The first competition of our educational competition series "Paths" will be dedicated to Epithet. What it is - we already met in the introductory article. In this article we will once again recall the features of the epithet and consider how poets use this means of expression.
1. What is an epithet?
In a general sense, an EPHETET is a word that figuratively defines an object, phenomenon or action and emphasizes any characteristic property or quality in them. As part of a sentence, epithets are often definitions, and not every definition is an epithet, and an epithet in a sentence is not always just a definition: it can be a subject, an object, and an address.
An epithet is an artistic and figurative definition that emphasizes the most significant feature of an object or phenomenon in a given context.
2. What parts of speech express the epithet?
The epithet can be expressed by an adjective ("crystal air"), an adverb ("to love dearly", "to quietly hate"), a participle ("wandering evening"), a gerund ("playing hide and seek, the sky descends"), a numeral ("second life ", "fifth wheel"), a noun ("fun noise") and even a verb. In M. Isakovsky: “And such a month in the sky, even if you pick up needles” - almost the entire sentence is an epithet. Epithets can be expressed by different parts of speech. This is a word or an entire expression, which, due to its structure and special function in the text, acquires some new meaning or semantic connotation, highlighting individual, unique features in the image object and thereby forcing one to evaluate this object from an unusual point of view. Performing this function, the epithet acts as a figurative device and gives the text a certain expressive tone.
For example, the phrase “winged swing” contains the epithet “winged,” which helps the reader imagine the swing not just as a piece of iron moving back and forth, but as some kind of bird soaring in the air. In order for a simple adjective to become an epithet, it must be “awarded” with a deep meaning, and at the same time have a imaginative imagination. An epithet is not just a definition denoting some attribute, the quality of an object ("wooden stick"), but its figurative characteristic ("WOODEN facial expression"). Thus, a "quiet voice" is not an epithet, but a "BRIGHT voice" is an epithet , because BRIGHT is used here in a figurative sense. Or: “warm hands” is not an epithet, but “GOLDEN hands” is an epithet.
Adjectives that indicate the distinctive features of objects, but do not give their figurative characteristics, should not be classified as epithets. When adjectives perform only a semantic function, they, in contrast to epithets, are called logical definitions: “The hanging balls of the lanterns lit early are grinding...” (A. Akhmatova)
REMEMBER: IN AN EPITHET THE WORD IS ALWAYS USED IN A FIGUREABLE MEANING
3. Examples of epithets in poetry
Some examples of epithets:
Ruddy dawn.
Angelic light.
Quick thoughts.
Crane man.
Easy reading.
Golden man.
Human-computer.
Wonderful evening.
Singing fire.
Let's consider the use of epithets by famous writers (epithets are in capital letters):
“The grass was blooming all around so FUN” (I. Turgenev).
“What if I, CHARMED, return home HUMILIATED, can you forgive me?” (Alexander Blok).
“IN SAUCERS - GLASSES of lifebuoys” (V. Mayakovsky).
“Ghostly reigns” (I. Brodsky).
“Sneaking, playing hide and seek, the sky descends” (B. Pasternak)
Description of autumn in a poem by F. Tyutchev:
"There is in the initial autumn
A short but WONDERFUL time -
The whole day is like CRYSTAL,
AND RADIANT evenings...
Where the GORGEOUS sickle walked and the ear fell,
Now everything is empty - space is everywhere -
Only cobwebs THIN HAIR
Shines on the Idle furrow...”
In this passage, even such seemingly ordinary, objective definitions as “short season”, “fine hair” can also be considered epithets that convey Tyutchev’s emotional perception of early autumn.
Description of the evening in a poem by Afanasy Fet:
“On an evening so GOLDEN and CLEAR,
In this breath of all-victorious spring
Do not remind me, oh my BEAUTIFUL friend,
You are about our timid and poor love.”
