Lesson on Russian history in 8th grade.

Teacher Kaloeva T.S. MBOU Secondary School No. 46. Vladikavkaz.

Topic: Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878.

Lesson type: Learning a new topic.

Goals:

Educational:

Find out the causes of the war.

the course and consequences of the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878;

Find out the goals of the parties

Educational:

develop map skills

develop the ability to highlight the main points in the textbook text,

recite the material read, pose and solve problems.

Educational:

using the example of valor and courage of the Russian army to cultivate a sense of love and pride for the Motherland.

Basic concepts:

Berlin Congress - June 1878

Plevna

Nikopol

Shipka Pass

Lesson equipment:

Wall map “Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878”;

Presentation for the lesson.

projector;

screen;

computer;

Lesson plan:

Balkan crisis.

Strengths and plans of the parties.

Progress of military operations.

Fall of Plevna. A turning point in the war.

Berlin Congress.

During the classes

I. Organizational moment.

II.Survey.

Name the main directions of the foreign policy of Alexander II. What is foreign policy?(This is relationships with other states.

What are the main directions?(These are Middle Eastern, European, Far Eastern and Central Asian destinations, as well as the sale of Alaska.)

1.Middle Eastern direction. Russia regained the right to build fortresses and maintain a fleet on the Black Sea. Much credit for this belonged to the Minister of Foreign Affairs A.M. Gorchakov, the “Iron Chancellor” of the Russian Empire.

2. European direction. In the 1870s. after the London Conference of 1871, a rapprochement between Russia and Germany occurs. In such a rapprochement, Russia could see a certain guarantee against an attack on it by Germany, which became extremely intensified after the victory over France. In 1873, an agreement was concluded between Russia, Germany and Austria, according to which, in the event of an attack on one of these countries, negotiations on joint actions began between the allies - the “Union of the Three Emperors”.

3 . Central Asian direction. In the 60-70s of the 19th century, Russian troops under the command of generals Chernyaev and Skobelev conquered the territory of the Khiva and Kokand Khanates, as well as the Bukhara Emirate. The influence of Russia in Central Asia, which was claimed by England, was established.

4 .Far Eastern direction. Russia's further liberation of the Far East and Siberia and the active actions of England and France in China forced the Russian government to turn to clarifying the borders with China.

5 . Selling Alaska. The decision to sell Alaska for $7.2 million. In addition, Russia sought to strengthen friendly relations with the United States.

What event in Russian foreign policy at that time could be called a “triumph of Russian diplomacy”?(Russia did not have the right to keep a navy in the Black Sea after the Crimean War. Russia, represented by Chancellor Gorchakov, sought to neutralize the Black Sea through diplomatic means, negotiated and took advantage of the contradictions between European powers. At the London Conference (March 1871) this issue was resolved positive. This was the “triumph of Russian diplomacy” and A.M. Gorchakov personally.)

III. Studying a new topic.

1.Balkan crisis. Remember what the “Eastern Question” is? (A range of problems related to the Ottoman Empire).

Russia's goal in the war:

1. Liberate the Slavic peoples from the Turkish yoke.

Reason for war: On the initiative of A.M. Gorchakov Russia, Germany and Austria demanded that Turkey equalize the rights of Christians with Muslims, but Turkey, encouraged by the support of England, refused.

Which Slavic peoples were under the rule of the Ottoman Empire?(Serbia, Bulgaria, Bosnia, Herzegovina).

Causes of the war : Russia and the liberation struggle of the Balkan peoples.

in spring1875 An uprising against the Turkish yoke began in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

