Coursework: methodology for studying economic processes and phenomena. Methods for studying economic phenomena and processes

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The specifics of the subject of economic theory presuppose the use of certain research methods. Method translated from Greek means the path to something. A method is a set of techniques, methods, principles with the help of which the subject of science is studied. The reality of the results depends on the correctly used method.
Typically, a research method is formed on the basis of a specific methodology. Methodology is a general approach to the study of economic phenomena, a system of methods and techniques of analysis with a certain philosophical approach.
The first way to study economic phenomena and processes was the empirical method, which consists of collecting and describing facts and events. This method is the main and indispensable way to obtain initial information about the economy. In this case, the identified and collected facts serve as the basis for scientific generalization.
In the 17th century, William Petty improved the empirical method and created the statistical method. A feature of the economic-statistical method is the collection and processing of quantitative data about economic phenomena and processes.
In a wide range of methods of scientific knowledge, the most important is the method of scientific abstraction, which was the first in economic science to clearly formulate David Ricardo. The abstraction method involves highlighting the most significant aspects of the phenomenon under study and abstracting (abstracting) from everything secondary and random. Using this method, economic categories are formulated that express the essential aspects of the objects under study, and economic models are built.
An equally important method of research in economic science is the method of materialist dialectics, the creator of which is Karl Marx. This method involves considering economic processes and phenomena in continuous movement, change, development, interconnection and interdependence. Contradiction acts as an internal source of development.
In economics, the methods of induction and deduction are widely used. The induction method is the derivation of theoretical positions and principles from facts, the movement of thought from the particular to the general. The method of deduction means the movement of knowledge from theory to facts, from the general to the particular. It allows facts to gain conceptual interpretation, and principles and hypotheses to be tested by facts.
Although induction and deduction are opposite ways of studying economic phenomena, in the actual cognitive process they are difficult to separate. They complement each other, thereby ensuring the effectiveness of these methods.
In the process of ascending from the general to the specific and vice versa, methods of analysis and synthesis are used. Analysis of economic phenomena involves dividing the phenomenon under study into its component parts, which are subject to detailed study. The results of studying individual parts are generalized (synthesized) and the internal relationships of the elements of the system as a whole are established.
One of the systematic research methods is economic and mathematical modeling. This method became widespread in the twentieth century. A model is a formalized description of an economic process or phenomenon. It allows you to determine the causes of changes in economic phenomena, the patterns of these changes, their consequences, and also makes it possible to predict economic processes. Despite the active use of this method, its capabilities have their limits, since not all phenomena and processes in the economy and society can be formalized and translated into functional mathematical language.
Experiment plays a special role among the methods used in economic science. Experiment – setting up and conducting a scientific experiment in practice under controlled conditions. For example, a new remuneration system is being developed within a group of employees. An experiment is an artificial reproduction of an economic phenomenon or process with the aim of studying it under the most favorable conditions and further practical application. Experiments can be carried out both at the micro and macro levels, both in a market economy and outside it. Economic experiments make it possible to test in practice the validity of certain economic recommendations and programs and to prevent major economic mistakes and failures.
However, it must be remembered that economics is social in nature, connected with the social behavior of people, which limits the possibility of conducting large-scale experiments and the possibility of thoughtlessly transferring the results of one experiment to other areas of people’s economic activity.
In economic theory, positive and normative approaches are distinguished in the interpretation of economic knowledge. Positive analysis is focused primarily on an objective interpretation, a scientific explanation of observed economic processes and phenomena, the construction of scientific hypotheses on their basis, and the identification of patterns in the functioning of the economic system. Positive analysis examines the relationships between economic phenomena as they exist. For example, the law of demand can serve as a positive judgment: an increase in the price of a product leads, other things being equal, to a decrease in the quantity demanded for it. There are no value judgments in this statement, it is simply a statement of fact.
The normative approach is based on the study of how things should be and what needs to be done to achieve certain results, that is, it involves value judgments. Regulatory analysis is very important in the formation of economic policy. It involves searching and choosing ways and means (tools, levers) to achieve set goals and obtain certain results given the available opportunities. Since the normative approach affects the interests of people, the most important problem becomes the correct choice of goal and means of achieving it.
Thanks to the combination of various methods, an integrated approach is provided to the study of complex processes and phenomena in the economy that affect the economic actions of numerous economic entities.

Goals of Economic Theory

Basic goals of economic theory:

meeting needs with limited resources;
find effective ways to use resources to achieve certain goals;

Economy(economics) is a science that studies the choices made by individuals, firms, and the state, using limited resources to satisfy their goals. Currently, economics is an independent science that studies human solutions to the problem of rare resources.

