Theatrum mundi].
World stage. - Timeó Danaós et dona feréntes.
[Timeo Danaos et dona faires].
I am afraid of the Danaans, even those who bring gifts.
Words of the priest Laocoon, referring to a huge wooden horse, built by the Greeks (Danaans) supposedly as a gift to Minerva. - Totus mundus agit histriōnem.
[Totus mundus agit g x istrionem].
The whole world is playing a play (the whole world is actors).
Inscription on Shakespeare's Globe Theatre. - Tres faciunt collegium.
[Tres faciunt collegium].
Three make up the council.
One of the provisions of Roman law. - Una hirundo non facit ver.
[Una g x irundo non facit ver].
One swallow does not make spring.
Used in the sense of ‘one should not judge too hastily, based on one action’. - Unā voce.
[Una votse].
Unanimously. - Urbi et orbi.
[Urbi et orbi].
“To the city and the world,” that is, to Rome and the whole world, for general information.
The ceremony for electing a new pope required that one of the cardinals clothe the chosen one with the robe, uttering the following phrase: “I invest you with Roman papal dignity, so that you may stand before the city and the world.” Currently, the Pope begins his annual address to the believers with this phrase. - Usus est optĭmus magister.
[Uzus est optimus magister].
Experience is the best teacher. - Ut amēris, amabĭlis esto.
[Ut ameris, amabilis esto].
To be loved, be worthy of love (Ovid).
From the poem “The Art of Love.” - Ut salūtas, ita salutabĕris.
[Ut salutas, ita salutaberis].
As you greet, so you will be greeted. - Ut vivas, igĭtur vigĭla.
[Ut vivas, igitur vigilya].
To live, be on your guard (Horace). - Vade mecum (Vademecum).
[Vade mekum (Vademekum)].
Come with me.
This was the name of a pocket reference book, index, guide. The first to give this name to his work of this nature was the New Latin poet Lotikh in 1627. - Vae soli!
[Ve so"li!]
Woe to the lonely! (Bible). - Vēni. Vidi. Vici.
[Venya. See. Vitsi].
Came. Saw. Victorious (Caesar).
According to Plutarch, with this phrase Julius Caesar reported in a letter to his friend Amyntius about the victory over the Pontic king Pharnaces in August 47 BC. e. Suetonius reports that this phrase was inscribed on a tablet carried before Caesar during the Pontic triumph. - Verba movent, exempla trahunt.
[Verba movent, sample trag x unt].
The words excite, the examples captivate. - Verba volant, scripta manent.
[Verba volant, scripta manent].
Words fly away, but what is written remains. - Verĭtas tempŏris filia est.
[Veritas temporis filia est].
Truth is the daughter of time. - Vim vi repellĕre licet.
[Vim vi rapellere litset].
Violence can be repelled by force.
One of the provisions of Roman civil law. - Vita brevis est, ars longa.
[Vita brevis est, ars lenga].
Life is short, art is eternal (Hippocrates). - Vivat Academy! Vivant professōres!
[Vivat Akademiya! Vivant professores!]
Long live the university, long live the professors!
A line from the student anthem "Gaudeāmus". - Vivĕre est cogitāre.
[Vivere est cogitare].
Living means thinking.
The words of Cicero, which Voltaire took as a motto. - Vivĕre est militāre.
[Vivere est militar].
To live is to fight (Seneca). - Víx(i) et quém dedĕrát cursúm fortúna perégi.
[Vix(i) et kvem dederat kursum fortuna peregi].
I have lived my life and walked the path assigned to me by fate (Virgil).
The dying words of Dido, who committed suicide after Aeneas abandoned her and sailed from Carthage. - Volens nolens.
[Volens nolens].
Willy-nilly; whether you want it or not.
Latin catchphrases taken from the textbook.
(Armavir interlocutor 186/10.X.2000)
There is almost a generally accepted opinion that Latin is a dead language because the Roman Empire, where Latin was spoken, is long gone.
Indeed, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, in the 5th century, its language had to die, since the Eastern Empire (Byzantium) was the bearer of Greek culture. In general, this is approximately what happened. Spoken Latin ceased to exist as such, and on the basis of its variants and other languages, the so-called “new languages” were formed: Italian, French, Spanish and other languages of the Romance group.
But where did medieval Latin come from, in which hundreds of scientific works, theological works, as well as thousands of poems and poems were written? The fact is that the Latin language is not completely dead. The literary form continued to exist and was successfully used for more than a thousand years as the language of official documents and literature, as well as the language of international communication. However, Latin was not only written, but also spoken. In many educational institutions, lectures were given only in Latin, services were also held in Latin in the Western (Catholic) Church, and, of course, scientists communicated in Latin. Naturally, all this time the language continued to develop.
So this use of literary Latin became the reason for the revival of Latin in the literal sense of the word. We are talking about the emergence of colloquial variants (vulgar language) on the basis of a literary form that has been preserved for many centuries. And, of course, the Renaissance era made its contribution, in which a massive return to antiquity began, including to ancient languages and works written in them.
Now someone can say that all this happened a long time ago, back in the Middle Ages, and then came the era of the New Time, when the French language dominated and they generally forgot about Latin. Indeed, the XVIII-XIX centuries. were a time of all kinds of innovations, and much of the old faded into the background. Latin was squeezed out of many areas of public activity. During this period, French and German literature developed rapidly.
Yes, that's right. But Latin continued to be studied in all more or less serious educational institutions. For example, in Paris there was even a so-called “Latin district”, where all education was conducted in Latin. This testifies to the amazing vitality of the Latin language, in which immortal works were created, they continue to be read and translated to this day.
Today there is a movement to restore Latin as an international language, at least in science. International magazines in Latin are published in different countries of the world, for example: MAS (France), MELISSA (Belgium), VOX LATINA (Germany) and others, dictionaries continue to be published, new original works are created, and books are published. Moreover, international conferences are held in Latin, dissertations are written, correspondence is conducted, and even radio stations operate. Latin is introduced in schools and gymnasiums, not to mention universities.
Well, now let’s go back to the beginning of the article and think: can we call a language dead that has been a means of international communication for more than two thousand years, in which literature is created and in which thousands of people around the world continue to communicate? - No! Latin is still alive today, but it has become more than just a “living language”, it has turned into a superlanguage that belongs to all who study it.