A year later, in April1876 , an uprising broke out in Bulgaria. Turkish punitive forces suppressed these uprisings with fire and sword. Only in Bulgaria they cut out more30 thousands of people. Serbia and Montenegro in summer1876 g. started a war against Turkey. But the forces were unequal. The poorly armed Slavic armies suffered setbacks. In Russia, the social movement in defense of the Slavs was expanding. Thousands of Russian volunteers were sent to the Balkans. Donations were collected throughout the country, weapons and medicine were purchased, and hospitals were equipped. The outstanding Russian surgeon N.V. Sklifosovsky headed the Russian sanitary detachments in Montenegro, and the famous general practitioner S.P. Botkin- in Serbia. AlexanderIIcontributed10 thousand rubles in favor of the rebels. There were calls for Russian military intervention from everywhere.However, the government acted cautiously, recognizing Russia's unpreparedness for a major war. Reforms in the army and its rearmament have not yet been completed. They did not have time to recreate the Black Sea Fleet. Meanwhile, Serbia was defeated. The Serbian prince Milan turned to the king with a request for help. In October1876 Russia presented Turkey with an ultimatum: immediately conclude a truce with Serbia. Russian intervention prevented the fall of Belgrade.

Exercise: the war unfolded on 2 fronts: the Balkan and the Caucasus.

Compare the strengths of the parties. Draw a conclusion about the readiness of Russia and the Ottoman Empire for war.

Strengths of the parties

Balkan Front

Caucasian Front

Russians

Turks

Russians

Turks

250,000 soldiers

338,000 soldiers

55,000 soldiers

70,000 soldiers

April 12, 1877 . – Alexander II signed a manifesto on the beginning of the war with Turkey

Working with the map.

The Balkans divided the territory of Bulgaria into North and South. The Shipka Pass connected the northern part of Bulgaria with the southern. This was a convenient route for troops and artillery to pass through the mountains. Through Shipka there was the shortest route to the city of Andrianopol, i.e. to the rear of the Turkish army.

Having crossed the Balkans, it was important for the Russian army to control all the fortresses of northern Bulgaria in order to prevent an attack by the Turks from the rear.

3. The course of military operations.

Working with the textbook: pp. 199-201.

We answer the questions:

1. When did the Russian army cross the Danube? - (in June 1877).

2.Who liberated the capital of Bulgaria, Tarnovo? (team of I.V. Gurko).

3. When did Plevna fall? 9 in November 1877)

4.What was Skobelev called in the troops? ("White General")

4. Treaty of San Stefano.

The successes of the Russian troops, disagreements among the Turkish government, and the efforts of the national liberation movement in the Balkans forced the Sultan to propose to Alexander II to stop hostilities and begin peace negotiations.February 19, 1878 - signing of an agreement between Russia and Turkey.

According to the agreement: Serbia, Montenegro and Romania received independence. Bulgaria became an autonomous principality within the Ottoman Empire, i.e. received the right to its own government, army, communication with Turkey was limited to the payment of tribute.

Western European states expressed their disagreement with the terms of the San Stefano Treaty. Austria-Hungary and England declared that he was violating the terms of the Paris Peace. Russia faced the threat of a new war, for which it was not prepared. Therefore, the Russian government was forced to agree to discuss a peace treaty with Turkey at the international congress in Berlin.

5. Berlin Congress and the results of the war.

June 1878 - Berlin Congress.

Bulgaria was divided into two parts:

Northern was declared a principality dependent on Turkey,

South - the autonomous Turkish province of Eastern Rumelia.

The territories of Serbia and Montenegro have been significantly reduced.

Russia returned the Bayazet fortress to Turkey.

Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina.

England received the island of Cyprus.

( The Berlin Congress worsened the situation of the Balkan peoples liberated by Russia from the Turkish yoke. His decisions showed the fragility of the alliance of the three emperors and revealed the struggle of the powers for dividing the territory of the disintegrating Ottoman Empire. However, as a result of the Russian-Turkish war, part of the Balkan peoples gained independence, and for those who remained under the rule of the Turks, the paths were open to fight for freedom.)

Guys, now you will work with the text. Find errors in it and write the correct answer.

Every major event leaves a mark on history and lives in the memory of mankind. The heroism and courage of the Russians and Bulgarians were immortalized in monuments. A majestic monument to the glory of Russian and Bulgarian soldiers in memory of the heroic events of those years was built on Shipka in Bulgaria.