Economic theory includes two sections: microeconomics and macroeconomics.

Microeconomics examines the behavior of individual households and firms; economic patterns of the formation of entrepreneurial capital and the competitive environment. The center of her analysis is the prices of individual goods, costs, the mechanism of functioning of the company, and labor motivation.
The main principle of microeconomics: the optimal decision is made by comparing marginal benefits And marginal cost.
Macroeconomics studies the functioning of the national economy on the basis of emerging microproportions. The objects of her research are national product and income, the general price level, inflation, employment, economic growth and world problems.

If microeconomics explains the structure and location of production, then macroeconomics explains its volume.

Subject of economic theory

The subject of economic theory is considered to be the analysis of a market economy.
Economics studies the impact of scarcity on social behavior.

Methods of economic theory

Method- this is a set of techniques, methods, principles with the help of which ways to achieve research goals are determined.

General scientific methods research ( formal logic- is the study of a phenomenon from the perspective of its structure (form)):

method of scientific abstraction: highlighting the most significant aspects of the phenomenon being studied and abstracting from everything random;
analysis: the phenomenon under study is divided into its component elements;
synthesis: the dismembered and analyzed elements are combined into a single whole, the internal connection between the elements is revealed, the contradictions between them are clarified;
positive analysis: examines the interrelationships of economic phenomena as they exist (what are the consequences of a particular event already implemented in the economic field);
normative analysis: based on a study of how it should be (the question: should certain economic activities be carried out);
induction: the movement of thought from the particular to the general, on the basis of which general provisions are logically deduced;
deduction: the movement of thought from the general to the specific;
comparison: determining the similarity or difference between phenomena and processes;
analogy: based on the transfer of properties of a known phenomenon to an unknown one;

Private Methods research:

use of graphs;
use of statistical, mathematical data;
economic experiment - a scientifically conducted experiment in the economic field with the aim of testing the effectiveness of planned economic activities;

Dialectical method knowledge was the main tool of Marxist political economy.

System method based on economic modeling.
Microeconomic models are formalized descriptions of economic phenomena and processes in order to clarify the functional dependencies between them.

Scientific method: the formulation of objective laws and theories in order to be able to explain and predict events of interest to the researcher on their basis.

Functions of economic theory

Economic theory performs the following functions: theoretical, methodological, practical.

Theoretical function: Economic theory is common to all sciences; it clarifies the essence of processes and phenomena.
Methodological function:Economic theory acts as a theoretical foundation for specific branch sciences.
Practical function: allows you to analyze accumulated problems and draw conclusions for the correct solution of problems facing society, thereby ensuring economic policy.

Methods for researching economic phenomena

Levels of research into economic phenomena

microeconomic analysis: research of consumers and firms at the microeconomic level;
Advantages: This approach can be attributed to its relative simplicity, accessibility and clarity. Flaws: neglect of the general economic equilibrium and macroeconomic effects.
macroeconomic analysis: studying aggregated values;
mesoeconomic analysis: research of consumers and firms taking into account macroeconomic influences (inflation, industry, region, state economic policy);

Mesoeconomics explores traditional microeconomic problems, taking into account the influence on the behavior of economic agents of macroeconomic variables: aggregate demand, inflation expectations, cyclicality, economic growth, etc.

ECONOMIC LAW is understood as a stable, repeating cause-and-effect relationship between economic processes, manifested as an objective necessity.

ECONOMIC LAWS are the laws of the development of production relations (or property relations) in their relationship with the development of productive forces.

Economic laws, like the laws of nature, are objective in nature. However, they differ significantly from the laws of nature, because arise, develop and act only in the process of human economic activity - in production, distribution, exchange and consumption. Moreover, unlike the laws of nature, economic laws are not eternal.

4.2. Systematization of economic laws.
The system of economic laws includes four types.

1. These are GENERAL economic laws, i.e. laws inherent in all social methods of production (the law of growth of labor productivity, the law of saving time, etc.)
2. SPECIAL - laws that operate in several socio-economic formations (the law of value, the law of supply and demand).
3. SPECIFIC economic laws that operate under the conditions of one social mode of production. The most important of them is the basic economic law, which expresses the connections in the process of interaction between productive forces and property relations.
4. PRIVATE - laws that operate only at one stage of the social mode of production. For example, the law of monopoly formation by concentration of production, which operates at the highest stage of development of capitalism, i.e. since the beginning of the 20th century.

