in the upper atmosphere
in the depths of the oceans
in the upper layers of the lithosphere
at the boundaries of three habitats
37. Are the following statements about the evidence for evolution correct?
A. In humans, at a certain stage of development, the tail region and gill slits are formed, which serves as paleontological evidence of evolution.
B. Finds of primitive tools and human skeletal remains in Central Africa provide paleontological evidence of evolution.
only A is correct
only B is correct
both judgments are correct
both judgments are wrong
38. What processes occur in the prophase of the first meiotic division?
1) formation of two nuclei
2) divergence of homologous chromosomes
3) formation of a metaphase plate
4) bringing together homologous chromosomes
5) exchange of sections of homologous chromosomes
6) chromosome spiralization
In insects with incomplete metamorphosis
1) three stages of development
2) external fertilization
3) the larva looks like an annelid worm
4) the larva is similar in external structure to the adult insect
5) the larval stage is followed by the pupal stage
6) the larva turns into an adult insect
40. What examples illustrate the achievement of biological progress in plants through aromorphoses?
1) the presence of double fertilization in flowering plants
2) formation of roots in ferns
3) reduction of evaporation by the formation of a waxy coating on the leaves
4) increased pubescence of leaves in angiosperms
5) protection of seeds in fruits of angiosperms
6) shortening the growing season for plants growing in harsh climates
41. Establish a correspondence between the characteristics of plants and the department to which they belong. Write your answer as a sequence of numbers.
PLANT CHARACTER
A) cannot tolerate dry conditions
B) life form - trees and shrubs
B) the egg matures in the ovule
D) form fine dry pollen
D) a prothallus is present in the development cycle
DEPARTMENT
Establish a correspondence between the function of the human nervous system and the department that performs this function. Write your answer as a sequence of numbers.
FUNCTION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
A) sends impulses to skeletal muscles
B) innervates the smooth muscles of organs
B) provides movement of the body in space
D) regulates the functioning of the heart
D) regulates the functioning of the digestive glands
DEPARTMENT OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
1) somatic
2) vegetative
Establish a correspondence between the characteristics of the exchange and its type. Write your answer as a sequence of numbers.
CHARACTERISTIC
A) oxidation of organic substances
B) formation of polymers from monomers
B) ATP breakdown
D) energy storage in the cell
D) DNA replication
E) oxidative phosphorylation
TYPE OF EXCHANGE
1) plastic
2) energy
Establish a correspondence between the characteristics of organisms and the functional group to which they belong. Write your answer as a sequence of numbers.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANISMS
A) are the first link in the food chain
B) synthesize organic substances from inorganic ones
B) use the energy of sunlight
D) feed on ready-made organic substances
D) return minerals to ecosystems
E) decompose organic substances into minerals
FUNCTIONAL GROUP
1) producers
2) decomposers
Indicate the sequence of processes of geographic speciation.
1) distribution of a trait in a population
2) the appearance of mutations in new living conditions
3) spatial isolation of populations
4) selection of individuals with useful changes
5) formation of a new species
Part 3
1) What is the role of bacteria in the cycle of substances?
2) Using the picture, determine what form of selection it illustrates and under what living conditions this selection will manifest itself. Will the size of the ears of hares change during evolution under the influence of this form of natural selection? Justify your answer.
3) What is the neurohumoral regulation of the heart in the human body, what is its significance in the life of the body?
4) Why is a mixed forest ecosystem considered more stable than a spruce forest ecosystem?
5) What chromosome set is characteristic of the cells of the embryo and endosperm of the seed, leaves of a flowering plant. Explain the result in each case.
6) When crossing a pea plant with smooth seeds and tendrils with a plant with wrinkled seeds without tendrils, the entire generation was uniform and had smooth seeds and tendrils. When crossing another pair of plants with the same phenotypes (peas with smooth seeds and tendrils and peas with wrinkled seeds without tendrils), half of the plants with smooth seeds and tendrils and half of the plants with wrinkled seeds without tendrils were obtained. Make a diagram of each cross. Determine the genotypes of parents and offspring. Explain your results. How are dominant traits determined in this case?