Despite the forced concessions to Russia, the war in the Balkans became the most important step in the national liberation struggle of the South Slavic peoples against the Ottoman yoke. The authority of Russian military glory was completely restored. And this happened largely thanks to a simple Russian soldier, who showed steadfastness and courage in battle, amazing endurance in the most difficult conditions of a combat situation.We must always remember that the heroes of the Victory were connected by invisible threads with the heroes of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, as well as with Suvorov’s miracle heroes, the warriors of Dmitry Donskoy and Alexander Nevsky and all our great ancestors. And this continuity, no matter what, must be preserved among our people forever. And each of you, remembering these events, should feel like a citizen of a great state, whose name is Russia!

And each of us must remember these events, must feel like a citizen of a great state, whose name is Russia!

Heroes of the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878.

Balkan Front:

General Stoletov N.G. – defense of Shipka.

General Kridener N.P. - Nikopol was taken instead of the Plevna fortress.

General Skobelev M.D. - occupied the suburb of Istanbul - San Stefano.

General Gurko N.V. - liberated Tarnovo, captured the Shipka Pass, occupied Sofia and Adrianople.

General Totleben E.I. - liberated Plevna from the Turks.

Caucasian Front:

Loris-Melikov M.T. - occupied the fortresses of Bayazet, Ardahan, Kars.

At the end, the lesson is summarized. Grades are given for the lesson.

Homework: P§ 28. Make a chronological table of the war of 1877-1878. Read the documents on pp. 203-204, answer the questions.

Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878 (briefly)

Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878 (briefly)

Historians highlight the increase in national self-awareness in the Balkan countries as the main reason for the outbreak of hostilities. This kind of sentiment in society was associated with the so-called April Uprising, which occurred in Bulgaria. The mercilessness and cruelty with which this rebellion was suppressed forced European states (together with the Russian Empire) to show sympathy for their brothers in faith who were in Turkey.

So, on the twenty-fourth of April 1877, Russia declared war on the Porte. Archbishop Paul, at a prayer service after the Chisinau parade, reads the manifesto of Alexander the Second, who announced the start of the war against the Ottoman Empire. Already in May of the same year, Russian troops were introduced onto Romanian soil.

The military reform of Alexander II also affected the preparedness and organization of the army. The Russian army consisted of almost seven hundred thousand people.

The army's transfer to Romania was made to eliminate the Danube fleet, which controlled most of the Danube crossings. The small Turkish river flotilla was unable to fight back and very soon the Dnieper was crossed by Russian troops, which was the first step towards Constantinople. The next important step is the siege of Plevna, which capitulated on the tenth of December. After this, Russian troops of three hundred thousand people prepared for the offensive.

During the same period, Serbia resumed actions against the Porte, and on December 23, 1877, a detachment of General Romeiko-Gurko carried out a raid through the Balkans, thanks to which Sofia was taken.

On the twenty-seventh and twenty-eighth of December, an important battle takes place at Sheinovo, the result of which is the defeat of the Turkish army of thirty thousand.

The main tasks of the Asian direction of the Russian-Turkish war were to ensure border security and the desire to break the concentration of the Turks on the European border.

Historians are accustomed to consider the Abkhaz rebellion that took place in May 1877 to be the beginning of the Caucasian campaign. During the same period, the city of Sukhum was abandoned by the Russians and it was only possible to return it in August. During the Transcaucasian operations, Russian troops captured many citadels and fortresses. However, in the second half of the summer of 1877, military operations “frozen” while awaiting reinforcements.

Beginning in the fall, Russian troops adhered exclusively to siege tactics. For example, this is how they took the city of Kars, the capture of which never took place due to the truce.

Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878 - the largest event in the history of the 19th century, which had a significant religious and bourgeois-democratic influence on the Balkan people. The large-scale military operations of the Russian and Turkish armies were a struggle for justice and were of great importance for both peoples.

Causes of the Russian-Turkish War

The military action was a consequence of Turkey's refusal to stop fighting in Serbia. But one of the main reasons for the outbreak of war in 1877 was the aggravation of the Eastern Question associated with the anti-Turkish uprising that broke out in 1875 in Bosnia and Herzegovina due to the constant oppression of the Christian population.

The next reason, which was of particular importance for the Russian people, was Russia’s goal to reach the international political level and provide support to the Balkan people in the national liberation movement against Turkey.