4.3. Economic categories.
ECONOMIC CATEGORIES are theoretical expressions, mental forms of production relations, economic phenomena and processes that actually exist. These are specific concepts that reflect the economic characteristics of objects, phenomena, and processes.

They theoretically reflect, first of all, property relations in their interaction with the development of the system of productive forces. Since the content of the latter is the interaction of man with nature in the labor process, one side of the economic category is the individual areas of this interaction. Such categories, in particular, are labor, objects of labor, methods of labor, consumer value, product of labor, etc. The other side of the economic category is the relationship between people regarding the appropriation of various objects of property and the results of labor. Individual sections of these relationships are expressed in categories: money, price, value, salary, profit, rent, etc.

In addition, each law groups around itself a certain number of economic categories. For example, the law of value is revealed through categories such as required labor time, market value, price, etc.

Since economic categories are a theoretical expression of individual aspects of property relations in their interaction with the development of productive forces, the emergence of new forms of ownership is characterized by the emergence of new economic categories

TICKET 4. Property as an economic concept. private property as the basis of a market economy. Forms of ownership.

Property in the ECONOMIC MEANING is economic relations between people that exist in production. After all, all production is property in the economic sense

The ownership of material goods is nothing more than the appropriation by people of the substance of nature and energy for the benefit of people. In this regard, the system of property relations has the following STRUCTURE: relations of appropriation, relations of economic use of property and relations of economic sale of property.

1) APPROPRIATION v is an economic connection between people that establishes their relationship to things as their own. Those. when someone says, “this garden plot is mine,” he thereby characterizes the existing economic ties: who can and who does not have the right to lay claim to his property.

The opposite of appropriation is the relationship of ALIENATION. They arise if some part of society seizes all the means of production, leaving other people without sources of livelihood. Or the products produced by some are appropriated by others. This was the relationship between slave owners and slaves in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome.

2) Sometimes the owner of the means of production does not himself engage in creative activities. He allows others to own his things under certain conditions. Then a relationship of ECONOMIC USE OF PROPERTY arises between the owner and the entrepreneur. The latter temporarily receives the legal right to own and use someone else's property (eg, lease, concession).

3) Property is ECONOMICALLY SALE when it generates income for its owner. This could be profit, taxes, various payments.

As you can see, property relations from beginning to end cover the entire economic process and permeate all relations in the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of useful goods.

Rights are determined by PROPERTY SUBJECTS - that is, legal and natural persons who have the right to own, use and dispose of property; and PROPERTY OBJECTS are production resources, material goods (means of production, securities, consumer goods, etc.).

If resources are in the hands of individuals (natural persons) or firms (legal entities), then this is private property.

Institute private property is the basis of a market economy. It is supported by the right of ownership, appropriation, disposal and use, including will, i.e. the right of the owner property appoint a successor after death.

Private own can come in different forms: How individual, owned by an individual, collective, owned by a small group of individuals united in a partnership or joint stock company.

Hence the shareholder own? this is also collective own, but uniting the overwhelming number of individual (individuals) persons. Joint Stock own develops into a corporate own, uniting companies (free market economy)(legal entities).There are broad legal restrictions on the right private property. For example, it is prohibited by law to use any resources for drug production. IN market economy there is also a state own on some resources to ensure the effective functioning of the entire economy. Even in pure capitalism, it is recognized that government can play an important role in making better use of resources. own on some “natural monopolies”: post office, railway transport, public utilities.

Interaction private and state property leads to the formation of mixed property, property which is recognized as dominant in economy developed and developing countries. The main forms of ownership are: private, collective (group) and public.

Private property occurs where the means and results of production belong to individuals. It generates among these individuals a material interest in the rational use of material factors of production in order to achieve maximum economic effect.

Collective (group) property characterizes the ownership of the means and results of production by a separate group of persons. Each member of this group is a co-owner of the factors of production and the products produced. Group property includes communal, family, cooperative, labor collective property, etc.

Public property is a shared property, i.e., the ownership of certain objects by the entire society. This form of ownership functions as state property.

Based on the basic forms of ownership (private, collective and public), its derivative forms arise - joint stock, cooperative, ownership of the work collective, joint, etc. The property of such enterprises is formed on a share (equity) basis at the expense of funds and other contributions from individuals and legal entities who act as joint owners. Their income depends on the size of the contributed share and the results of economic activity. This is where personal and collective interests come together.

TICKET 5. Social production: concept, types, phases, factors, results.

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First, let’s look at the very concept of methodology and what it includes.