The main feature of the biosphere is the presence of living matter in it - the totality of all living organisms, which represent a powerful geological force. Under their influence, the face of the Earth is transformed. They participate in the formation of various mineral rocks, fresh water, and the atmosphere. All living organisms are converters of solar energy and influence geological processes. In the biosphere there is a continuous circulation of various substances due to the activity of living organisms. But since the biosphere receives energy from the outside, it is an open system. The nonliving component of the biosphere is those parts of the three geological shells of the Earth that are connected with the living matter of the biosphere by complex processes of migration of matter and energy.
IN AND. Vernadsky defined the biosphere as a thermodynamic shell with a temperature from –50 to +50 degrees and a pressure of about 1 atmosphere. These conditions determine the boundaries of life for most organisms.
The biosphere occupies the space from the ozone screen, where bacterial and fungal spores are found at an altitude of 20 km, to a depth of more than 3 km below the earth's surface and about 2 km below the ocean floor. There, in the waters of oil fields, anaerobic bacteria are found. The highest concentration of biomass is concentrated at the interfaces between geospheres, i.e. in coastal and surface ocean waters and on the land surface. This is explained by the fact that the source of energy in the biosphere is sunlight, and autotrophic, and then heterotrophic, organisms mainly inhabit places where solar radiation is most intense.
On the surface of the Earth, only areas of extensive glaciation and volcanic craters are currently completely devoid of living beings.
IN AND. Vernadsky pointed out the “everywhereness” of life in the biosphere. The history of our planet testifies to this. Life appeared in water and then spread to the surface, occupying, to one degree or another, all the shells of the Earth. The spread of life in the shells of the biosphere, according to V.I. Vernadsky, it’s not over yet. This is indicated by the scale of adaptability of living organisms.
The mass of living matter is only 0.01% of the mass of the entire biosphere. Nevertheless, the living matter of the biosphere is its most important component.
The most important property of living matter is the ability to reproduce and spread throughout the planet. Living matter is distributed unevenly in the biosphere: spaces densely populated by organisms alternate with less populated areas.
The greatest concentration of life in the biosphere is observed at the boundaries of contact of the earth's shells: atmosphere and lithosphere (land surface), atmosphere and hydrosphere (ocean surface), hydrosphere and lithosphere (ocean bottom), and especially at the boundary of three shells - atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere (coastal zones). These are the places with the greatest concentration of life V.I. Vernadsky called them “films of life.” Up and down from these surfaces the concentration of living matter decreases.
Human intervention, one way or another, disrupts the circulation processes. For example, deforestation or damage to the assimilation apparatus of plants by industrial emissions leads to a decrease in the intensity of carbon assimilation. An excess of organic elements in water due to the entry of industrial waste into it leads to eutrophication of water bodies and excessive consumption of oxygen dissolved in water, which excludes the possibility of the existence of aerobic organisms here. By burning fossil fuels, fixing atmospheric nitrogen in industrial products, and binding phosphorus in detergents, a person, as it were, closes the cycle of elements, which often forces him to completely control the chemistry of the environment.
Humanity has sharply accelerated the circulation of certain substances. Deposits of iron, copper, zinc, lead and many other elements that nature has accumulated over millions of years are quickly being drawn out. On the other hand, elements are concentrated in proportions that were not found in nature (in industrial production).
Man is using solar energy at a very rapid pace, accumulated in coal, oil, and natural gas due to the past of the biosphere. All this leads to increased disorder in the biosphere. Man not only accelerates the biological cycle, but also attracts into it those elements that were long excluded from it.
In general, in the biosphere, under the influence of human activity, entropy is decreasing more and more rapidly due to an increase in the entropy of the earth's crust (combustion of combustible minerals, dispersion of metallic minerals, etc.). Therefore, it is necessary to change natural processes as little as possible, in particular to introduce waste-free production or qualitatively new production cycles, but even in the ideal case it will not be possible to get rid of, say, heat waste, since this contradicts the laws of thermodynamics.