Main battles and events of the war of 1877-1878

In the spring of 1877, a battle took place in Transcaucasia, as a result of which the Russians captured the fortress of Bayazet and Ardagan. And in the fall, a decisive battle took place in the vicinity of Kars and the main point of concentration of the Turkish defense, Avliyar, was defeated and the Russian army (which had changed significantly after the military reforms of Alexander 2) moved towards Erzurum.

In June 1877, a Russian army of 185 thousand people, led by the Tsar's brother Nicholas, began crossing the Danube and launched an offensive against the Turkish army, consisting of 160 thousand people located on the territory of Bulgaria. The battle with the Turkish army took place while crossing the Shipka Pass. A fierce struggle was waged for two days, which ended in victory for the Russians. But already on July 7, on the way to Constantinople, the Russian people encountered serious resistance from the Turks, who occupied the Plevna fortress and did not want to leave it. After two attempts, the Russians abandoned this idea and suspended movement through the Balkans, taking up a position on Shipka.

And only by the end of November the situation changed in favor of the Russian people. The weakened Turkish troops surrendered, and the Russian army continued on its way, winning the battles and already in January 1878 entered Andrianople. As a result of the strong onslaught of the Russian army, the Turks retreated.

Results of the war

On February 19, 1878, the Treaty of San Stefano was signed, the terms of which made Bulgaria an autonomous Slavic principality, and Montenegro, Serbia and Romania became independent powers.

In the summer of the same year, the Berlin Congress took place with the participation of six states, as a result of which Southern Bulgaria remained part of Turkey, but the Russians still ensured that Varna and Sofia were annexed to Bulgaria. The issue of reducing the territory of Montenegro and Serbia was also resolved, and Bosnia and Herzegovina, by decision of the congress, came under the occupation of Austria-Hungary. England received the right to withdraw troops to Cyprus.

BERLIN CONGRESS 1878

BERLIN CONGRESS 1878, an international congress convened (June 13 - July 13) on the initiative of Austria-Hungary and England in order to revise the San Stefano Treaty of 1878. It ended with the signing of the Berlin Treaty, the terms of which were largely to the detriment of Russia, which found itself at the Berlin Congress in isolation. According to the Berlin Treaty, the independence of Bulgaria was proclaimed, the region of Eastern Rumelia with administrative self-government was formed, the independence of Montenegro, Serbia and Romania was recognized, Kars, Ardahan and Batum were annexed to Russia, etc. Turkey pledged to carry out reforms in its Asia Minor possessions populated by Armenians (in Western Armenia), as well as to ensure freedom of conscience and equality in civil rights for all its subjects. The Berlin Treaty is an important international document, the main provisions of which remained in force until the Balkan Wars of 1912-13. But, leaving a number of key issues unresolved (national unification of Serbs, Macedonian, Greco-Cretan, Armenian issues, etc.). The Berlin Treaty paved the way for the outbreak of the World War of 1914-18. In an effort to draw the attention of the European countries participating in the Berlin Congress to the situation of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, to include the Armenian question on the agenda of the congress and to ensure that the Turkish government fulfills the reforms promised under the Treaty of San Stefano, the Armenian political circles of Constantinople sent a national delegation to Berlin led by M. Khrimyan (see Mkrtich I Vanetsi), who, however, was not allowed to take part in the work of the congress. The delegation presented to the Congress a project for self-government of Western Armenia and a memorandum addressed to the powers, which were also not taken into account. The Armenian question was discussed at the Berlin Congress at meetings on July 4 and 6 in the context of a clash of two points of view: the Russian delegation demanded reforms before the withdrawal of Russian troops from Western Armenia, and the British delegation, relying on the Anglo-Russian agreement of May 30, 1878, according to which Russia pledged to return the Alashkert Valley and Bayazet to Turkey, and at the secret Anglo-Turkish convention of June 4 (see Cyprus Convention of 1878), in which England pledged to resist Russia's military means in the Armenian regions of Turkey, sought not to condition the issue of reforms on the presence of Russian troops. Ultimately, the Berlin Congress adopted the English version of Article 16 of the Treaty of San Stefano, which, as Article 61, was included in the Berlin Treaty in the following wording: “The Sublime Porte undertakes to carry out, without further delay, improvements and reforms called for by local needs in the areas inhabited by Armenians, and ensure their safety from the Circassians and Kurds. She will periodically report on the measures she has taken for this purpose to the powers that will monitor their application” (“Collection of treaties of Russia with other states. 1856-1917”, 1952, p. 205). Thus, a more or less real guarantee of the implementation of Armenian reforms (the presence of Russian troops in areas populated by Armenians) was eliminated and it was replaced by an unrealistic general guarantee of monitoring of the reforms by the powers. According to the Berlin Treaty, the Armenian question from an internal issue of the Ottoman Empire turned into an international issue, becoming the subject of the selfish policies of imperialist states and world diplomacy, which had fatal consequences for the Armenian people. Along with this, the Berlin Congress was a turning point in the history of the Armenian Question and stimulated the Armenian liberation movement in Turkey. In Armenian socio-political circles, disillusioned with European diplomacy, the conviction was growing that the liberation of Western Armenia from the Turkish yoke was possible only through armed struggle.