The methodology of science, as is known, is the doctrine of the principles of construction, forms and methods of scientific knowledge. Therefore, the methodology of economic theory is the science of the principles of constructing an economic system, of methods for studying economic activity.

The methodology of economic theory is the science of methods for studying economic life and economic phenomena. It presupposes the presence of a common approach to the study of economic phenomena, a common understanding of reality, and a common philosophical basis. The methodology is designed to help solve the main question: with the help of what scientific methods and methods of understanding reality does economic theory achieve true illumination of the functioning and further development of a particular economic system. In the methodology of economic theory, four main approaches can be distinguished:

1) subjectivist (from the standpoint of subjective idealism);
2) neopositivist-empirical (from the standpoint of neopositivist empiricism and skepticism);
3) rationalistic;
4) dialectical-materialistic.

With a subjectivist approach, the starting point for the analysis of economic phenomena is taken as an economic entity influencing the surrounding world, and the sovereign “I” is relatively independent, hence everyone is equal. The object of economic analysis is the behavior of the subject of the economy ("homoeconomics"), and therefore economic theory is considered as the science of human activity, determined by the boundaries of needs. The main category in this approach is need, usefulness. Economics becomes the theory of choice made by an economic entity from various options.

The neopositivist-empirical approach is based on a more thorough study of phenomena and their assessment. The technical apparatus of research is put at the forefront, which turns from a tool into an object of knowledge (mathematical apparatus, econometrics, cybernetics, etc.), and the result of the research is various kinds of empirical models, which are the main categories here. This approach involves dividing into microeconomics - economic problems at the firm and industry level, and macroeconomics - economic problems on a societal scale.

The rationalistic approach aims to discover the “natural” or rational laws of civilization. This requires a study of the economic system as a whole, the economic laws governing this system, and a study of the economic “anatomy” of society. The economic tables of F. Quesnay are the pinnacle of this approach. The purpose of human economic activity is the desire to obtain benefit, and the purpose of economic theory is not the study of human behavior, but the study of the laws governing the production and distribution of the social product (D. Ricardo). This approach recognizes the division of society into classes, in contrast to the subjectivist approach, which represents society as a set of equal subjects. The main attention in this approach is paid to cost, price, and economic laws.

The dialectical-materialist approach is considered the only correct one in solving scientific problems on the basis not of empirical positivism (experience), but of objective analysis characterizing the internal connections of phenomena that exist in reality. Economic processes and phenomena constantly arise, develop and are destroyed, i.e. are in constant motion, and this is their dialectic. Methodology cannot be confused with methods - tools, a set of research techniques in science and their reproduction in the system of economic categories and laws.

The characteristic features of the economic analysis method are:

a) determination of a system of indicators that comprehensively characterize the economic activities of organizations;
b) establishing the subordination of indicators, highlighting the total effective factors and factors (major and secondary) influencing them;
c) identifying the form of relationship between factors;
d) selection of techniques and methods for studying the relationship;
e) quantitative measurement of the influence of factors on the aggregate indicator.

The set of techniques and methods that are used in the study of economic processes constitutes the methodology of economic analysis. The methodology of economic analysis is based on the intersection of three areas of knowledge: economics, statistics and mathematics. Economic methods of analysis include comparison, grouping, balance sheet and graphical methods. Statistical methods include the use of average and relative values, the index method, correlation and regression analysis, etc. Mathematical methods can be divided into three groups: economic (matrix methods, production function theory, input-output balance theory); methods of economic cybernetics and optimal programming (linear, nonlinear, dynamic programming); methods of operations research and decision making (graph theory, game theory, queuing theory).

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

FEDERAL EDUCATION AGENCY

State educational institution of higher professional education

RUSSIAN STATE TRADE AND ECONOMICS UNIVERSITY

Novosibirsk branch

Faculty of Trade and Economics

COURSE WORK

by discipline"Economic theory"

on the topic “Methodology for studying economic processes and phenomena”

Novosibirsk 2010

Introduction

1.1 Basic concepts

1. Methodology analysis

2.1 Concept and types

3. Ways to improve

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

To properly understand the course “Economic Theory” it is necessary to define the methods of economic theory. For three centuries now, economic theorists of various directions and schools have expressed contradictory views. During this time, ideas about the sources of society's wealth, the role of the state in economic activity changed several times, and even the name of science itself was updated.

The first reason to study economic theory is that this theory deals with problems that concern us all without exception: what types of jobs need to be done? How are they paid? How many goods can you buy for a conventional unit of wages now and during a period of galloping inflation? What is the probability of a time coming when a person will not be able to find a suitable job within an acceptable period?