A1. The phenomena of the circulation of substances and energy that occur with the participation of living organisms are studied at the level
1) biosphere 3) population-species2) biogeocenotic 4) organismal
A2. Anthropogenic factors include1) drainage of swamps, deforestation, road construction2) plants, bacteria, fungi, animals, viruses3) minerals, plants, water salinity, plowing of fields4) air and water temperature, atmospheric pressure
A3. One of the main reasons for the reduction in animal species diversity at present is
1) interspecies struggle2) destruction of animal habitats3) excessive reproduction of predators4) the emergence of global epidemics - pandemics
A4. A necessary condition for maintaining balance in the biosphere1) evolution of the organic world2) closed cycle of substances and energy3) increased industrial and decreased agricultural human activity4) increased agricultural and decreased industrial human activity
A5. In the biosphere1) plant biomass is equal to animal biomass2) animal biomass is many times greater than plant biomass3) plant biomass is many times greater than animal biomass4) the ratio of plant and animal biomass is constantly changing
A6. The biosphere is an open system, since it1) is capable of self-regulation 3) consists of ecosystems2) is capable of changing over time 4) is connected with space by metabolism
A7. According to V.I. Vernadsky, oxygen is a substance1) living 2) bioinert 3) biogenic 4) inert
A8. The upper boundary of the biosphere is located at an altitude of 20 km from the Earth’s surface, since there
1) no oxygen 3) very low temperature 2) no light 4) ozone layer is located
A9. The shell of the Earth, inhabited by living organisms and transformed by them, is called
1) hydrosphere 2) lithosphere 3) noosphere 4) biosphere
A10. According to the definition of V.I. Vernadsky, the leading role in the creation of the noosphere belongs to
1) bacteria 2) plants 3) space 4) humans
A11. The highest concentration of living matter is observed1) at the junction of the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere2) in the lower layers of the hydrosphere3) in the upper layers of the atmosphere4) in the lithosphere at a depth of 200 m
A12. Maintaining balance in the biosphere and its integrity is facilitated by 1) conservation of biodiversity 2) introduction of new species into ecosystems 3) creation of agroecosystems 4) expansion of the area of land occupied by cultivated plants
A13. The development of industry, transport, agriculture, taking into account environmental laws, is a necessary condition
1) stability of the biosphere2) evolution of the organic world along the path of aromorphosis3) change of biogeocenoses4) self-regulation of numbers in populations
A14. The greenhouse effect in the biosphere causes accumulation in the atmosphere of 1) dust 2) toxic substances 3) carbon dioxide 4) nitrogen
A15. The stability of the biosphere as a global ecosystem is determined by 1) the diversity of its species composition 2) competition between organisms 3) population waves 4) patterns of heredity and variability of organisms
A16. The release of sulfur and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere causes 1) a decrease in the ozone layer 3) acid rain 2) salinization of the world's oceans 4) an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide
A17. A necessary condition for the sustainable development of the biosphere is:1) creation of artificial agrocenoses2) reduction in the number of predatory animals3) development of industry taking into account environmental laws4) destruction of insect pests of agricultural crops
A18. In the transformation of the biosphere, the main role is played by 1) living organisms 3) the cycle of mineral substances 2) biorhythms 4) self-regulation processes
C1. To preserve and increase fish stocks, certain fishing rules have been established. Explain why fine-mesh nets and fishing techniques such as pickling or killing fish with explosives should not be used when fishing. Give at least two reasons.
C2. What consequences could global warming have? Give at least three reasons.