48. Counterforms of Alexander III

After the assassination of Tsar Alexander 2, his son Alexander 3 (1881-1894) ascended the throne. Shocked by the violent death of his father, fearing the intensification of revolutionary manifestations, at the beginning of his reign he hesitated in choosing a political course. But, having fallen under the influence of the initiators of the reactionary ideology K.P. Pobedonostsev and D.A. Tolstoy, Alexander 3 gave political priorities to the preservation of autocracy, the warming of the class system, traditions and foundations of Russian society, and hostility to liberal reforms.

Only public pressure could influence the policy of Alexander 3. However, after the brutal murder of Alexander 2, the expected revolutionary upsurge did not occur. Moreover, the murder of the reformer tsar recoiled society from the Narodnaya Volya, showing the senselessness of terror; intensified police repression finally changed the balance in the social situation in favor of conservative forces.

Under these conditions, a turn to counter-reforms in the policy of Alexander 3 became possible. This was clearly outlined in the Manifesto published on April 29, 1881, in which the emperor declared his will to preserve the foundations of autocracy and thereby eliminated the hopes of the democrats for the transformation of the regime into a constitutional monarchy - not We will describe the reforms of Alexander 3 in the table, but instead we will describe them in more detail.

Alexander III replaced liberal figures in the government with hardliners. The concept of counter-reforms was developed by its main ideologist K.N. Pobedonostsev. He argued that the liberal reforms of the 60s led to upheavals in society, and the people, left without guardianship, became lazy and savage; called for a return to the traditional foundations of national existence.

To strengthen the autocratic system, the system of zemstvo self-government was subjected to changes. Judicial and administrative powers were combined in the hands of zemstvo chiefs. They had unlimited power over the peasants.

The “Regulations on Zemstvo Institutions,” published in 1890, strengthened the role of the nobility in zemstvo institutions and the administration’s control over them. The representation of landowners in zemstvos increased significantly through the introduction of a high property qualification.

Seeing the main threat to the existing system in the face of the intelligentsia, the emperor, in order to strengthen the positions of the nobility and bureaucracy loyal to him, in 1881 issued the “Regulations on measures to preserve state security and public peace,” which granted numerous repressive rights to the local administration (to declare a state of emergency, to expel without trial, put on trial by military court, close educational institutions). This law was used until the reforms of 1917 and became a tool for the fight against the revolutionary and liberal movement.

In 1892, a new “City Regulation” was published, which infringed on the independence of city government bodies. The government included them in the general system of government institutions, thereby putting them under control.

Alexander the Third considered strengthening the peasant community an important direction of his policy. In the 80s, a process began to free peasants from the shackles of the community, which interfered with their free movement and initiative. Alexander 3, by law of 1893, prohibited the sale and mortgage of peasant lands, negating all the successes of previous years.

In 1884, Alexander undertook a university counter-reform, the purpose of which was to educate intelligentsia obedient to the authorities. The new university charter sharply limited the autonomy of universities, placing them under the control of trustees.

Under Alexander 3, the development of factory legislation began, which restrained the initiative of the owners of the enterprise and excluded the possibility of workers fighting for their rights.