Economic theory is designed to study and explain the processes and phenomena of economic life, and for this, economic theory must penetrate into the essence of deep processes, reveal laws and predict ways of their use.

In economic processes, one can detect two unique layers of relations between people: the first of them is superficial, externally visible, the second is internal, hidden from external observation.

The study of externally visible economic relations is naturally available to every person. Therefore, already from childhood, people develop ordinary economic thinking, which is based on direct knowledge of economic life. Such thinking, as a rule, is distinguished by its subjective nature, in which the individual psychology of a person is manifested. It is limited by a person’s personal horizons and is often based on fragmentary and one-sided information;

Economic theory strives to discover behind the external appearance of economic phenomena the essence - their internal content, as well as the cause-and-effect dependencies of some phenomena on others. Professor Paul Heine (USA) made an interesting comparison: “An economist knows the real world no better, and in most cases worse than managers, engineers, mechanics, in a word, business people. But economists know how different things are connected. Economics allows us to better understand what we see and to think more consistently and logically about a wide range of complex social relations.

The relevance of the topic lies in the fact that, without knowing the methods for studying economic phenomena, it is impossible to correctly assess a particular economic event, to calculate whether the enterprise will make a profit, or vice versa.

The purpose of the coursework is to consider methods for studying economic processes and phenomena.

Objectives of the course work: we will consider the methodology in theory, conduct an analysis, and also consider ways to improve this topic.

1. Theory of studying methods of economic processes and phenomena

1.1 Basic concepts

First, let’s look at the very concept of methodology and what it includes.

1) subjectivist (from the standpoint of subjective idealism);

2) neopositivist-empirical (from the standpoint of neopositivist empiricism and skepticism);

3) rationalistic;

4) dialectical-materialistic.

The characteristic features of the method of economic analysis are: a) determination of a system of indicators that comprehensively characterize the economic activities of organizations;

b) establishing the subordination of indicators, highlighting the total effective factors and factors (major and secondary) influencing them;

c) identifying the form of relationship between factors;

d) selection of techniques and methods for studying the relationship;

e) quantitative measurement of the influence of factors on the aggregate indicator.

1.2 Characteristics of the main techniques and methods of economic analysis

Comparison is a comparison of the data being studied and the facts of economic life. A distinction is made between horizontal comparative analysis, which is used to determine absolute and relative deviations of the actual level of the indicators under study from the base level. Vertical comparative analysis used to study the structure of economic phenomena; trend analysis used in studying the relative rates of growth and increase in indicators over a number of years to the level of the base year, i.e. when studying time series.

A prerequisite for comparative analysis is the comparability of the compared indicators, which presupposes:

· unity of volume, cost, quality, structural indicators; · unity of time periods for which comparison is made; · comparability of production conditions and comparability of the methodology for calculating indicators.

Average values are calculated on the basis of mass data on qualitatively homogeneous phenomena. They help determine general patterns and trends in the development of economic processes.

Groupings - are used to study dependencies in complex phenomena, the characteristics of which are reflected by homogeneous indicators and different values (characteristics of the equipment fleet by commissioning time, by place of operation, by shift ratio, etc.)

The balance method consists of comparing and measuring two sets of indicators tending to a certain balance. It allows us to identify a new analytical (balancing) indicator as a result. For example, when analyzing the supply of raw materials to an enterprise, the need for raw materials, sources of covering the need are compared and a balancing indicator is determined - a shortage or excess of raw materials.

As an auxiliary, the balance sheet method is used to check the results of calculations of the influence of factors on the resulting aggregate indicator. If the sum of the influence of factors on the performance indicator is equal to its deviation from the base value, then, therefore, the calculations were carried out correctly. Lack of equality indicates incomplete consideration of factors or mistakes made:

where y is the effective indicator; x-factors; - deviation of the effective indicator due to factor x i.

The balance method is also used to determine the size of the influence of individual factors on the change in the performance indicator, if the influence of other factors is known:

Graphic method. Graphs are a large-scale representation of indicators and their relationships using geometric shapes.

The graphical method has no independent significance in the analysis, but is used to illustrate measurements.

The index method is based on relative indicators that express the ratio of the level of a given phenomenon to its level taken as a basis for comparison. Statistics names several types of indices that are used in analysis: aggregate, arithmetic, harmonic, etc.

By using index recalculations and constructing a time series characterizing, for example, the output of industrial products in value terms, it is possible to skillfully analyze dynamic phenomena.