Test on the topic “Biosphere - global ecosystem. Biosphere and man"
Option 2
A1. Currently, the greatest changes in the biosphere are caused by factors 1) biotic 3) anthropogenic 2) abiotic 4) cosmic
A2. The biosphere is considered a dynamic system, since it1) is capable of self-regulation 3) consists of ecosystems2) is capable of changing over time 4) is connected with space by metabolism
A3. Life on Earth is impossible without the cycle of substances, in which plants play a role
1) destroyers of organic substances 3) producers of organic substances 2) source of mineral substances 4) consumers of organic substances
A4. The founder of the doctrine of the biosphere is1) V. Dokuchaev 2) E. Haeckel 3) V. Vernadsky 4) C. Darwin
A5. Oil according to V.I. Vernadsky is a substance1) biogenic 2) living 3) bioinert 4) inert
A6. The biosphere is a global ecosystem, the structural components of which are
1) types of animals 3) populations 2) biogeocenoses 4) plant divisions
A7. In the biosphere, the biomass of animals1) is many times greater than the biomass of plants2) equal to the biomass of plants3) many times less than the biomass of plants4) in some periods exceeds the biomass of plants, but not in others
A8. The stability of the biosphere is ensured by 1) geomagnetic phenomena 3) atmospheric phenomena 2) human economic activity 4) the cycle of substances
A9. The lower boundary of the biosphere is located in the lithosphere at a depth of 1) 1 km 2) 8 km 3) 5 km 4) 3.5 km
A10. The biological cycle is the continuous movement of substances between
1) microorganisms and fungi2) plants and soil3) animals, plants and microorganisms4) plants, animals, microorganisms and soil
A11. Global changes in the biosphere and decrease in soil fertility caused by human impact include
A15. Global changes in the biosphere associated with the death of many organisms due to the appearance of a number of negative mutations can lead to
1) greenhouse effect 3) deforestation 2) melting glaciers 4) expansion of ozone holes
A16. Global warming on Earth can occur as a result of 1) urbanization of landscapes 2) cyclical processes on the Sun 3) melting glaciers 4) the greenhouse effect
A17. The greenhouse effect on Earth is a consequence of increased concentrations in the atmosphere
1) oxygen 2) carbon dioxide 3) sulfur dioxide 4) water vapor
A18. How to prevent human disturbances of balance in the biosphere?1) increase the intensity of economic activity2) increase the productivity of ecosystem biomass3) take into account environmental patterns in economic activity4) study the biology of rare and endangered species of plants and animals
C1. What are the features of the biosphere as the shell of the Earth? Give at least three features.
C2.
Answers to the test
“The biosphere is a global ecosystem. Biosphere and man"
Option 1
C1. To preserve and increase fish stocks, certain fishing rules have been established. Explain why fine-mesh nets and fishing techniques such as pickling or killing fish with explosives should not be used when fishing. Give at least two reasons.
When using fine-mesh nets, a lot of ungrown fish are caught, which could give rise to large offspring.
Pickling or jamming with explosives are predatory fishing methods in which many fish needlessly die.
C2.What consequences could global warming have? Give at least three reasons.
Melting ice, rising sea levels.
Flooding of large areas of coastlines densely populated by people.
Climate change and unpredictability of weather phenomena.
Option 2
C1. What are the features of the biosphere as the shell of the Earth? Give at least three features.
Biochemical processes take place in the biosphere, and the geological activity of all organisms is manifested.
In the biosphere there is a continuous biogenic cycle of substances, regulated by the activities of organisms.
The biosphere converts the energy of the Sun into the energy of inorganic substances.
C2. Explain how acid rain harms plants. Give at least three reasons.
Directly damage plant organs and tissues.
They pollute the soil and reduce fertility.
Reduce plant productivity.
As mentioned above, an exceptional role in transforming the appearance of the planet V.I. Vernadsky assigned to the “living matter” of the biosphere. He considered him the basis of the biosphere, although it constitutes an extremely insignificant part of it (if it is isolated in its pure form and distributed evenly over the surface of the Earth, then it will be a layer about 2 cm). Besides living matter is distributed unevenly in the biosphere(spaces densely populated by organisms alternate with less populated areas). The greatest concentration of life in the biosphere is observed at the boundaries of contact of the earth's shells: atmosphere and lithosphere (land surface), atmosphere and hydrosphere (ocean surface), hydrosphere and lithosphere (ocean bottom), and especially at the boundary of three shells - atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere (coastal zones). V. I. Vernadsky called these places of greatest concentration of life “films of life.”
Currently, according to species composition Animals predominate on earth(more than 2 million species) over the plants(0.5 million species). In the same time, phytomass reserves account for 90% of living biomass reserves Earth. Land biomass 1000 times higher ocean biomass. On land, biomass and the number of species of organisms generally increases from the poles to the equator.