The results of the counter-reforms of Alexander 3 are contradictory: the country managed to achieve industrial growth and refrain from participating in wars, but at the same time social unrest and tension increased.

The most famous foreign policy event under Emperor Alexander II was the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, which ended successfully for our country.
The so-called eastern question, the struggle of the Slavic peoples of the Ottoman Empire to gain independence, remained open. After the end of the Crimean War, the foreign policy climate on the Balkan Peninsula worsened. Russia was concerned about the weak defense of its southern borders near the Black Sea, and the inability to protect its political interests in Turkey.

Causes of the war

On the eve of the Russian-Turkish campaign, most of the Balkan peoples began to express discontent, as they were under almost five hundred years of oppression over the Turkish Sultan. This oppression was expressed in economic and political discrimination, the imposition of foreign ideology and the widespread Islamization of Orthodox Christians. Russia, being an Orthodox state, strongly supported such a national rise of the Bulgarians, Serbs and Romanians. This became one of the main factors that predetermined the start of the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878. The situation in Western Europe also became the basis for the clash between the two sides. Germany (Austria-Hungary), as a new strong state, began to claim dominance in the straits of the Black Sea, and tried in every possible way to weaken the power of England, France and Turkey. This coincided with Russia's interests, so Germany became its leading ally.

Occasion

The stumbling block between the Russian Empire and the Turkish state was the conflict between the South Slavic population and the Turkish authorities in 1875-1876. More precisely, these were anti-Turkish uprisings in Serbia, Bosnia, and, later, annexed Montenegro. The Islamic country suppressed these protests using the most brutal methods. The Russian Empire, acting as the patron of all Slavic ethnic groups, could not ignore these events, and in the spring of 1877 declared war on Turkey. It was with these actions that the conflict between the Russian and Ottoman empires began.

Events

In April 1877, the Russian army crossed the Danube River and went to the side of Bulgaria, which at the time of the action still belonged to the Ottoman Empire. By the beginning of July, the Shipka Pass was occupied practically without much resistance. The Turkish side’s response to this was the transfer of an army led by Suleiman Pasha to take these territories. This is where the bloodiest events of the Russian-Turkish war unfolded. The fact is that the Shipka Pass was of enormous military importance; control over it provided free movement of the Russians to the north of Bulgaria. The enemy was significantly superior to the Russian army both in weapons and in human resources. On the Russian side, General N. Stoletov was appointed commander-in-chief. By the end of 1877, the Shipka Pass was taken by Russian soldiers.
But, despite the heavy defeats, the Turks were in no hurry to give up. They concentrated their main forces in the Plevna fortress. The siege of Plevna turned out to be a turning point in all armed battles of the Russian-Turkish war. Here luck was on the side of the Russian soldiers. Bulgarian troops also successfully fought on the side of the Russian Empire. The commanders-in-chief were: M.D. Skobelev, Prince Nikolai Nikolaevich and the Romanian King Carol I.
Also during this stage of the Russian-Turkish war the fortresses of Ardahan, Kare, Batum, Erzurum were taken; fortified area of ​​the Turks Sheinovo.
At the beginning of 1878, Russian soldiers approached the Turkish capital, Constantinople. The previously powerful and warlike Ottoman Empire was unable to resist the Russian army and in February of the same year requested peace negotiations.

Results

The final stage of the Russian-Turkish conflict was the adoption of the San Stefano Peace Treaty on February 19, 1878. Under its terms, the northern part of Bulgaria received independence (an autonomous principality), and the independence of Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania was confirmed. Russia received the southern part of Bessarabia with the fortresses of Ardahan, Kars and Batum. Türkiye also obliged to pay indemnities to the Russian Empire in the amount of 1.410 billion rubles.

Only Russia was satisfied with the result of this peace treaty; everyone else was categorically dissatisfied with it, in particular, Western European countries (England, Austria-Hungary, etc.). Therefore, in 1878, the Berlin Congress was organized, at which all the terms of the previous peace treaty were revised. The Macedonian Republic and the eastern region of Romania were returned to the Turks; England, which did not take part in the war, received Cyprus; Germany received part of the lands that belonged to Montenegro under the Treaty of San Stefano; Montenegro was also completely deprived of its own navy; some of Russia's acquisitions were transferred to the Ottoman Empire.