4. Why do we need epithets?
We use epithets at every step. For example, when characterizing a child, we say that he is SMILE. Or LIGHT (that is, kind). Or ALIVE (that is, mobile). The word light is used in a figurative sense. We associate goodness with light, which is why a kind child turns into a bright child. We say that the sky is BLUE or that the air is FRESH. And if you eat something wrong, your whole face is GREEN. All these adjectives will be epithets. Let's take a more abstract example. FIRED speech. That is, speech is like a flame. This speech burns just like a fire. GRAY wave. That is, a white wave. Gray hair color is white. Hence the association.
So what is an epithet? An epithet is an artistic definition that emphasizes the MOST SIGNIFICANT SIGN OF AN OBJECT OR PHENOMENON.
Epithets are especially important in poetic descriptions, because they do not simply record the objective properties of objects and phenomena. Their main goal is to express the POET'S ATTITUDE TO WHAT HE WRITES ABOUT. The use of epithets allows you to significantly diversify the text, especially when describing. And in a poem where every word is important, one successful epithet can replace an entire sentence.
Epithets, unlike conventional definitions, always reflect the individuality of the author. Finding a successful, vivid epithet for a poet or prose writer means accurately defining your unique, unique view of an object, phenomenon, or person.
A stylistic approach to the study of epithets makes it possible to distinguish three groups within them (between which it is not always possible to draw a clear boundary!).
1. Intensifying epithets, which indicate a feature contained in the word being defined; Tautological epithets also include intensifying epithets. ("...In the snowy branches of BLACK jackdaws, BLACK jackdaws are shelters").
2. Clarifying epithets naming the distinctive features of an object (insomnia-NURSE).
3. Contrasting epithets, forming combinations of words with opposite meanings with the defined nouns (“Leningraders march in orderly rows, ALIVE WITH THE DEAD...”
Other groupings of epithets are also possible. This indicates that the concept of epithet unites very diverse lexical means of imagery.
5. Established epithets
There is such a thing as an ESTABLISHED EPITHET. This is an epithet that is tightly “stuck” to a word and is associated exclusively with it. A red maiden, an open field, a broad soul, a kind horse, a bright head, green land... All these epithets are erased and established. They are not even perceived as epithets. IN POETIC SPEECH IT IS BETTER TO AVOID THESE DEFINITIONS. Look for bright, unusual epithets that will amaze the reader and evoke in him a whole stream of associations and feelings: “Crimson ringing” (Tolstoy), “Simple-minded slander” (Pushkin), “Marble grotto” (Gumilyov)…
Constant epithets indicate a typical, permanent feature of an object. They often do not take into account the situation in which this sign manifests itself: after all, the sea is not always “blue”, and the horse is not always “kind”. However, for a singer or storyteller, semantic contradictions are not a hindrance. In folk poetry, alien to personal authorship, constant epithets are widespread: “good squad”, “fair maiden”, “blue sea”, “silk stirrup”, “straight road”, “good horse”, “black clouds”, “clean field” " and so on.
In the works of writers based on the traditions of oral folk art, constant epithets are necessarily used. There are many of them in the poems of M.Yu. Lermontov “Song about the merchant Kalashnikov” and N.A. Nekrasov “Who Lives Well in Rus'”, in the poems of Nekrasov, Yesenin. Lermontov is especially consistent in his use of constant epithets; they can be found in almost every line of his poem:
"Over Moscow the GREAT, GOLDEN-DOED,
Above the wall of the Kremlin WHITE STONE
Because of the FAR forests, because of the BLUE mountains,
Playfully on TIMBER roofs,
The GRAY clouds are accelerating,
The dawn of SCARLET rises..."
6. Misuse of epithets
In Homer one can find a number of extremely complex epithets, which in form are adjectives with two roots: helmet-shining Hector, owl-eyed Athena, fleet-footed Achilles, legged Achaeans... At the same time, Homer’s epithets are stable, attached to a specific hero. That is, Hector is always HELMET-SHINING, even if he does not wear a helmet, and Achilles is always FAST-FOOTED, even if he is sleeping.