The total result of the activity of “living matter” over a geological period of time is enormous. According to V.I. Vernadsky, “on the earth’s surface there is no chemical force more constantly acting, and therefore more powerful in its final consequences, than living organisms taken as a whole.” This is due to the fact that living organisms, thanks to biological catalysts (enzymes), do something incredible from a physicochemical point of view. For example, they are capable of fixing atmospheric molecular nitrogen in their bodies at temperatures and pressures that are typical for the natural environment (in industrial conditions, the process of binding atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia will require a temperature of the order of 500°C and a pressure of 300-500 atmospheres). In addition, living matter is extremely activated matter (in living organisms, the rates of chemical reactions during metabolism increase by several orders of magnitude).
Environment-forming properties of living matter
1. The ability to quickly occupy (master) all free space. This property gave V.I. Vernadsky the basis to conclude that for certain geological periods the amount of living matter was approximately constant. The ability to quickly develop space is associated both with intensive reproduction (some of the simplest forms of organisms could colonize the entire globe in a few hours or days if there were no factors limiting their potential reproduction capabilities), and with the ability of organisms to intensively increase the surface of their body, or the communities they form. For example, the area of leaves of plants growing on 1 hectare is 8-10 hectares or more. The same applies to root systems.
2. Ability to move. Living organisms are characterized by both passive (under the influence of gravity, gravitational forces, etc.) and active movement. For example, movement against: water flow, gravity, air currents, etc.
3. Stability during life and rapid decomposition after death.
4. High adaptive capacity (adaptation) to various conditions. Thanks to this property, living organisms have mastered not only all environments of life (water, land-air, soil, organism), but are also able to exist in extremely difficult conditions in terms of physicochemical parameters. For example, at very low (- 273°C) and very high temperatures (up to 140°C), in the waters of nuclear reactors, in an oxygen-free environment, in ice shells, etc.).
5. Phenomenally high rate of reactions (it is hundreds, thousands of times greater than in nonliving matter). For example, the caterpillars of some insects consume an amount of food per day that is 100-200 times their body weight. Earthworms (their body mass is approximately 10 times greater than the biomass of all humanity) pass through their bodies an entire one-meter layer of soil in 150-200 years. A layer of ocean bottom sediments consisting of waste products of annelids (polychaetes) can reach several meters. Almost all sedimentary rocks, and this is a layer up to 3 km, are 95-99% processed by living organisms.
6. High rate of renewal of living matter. It is calculated that on average for the biosphere it is 8 years, while for land it is 14 years, and for the ocean, where organisms with a short life period (for example, plankton) predominate, it is 33 days. As a result of the high rate of renewal over the entire history of life, the total mass of living matter that passed through the biosphere is approximately 12 times the mass of the Earth. Only a small part of it (a fraction of a percent) is preserved in the form of organic remains (in the words of V.I. Vernadsky, “went into geology”).
All of the listed properties of living matter are determined by the concentration of large energy reserves in it. According to V.I. Vernadsky, only lava formed during volcanic eruptions can compete with living matter in energy saturation.
Environment-forming functions of living matter
V.I. Vernadsky, assessing the activity of living organisms in the biosphere, identified five fundamental functions of living matter: gas, concentration, redox, biochemical, and biogeochemical. Characterizing these functions, Vernadsky emphasizes the special importance of the latter. He writes: “Unlike the first three groups, the fourth group – biochemical functions – differs sharply in that the center of its action is not in the external environment... but inside organisms... inside the bodies of living matter, associated with their life and death.”
The idea about the functions of living matter, formulated by V.I. Vernadsky, found a great response in the works of modern ecologists. In this regard, the list of basic functions of living matter has expanded significantly.
Functions of living matter in the biosphere
(according to E.I. Shilova, T.A. Bankina, 1994, with additions)
1. Energy. This function is associated with the absorption and storage of solar energy during the process of photosynthesis, and its subsequent transfer through food and decomposition chains.
2. Geochemical. This function is manifested in the ability to involve the chemical elements of the Earth into living organisms and return them through biogenic migration back into the environment. One of the manifestations of this function is the creation of sedimentary rocks, coals, oil shale, etc.
3. Concentration. This function is expressed in the ability of organisms to concentrate dispersed chemical elements in their body, increasing their content compared to the environment surrounding the organism by several orders of magnitude (for manganese, for example, in the body of individual organisms - millions of times).
V.I. Vernadsky distinguished:
1) concentration functions of the 1st kind, when living matter from the environment concentrates those chemical elements that are contained in all living organisms without exception (H, C, N, J, Na, Mg, Al, etc.).