The Berlin Congress (treaty) significantly changed the initial balance of power. But, despite some territorial concessions to Russia, the result for our country was victory.

The Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878 was a war between the Russian Empire and its allied Balkan states on the one hand, and the Ottoman Empire on the other. It was caused by the rise of national consciousness in the Balkans. The brutality with which the April Uprising in Bulgaria was suppressed aroused sympathy for the plight of Christians in the Ottoman Empire in Europe and especially in Russia. Attempts to improve the situation of Christians by peaceful means were thwarted by the stubborn reluctance of the Turks to make concessions to Europe, and in April 1877 Russia declared war on Turkey.

A detachment of Don Cossacks in front of the emperor's residence in Ploiesti, June 1877.

During the ensuing hostilities, the Russian army managed, using the passivity of the Turks, to successfully cross the Danube, capture the Shipka Pass and, after a five-month siege, force the best Turkish army of Osman Pasha to capitulate in Plevna. The subsequent raid through the Balkans, during which the Russian army defeated the last Turkish units blocking the road to Constantinople, led to the Ottoman Empire's withdrawal from the war.

At the Berlin Congress held in the summer of 1878, the Berlin Treaty was signed, which recorded the return to Russia of the southern part of Bessarabia and the annexation of Kars, Ardahan and Batum. The statehood of Bulgaria (conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1396) was restored as the vassal Principality of Bulgaria; The territories of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania increased, and Turkish Bosnia and Herzegovina was occupied by Austria-Hungary.

Emperor Alexander II

Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich, Commander-in-Chief of the Danube Army, in front of the main headquarters in Ploesti, June 1877.

A sanitary convoy for transporting the wounded of the Russian army.

Mobile sanitary detachment of Her Imperial Majesty.

Field hospital in the village of Pordim, November 1877.

His Majesty the Emperor Alexander II, Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich and Carol I, Prince of Romania, with headquarters officers in Gornaya Studen, October 1877.

Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich, Prince Alexander of Battenberg and Colonel Skarialin in the village of Pordim, September 1877.

Count Ignatiev among employees in Gornaya Studen, September 1877.

Transition of Russian troops on the way to Plevna. In the background is the place where Osman Pasha delivered his main attack on December 10, 1877.

View of the tents housing wounded Russian soldiers.

Doctors and nurses of the field hospital of the Russian Red Cross, November 1877.

Medical personnel of one of the sanitary units, 1877.

A hospital train carrying wounded Russian soldiers at one of the stations.

Russian battery in position near Corabia. Romanian coast, June 1877.

Pontoon bridge between Zimnitsa and Svishtov from the Bulgarian side, August 1877.

Bulgarian holiday in Byala, September 1877.

Prince V. Cherkassky, head of the civil administration in the lands liberated by the Russians, with his comrades-in-arms in a field camp near the village of Gorna Studena, October 1877.

Caucasian Cossacks from the imperial convoy in front of the residence in the village of Pordim, November 1877.

Grand Duke, heir to the throne Alexander Alexandrovich with his headquarters near the city of Ruse, October 1877.

General Strukov in front of the house of the residents of Gornaya Studena, October 1877.

Prince V. Cherkassky at his headquarters in Gornaya Studen, October 1877.

Lieutenants Shestakov and Dubasov, who blew up the Selfi monitor in the Machinsky branch of the Danube River, June 14-15, 1877. The first holders of the St. George Cross in the Russian-Turkish War, June 1877.

Bulgarian governor from the retinue of Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich, October 1877.

Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich with his adjutant in front of a tent in Pordim, 1877.

Guards Grenadier Artillery Brigade.

His Majesty the Emperor Alexander II, Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich and Carol I, Prince of Romania, in Gornaya Studen. The photograph was taken just before the storming of Plevna on September 11, 1877.

General I.V. Gurko, Gorna Studena, September 1877.

A group of generals and adjutants in front of the residence of Alexander II in Pordim, October-November 1877.

The forefront of the Caucasians.