From a modern point of view, this is a mistake. THE EPITHETS YOU USE MUST BE APPROPRIATE TO THE PLACE AND TIME. And, of course, they must be REALISTIC. Still, there are probably no “green lightning” and “fast-winged flies”.
7. The use of epithets in the lyrics of Anna Akhmatova
In addition to what has been said, we will consider examples of the use of epithets (or rather, NOT ONLY EPITHETS, BUT HER CHARACTERISTIC TROPES) in the lyrics of Anna Akhmatova.
ATTENTION:
(Competitors - please do not confuse a trope with an epithet, an epithet is one of the types of numerous tropes!!!)
A) Colorful definitions expressed by adjectives:
"I am deceived by my sad, changeable, evil fate."
“The DUTY lantern turned blue and showed me the way.”
B) Adjectives-epithets that serve as subject, object, address:
"You prophesy, BITTER, and you dropped your hands..."
B) Epithets are actions.
Most epithets characterize objects, but there are also those that figuratively describe actions. Moreover, if the action is indicated by a verbal noun, the epithet is expressed by an adjective (memory is FURIOUS, A CONTRACTED groan), if the action is named by a verb, then the epithet can be an adverb that acts as a circumstance (“I worry BITTERLY,” “it rang and sang POISONOUSLY”) . Nouns can also be used as epithets, playing the role of applications, predicates, giving a figurative characteristic of an object: “I AM YOUR VOICE, THE HEAT OF YOUR BREATH, I AM THE REFLECTION OF YOUR FACE.”
D) Zoomorphic epithets.
Endowing objects, experiences, natural phenomena with those qualities that are inherent directly in animals: “These are your LYNX eyes, Asia, they saw something in me, teased something hidden...”
Akhmatova almost never explains, she shows. This is achieved by the choice of images, very thoughtful and original, but most importantly - by their detailed development. Comparing love with the animal world, she writes: “Either like a snake, curled up in a ball, it casts a spell at the very heart, then all day long it coos like a dove on a white window.” Or: “In a white field I became a quiet girl, I call out love with a BIRD’S VOICE.” In A. Akhmatova’s work, “bird” means many things: poetry, a state of mind, God’s messenger. A bird is always the personification of free life; in cages we see a pitiful semblance of birds, without seeing them soaring in the sky. It is the same in the fate of a poet: the true inner world is reflected in poems created by a free creator.
“There is a crimson sun over shaggy gray smoke” (cf. shaggy bear);
“And that FURIOUS memory torments…” (cf. furious wolf);
"We wanted the torment of the STINGING ..." (cf. stinging wasp);
“The smell of gasoline and lilacs, an alert peace...” (cf. an alert animal).
D) Color epithet
Every second poem by A. Akhmatova contains at least one color epithet. Everyone knows that colors affect our thinking and feelings. They become symbols, serve as signals that warn us, make us happy, sad, form our mentality and influence our speech. There are a lot of color definitions in her poems, and most often - for yellow and gray, which are still the rarest in poetry: “I see a faded flag over the customs and over the city YELLOW dregs,” “Poems grow, knowing no shame, like a YELLOW dandelion by the fence ". In addition to the yellow and gray tones of everyday life, Akhmatova often uses white, blue, silver, and red.
White is the color of innocence and purity. In Rus', white is the color of the “Holy Spirit”. (He descends to earth in the form of a white dove.) White color symbolizes the transition from one state to another: death and birth again, for a new life. But white also has its sad side of meaning - it is also the color of death. The symbol “white” is directly reflected in Akhmatova’s poems. He is the personification of a quiet family life in the “white house”. When love becomes obsolete, the heroine leaves the “white house and quiet garden.” “White”, as the personification of inspiration and creativity, is reflected in the following lines: “I wanted to give her a dove, the one that was WHITE of everyone in the dovecote, but the bird itself flew after my slender guest.” The white dove, a symbol of inspiration, flies away after the Muse, devoting itself to creativity. “White” is also the color of memories, memory: “Like a WHITE stone in the depths of a well, one memory lies within me.” The Day of Salvation, paradise, are also designated in white by Akhmatova: “The gate dissolved into the WHITE paradise, Magdalene took her son.”