The method of correlation and regression (stochastic) analysis is widely used to determine the closeness of the relationship between indicators that are not functionally dependent, i.e. the connection is not manifested in each individual case, but in a certain dependence.

With the help of correlation, two main problems are solved:

· a model of operating factors is compiled (regression equation);

· a quantitative assessment of the closeness of connections is given (correlation coefficient).

Matrix models are a schematic representation of an economic phenomenon or process using scientific abstraction. The most widely used method here is the “input-output” analysis, which is built according to a checkerboard pattern and makes it possible to present the relationship between costs and production results in the most compact form.

Mathematical programming is the main means of solving problems to optimize production and economic activities.

The operations research method is aimed at studying economic systems, including the production and economic activities of enterprises, in order to determine such a combination of structural interconnected elements of systems that will best determine the best economic indicator from a number of possible ones.

Game theory as a branch of operations research is the theory of mathematical models for making optimal decisions under conditions of uncertainty or conflict of several parties with different interests.

2. Methodology analysis

2.1 Concept and types

Analysis is the mental division of the phenomenon being studied into its component parts and the study of each of these parts separately. Through synthesis, economic theory recreates a single holistic picture.

Widespread: induction and deduction. Through induction (guidance), a transition is ensured from the study of individual facts to general provisions and conclusions. Deduction (inference) makes it possible to move from general conclusions to relatively specific ones. Analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction are applied in unity by economic theory. Their combination provides a systematic (integrated) approach to complex (multi-element) phenomena of economic life.

An important place in the study of economic phenomena and processes is occupied by historical and logical methods. They do not oppose each other, but are applied in unity, since the starting point of historical research coincides, in general, with the starting point of logical research. However, the logical (theoretical) study of economic phenomena and processes is not a mirror reflection of the historical process. In the specific conditions of a particular country, economic phenomena may arise that are not obligatory for the prevailing economic system. If they actually (historically) take place, then they can be ignored in theoretical analysis. We can take our minds off them. A historian cannot ignore this kind of phenomenon. He must describe them.

Using the historical method, economics studies economic processes and phenomena in the sequence in which they arose, developed, and were replaced by one another in life itself. This approach allows us to concretely and clearly present the features of various economic systems.

The historical method shows that in nature and society development proceeds from simple to complex. In relation to the subject of economics, this means that in the entire set of economic phenomena and processes it is necessary to highlight first of all the simplest ones, those that arise earlier than others and form the basis for the emergence of more complex ones. For example, in market analysis, such an economic phenomenon is the exchange of goods.

Economic processes and phenomena are characterized by qualitative and quantitative certainty. Therefore, economic theory (political economy) widely uses mathematical and statistical techniques and research tools that make it possible to identify the quantitative side of processes and phenomena of economic life, their transition to a new quality. In this case, computer technology is widely used. The method of economic and mathematical modeling plays a special role here. This method, being one of the systematic research methods, allows us to formally determine the causes of changes in economic phenomena, the patterns of these changes, their consequences, opportunities and costs of influence, and also makes forecasting economic processes realistic. Using this method, economic models are created.

An economic model is a formalized description of an economic process or phenomenon, the structure of which is determined by its objective properties and the subjective target nature of the study.

In connection with the construction of models, it is important to note the role of functional analysis in economic theory.

Functions are variable quantities that depend on other variables.

Functions occur in our daily lives and we most often do not realize it. They take place in technology, physics, geometry, chemistry, economics, etc. In relation to economics, for example, we can note the functional relationship between price and demand. Demand depends on price. If the price of a product increases, the quantity demanded for it, other things being equal, decreases. In this case, price is an independent variable, or argument, and demand is a dependent variable, or function. Thus, we can briefly say that demand is a function of price. But demand and price can change places. The higher the demand, the higher the price, other things being equal. Therefore, price can be a function of demand.

Economic-mathematical modeling as a method of economic theory became widespread in the 20th century. However, the element of subjectivity in constructing economic models sometimes leads to errors. Nobel Prize laureate French economist Maurice Allais wrote in 1989 that for 40 years economic science has been developing in the wrong direction: towards completely artificial and divorced from life mathematical models with a predominance of mathematical formalism, which, in fact, represents a big step back .

Most models and principles of economic theory can be expressed graphically, in the form of mathematical equations, so when studying economic theory it is important to know mathematics and be able to draw up and read graphs.

Graphs are a representation of the relationship between two or more variables.

The dependence can be linear (i.e. constant), then the graph is a straight line located at an angle between two axes - vertical (usually denoted by the letter Y) and horizontal (X).