2) concentration functions of the 2nd kind, when there is an accumulation of chemical elements that are not found in living organisms or can be found in very small quantities (for example, kelp accumulates iodine; earthworms can accumulate zinc, copper, and cadmium).
This function of living matter is comprehensively studied by the science of biomineralogy.
4. Scattering. This function manifests itself through the trophic (nutritional) and transport activities of organisms. For example, the dispersion of matter when organisms excrete excrement, the death of organisms, various types of movements in space, changes in integument, etc.
5. Gas. In general, the function is manifested in the ability of living organisms to change and maintain a certain gas composition of the habitat and the atmosphere as a whole through the creation of free oxygen, the release of free nitrogen (during the decomposition of living matter), the release of carbon dioxide, etc. Two turning points are currently associated with the gas function period in the development of the biosphere. The first refers to the time when the oxygen content in the atmosphere reached approximately 1% of modern levels (Pasteur's first point). This led to the appearance of the first aerobic organisms (capable of living only in an environment containing oxygen). Since that time, reduction processes in the biosphere began to be supplemented by oxidative ones. This happened approximately 1.2 billion years ago. The second turning point is associated with the time when the oxygen concentration in the atmosphere reached approximately 10% of its current level. This created conditions for the synthesis of ozone and the formation of an ozone screen in the upper layers of the atmosphere, which made it possible for organisms to colonize land. Before this, the function of protecting organisms from harmful ultraviolet rays was performed by water, under which life was possible.
6. Destructive. This function is expressed in the destruction by organisms and the products of their vital activity of both the remains of organic matter themselves and inert substances. The main mechanism of this function is related to the circulation of substances. The most significant role in this regard is played by lower forms of life - fungi, bacteria (destructors, decomposers).
7. Environment-forming. This function is the result of the combined action of other functions, i.e. largely integrative. It is associated with the transformation of physical and chemical parameters of the environment and the creation of an environment favorable for life. In a broad sense, the result of this function is the entire natural environment. It was created by living organisms, and they also maintain its parameters in a relatively stable state in almost all geospheres. The environment-forming function of living matter is manifested, for example, in the formation of soils. The local environment-forming activity of living organisms, and especially their communities, is manifested in their transformation of the meteorological parameters of the environment. This primarily applies to communities with a large mass of organic matter (biomass). For example, in forest communities the microclimate differs significantly from open (field) spaces. Here there are less daily and annual temperature fluctuations, higher air humidity, lower carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere at the level of the canopy saturated with leaves (the result of photosynthesis), and an increased amount in the soil layer (a consequence of intensive processes of decomposition of organic matter on the soil and in the upper soil horizons ).
8. Transport. This function is performed due to the ability of living organisms to actively move. As a result, substances and energy are transferred. Often such transfer is carried out over enormous distances, for example, during animal migrations.
9. Historical. This function is reflected in the evolutionary development of life, the evolution of organisms, ecosystems and the biosphere.
10. Redox. This function is carried out due to the ability of living matter to intensify the processes of oxidation and reduction. Reduction processes are usually accompanied by the formation and accumulation of hydrogen sulfide, as well as methane. This, in particular, makes the deep layers of swamps practically lifeless, as well as significant bottom water columns (for example, in the Black Sea). Currently, thanks to human activity, this process is progressing.
11. Informational. This function manifests itself in the fact that living organisms are able to accumulate and consolidate certain information in hereditary structures and then transmit it to subsequent generations. This is one of the manifestations of adaptation mechanisms.
12. Self-reproducing. This function is associated with the reproduction of living organisms - living things only come from living things.
13. Function of human biogeochemical activity. This function is associated with a person’s ability to participate in the biogenic migration of atoms. Man develops and uses for his needs a large amount of substances in the earth's crust (coal, gas, oil, peat, etc.) At the same time, there is an anthropogenic entry of foreign substances into the biosphere in quantities exceeding the permissible value. For example, the world economy annually emits more than 250 million tons of aerosols, 200 million tons of carbon monoxide, 120 million tons of ash, more than 50 million tons of hydrocarbons, etc. into the atmosphere.