If the graph line goes from left to right in a descending manner, then there is an inverse relationship between the two variables (for example, as the price of a product decreases, the volume of its sales usually increases). If the graph line is ascending, then the connection is direct (so, as the production costs of a product increase, prices for it usually increase --). The dependence can be non-linear (i.e. changing), then the graph takes the form of a curved line (for example, as inflation decreases, unemployment tends to increase - the Phillips curve).

Within the framework of the graphical approach, diagrams are widely used - drawings showing the relationship between indicators. They can be circular, columnar, etc.

The diagrams clearly demonstrate the indicators of the models and their relationships. When analyzing economic problems, positive and normative analysis are often used. Positive analysis gives us the opportunity to see economic phenomena and processes as they really are: what was or what could be. Positive statements do not have to be true, but any dispute regarding a positive statement can be resolved by checking the facts. Normative analysis is based on the study of what should be and how it should be. A normative statement is most often derived from a positive one, but objective facts cannot prove its truth or falsity. In normative analysis, assessments are made - fair or unfair, bad or good, acceptable or unacceptable.

2.2 Methodology of factor analysis

All phenomena and processes of economic activity of enterprises are interconnected and interdependent. Some of them are directly related to each other, others indirectly. Hence, an important methodological issue in economic analysis is the study and measurement of the influence of factors on the value of the economic indicators under study.

Economic factor analysis is understood as a gradual transition from the initial factor system to the final factor system, the disclosure of a complete set of direct, quantitatively measurable factors that influence the change in the performance indicator. Based on the nature of the relationship between indicators, methods of deterministic and stochastic factor analysis are distinguished.

Deterministic factor analysis is a technique for studying the influence of factors whose connection with the performance indicator is functional in nature.

The main properties of the deterministic approach to analysis: construction of a deterministic model through logical analysis; the presence of a complete (hard) connection between indicators; the impossibility of separating the results of the influence of simultaneously acting factors that cannot be combined in one model; studying relationships in the short term. There are four types of deterministic models:

Additive models represent an algebraic sum of indicators and have the form

Such models, for example, include cost indicators in relation to elements of production costs and cost items; an indicator of the volume of production in its relationship with the volume of output of individual products or the volume of output in individual departments.

Multiplicative models in a generalized form can be represented by the formula

An example of a multiplicative model is a two-factor model of sales volume

where H is the average number of employees;

CB - average output per employee.

Multiple models:

An example of a multiple model is the indicator of the turnover period of goods (in days). T O.T:

where Z T is the average stock of goods; О Р - one-day sales volume.

Mixed models are a combination of the above models and can be described using special expressions:

Examples of such models are cost indicators per 1 ruble. commercial products, profitability indicators, etc.

To study the relationship between indicators and quantitatively measure the many factors that influenced the performance indicator, we present general rules for transforming models to include new factor indicators.

To detail the generalizing factor indicator into its components, which are of interest for analytical calculations, the technique of lengthening the factor system is used.

If the original factor model

then the model will take the form

To identify a certain number of new factors and construct the factor indicators necessary for calculations, the technique of expanding factor models is used. In this case, the numerator and denominator are multiplied by the same number:

To construct new factor indicators, the technique of reducing factor models is used. When using this technique, the numerator and denominator are divided by the same number.

The detail of factor analysis is largely determined by the number of factors whose influence can be quantitatively assessed, therefore multifactorial multiplicative models are of great importance in the analysis. Their construction is based on the following principles: the place of each factor in the model must correspond to its role in the formation of the effective indicator; the model should be built from a two-factor full model by sequentially dividing factors, usually qualitative, into components; When writing a formula for a multifactor model, factors should be arranged from left to right in the order in which they are replaced.

Construction of a factor model is the first stage of deterministic analysis. Next, determine the method for assessing the influence of factors.

The method of chain substitutions consists in determining a number of intermediate values of the generalizing indicator by sequentially replacing the basic values of the factors with the reporting ones. This method is based on elimination. Eliminate means to eliminate, exclude the influence of all factors on the value of the effective indicator, except one. Moreover, based on the fact that all factors change independently of each other, i.e. First, one factor changes, and all the others remain unchanged. then two change while the others remain unchanged, etc.

In general, the application of the chain production method can be described as follows:

where a 0, b 0, c 0 are the basic values of factors influencing the general indicator y;

a 1 , b 1 , c 1 - actual values of factors;

y a, y b, are intermediate changes in the resulting indicator associated with changes in factors a, b, respectively.

The total change Dу=у 1 -у 0 consists of the sum of changes in the resulting indicator due to changes in each factor with fixed values of the remaining factors:

The advantages of this method: versatility of application, ease of calculations.

The disadvantage of the method is that, depending on the chosen order of factor replacement, the results of factor decomposition have different meanings. This is due to the fact that as a result of applying this method, a certain indecomposable residue is formed, which is added to the magnitude of the influence of the last factor. In practice, the accuracy of factor assessment is neglected, highlighting the relative importance of the influence of one or another factor. However, there are certain rules that determine the sequence of substitution: if there are quantitative and qualitative indicators in the factor model, the change in quantitative factors is considered first; if the model is represented by several quantitative and qualitative indicators, the substitution sequence is determined by logical analysis.

In analysis, quantitative factors are understood as those that express the quantitative certainty of phenomena and can be obtained by direct accounting (number of workers, machines, raw materials, etc.).

Qualitative factors determine the internal qualities, signs and characteristics of the phenomena being studied (labor productivity, product quality, average working hours, etc.).

The absolute difference method is a modification of the chain substitution method. The change in the effective indicator due to each factor using the method of differences is defined as the product of the deviation of the factor being studied by the basic or reporting value of another factor, depending on the selected substitution sequence:

The method of relative differences is used to measure the influence of factors on the growth of an effective indicator in multiplicative and mixed models of the form y = (a - b) . With. It is used in cases where the source data contains previously determined relative deviations of factor indicators in percentages.

For multiplicative models like y = a. V. The analysis technique is as follows: find the relative deviation of each factor indicator:

determine the deviation of the effective indicator y due to each factor

The integral method allows you to avoid the disadvantages inherent in the chain substitution method and does not require the use of techniques for distributing the indecomposable remainder among factors, because it has a logarithmic law of redistribution of factor loads. The integral method makes it possible to achieve a complete decomposition of the effective indicator into factors and is universal in nature, i.e. applicable to multiplicative, multiple and mixed models. The operation of calculating a definite integral is solved using a PC and is reduced to constructing integrand expressions that depend on the type of function or model of the factor system.

2. Ways to improve

Economic theory is the methodological foundation of a whole complex of sciences: sectoral (economics of trade, industry, transport, construction, etc.); functional (finance, credit, marketing, management, forecasting, etc.); intersectoral (economic geography, demography, statistics, etc.). Economic theory is one of the social sciences, along with history, philosophy, law, etc. It is designed to reveal one part of social phenomena in human life, the science of law - another, the science of morality - a third, etc., and only the totality of theoretical, social and historical sciences are able to explain the functioning of social life. Economic theory takes into account the knowledge inherent in specific economic sciences, as well as sociology, psychology, history, etc., without taking into account which its conclusions may turn out to be erroneous.

The connection between economic theory and other economic sciences in the most general form can be presented in the form of the following diagram (Scheme 1).

The practical significance of economic theory (the famous formula of O. Comte) is that knowledge leads to foresight, and foresight leads to action. Economic theory should underlie economic policy, and through it, permeate the area of economic practice. Action (practice) leads to knowledge, knowledge to foresight, foresight to right action. Economic theory is not a set of rules about how to become rich. She does not give ready answers to all questions. Theory is just a tool, a way of understanding economic reality. Mastery of this tool and knowledge of the basics of economic theory can help everyone make the right choice in many life situations. Therefore, there is no need to stop at the knowledge achieved, but to constantly look for ways to improve this knowledge.

Conclusion

In this course work, we examined the basic concepts of methodology and identified four main approaches to methodology in economic theory. They characterized the basic techniques and methods of economic analysis, examined the concept and methodology of factor analysis. We concluded that it is better to use research methods comprehensively in order to see the results more clearly.

Today, a person cannot consider himself involved in education and culture if he has not studied and understood the laws of social development and has not mastered the knowledge of economic theory. After all, economic theory is not a set of rules on how to become rich. She does not give ready answers to all questions. Theory is just a tool, a way of understanding economic reality. Mastery of this tool and knowledge of the basics of economic theory can help everyone make the right choice in many life situations. Therefore, there is no need to stop at the knowledge achieved, but to constantly look for ways to improve this knowledge.

In conclusion, I would like to quote the words of J. Keynes that “the ideas of economists and political thinkers, both when they are right and when they are wrong, have much greater significance than is commonly thought. In reality, only they rule the world.” It follows from this that the problems of the economic organization of society are serious things that require study and which cannot be taken lightly.

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