There are various shades of red in Akhmatova’s lyrics. Akhmatova’s designs include a blind wall, a tulip, a Chinese umbrella, plush chairs, and devils. Among the shades of red we see “pink friend cockatoo”, “for a scarlet mouth”, “pink lips”, “raspberry scarf”, etc. As we see, the poetess uses this color not only as a symbol of passion, but also as a symbol of some kind of devilry.
Blue color is a sign of light, purity and spotlessness, the color of the sky and azure, the color of the sea and tears. Akhmatova’s blue colors are surf, fog, twilight, etc.
One of the most important places in Akhmatova’s color palette belongs to the color silver. Silvery curls, silvery willow, silvery coffin, silvery poplar, silvery laughter, silvery deer - all these are Akhmatova’s epithets.
Having analyzed Akhmatova’s lyrics, we can draw the following conclusion: her color designations always fulfill semantic, descriptive and emotional purposes. Thus, the semantic function consists in updating various increments of meaning; descriptive - in that color epithets are used by the writer so that the description becomes visible, convex; the emotional one is especially interesting: Akhmatova’s color-symbols are a kind of “projection” of the mental state of her lyrical hero. The details-symbols were necessary for the author in order to strengthen the lyrical basis of the work, more clearly emphasize this or that mood and, undoubtedly, introduce a symbolic mystery into the work.
E) Household epithets
In Akhmatova’s poems, many epithets are born from a holistic, inseparable, united perception of the world. Akhmatova contains poems that are literally “made” from everyday life, from simple everyday life - right down to the green washstand on which a pale evening ray plays. One involuntarily recalls the words spoken by Akhmatova in her old age, that poems “grow from rubbish”, that even a spot of mold on a damp wall can become the subject of poetic inspiration and depiction.
"I pray to the window ray -
He is pale, thin, straight.
Today I have been silent since the morning,
And the heart is in half.
On my washstand
The copper has turned green.
But this is how the ray plays on him,
What fun to watch.
So innocent and simple
In the evening silence,
But this temple is empty
It's like a golden holiday
And consolation to me."
It’s not so important to us what exactly happened in the heroine’s life, the most important thing is her pain, confusion and desire to calm down at least when looking at a ray of sunshine - all this is clear, understandable and familiar to almost everyone. The wisdom of Akhmatova’s miniature, somewhat vaguely similar to Japanese haiku, lies in the fact that it speaks of the healing power of nature for the soul. A ray of sunshine, “so innocent and simple,” illuminating with equal affection both the greenery of the washstand and the human soul, is truly the semantic center of this amazing poem. Most everyday epithets emphasize the poverty and dullness of the object: “a worn-out rug, worn-out heels, a faded flag,” etc. For Akhmatova, in order to love the world, you need to see it as sweet and simple.
And now is the time to try your hand at writing poetry using bright, accurate and original epithets. This is what the 1st round of the educational competition series “Paths” will be devoted to. An announcement about the competition will appear in the very next few days.
Sincerely, Your AlKora.
With a word, influencing its expressiveness, the beauty of pronunciation. It is expressed mainly by an adjective, but also by an adverb (“to love dearly”), a noun (“fun noise”), and a numeral (“second life”).
Without having a definite position in the theory of literature, the name “epithet” is applied approximately to those phenomena that are called a definition in syntax, and an adjective in etymology; but the coincidence is only partial.
There is no established view of the epithet in literary theory: some attribute it to figures of speech, others consider it, along with figures and tropes, an independent means of poetic depiction; Some consider the epithet to be an element of exclusively poetic speech, others find it in prose as well.
This “oblivion of real meaning,” in the terminology of A. N. Veselovsky, is already a secondary phenomenon, but the very appearance of a constant epithet cannot be considered primary: its constancy, which is usually considered a sign of epic, epic worldview, is the result of selection after some diversity.
It is possible that in the era of the most ancient (syncretistic, lyric-epic) song creativity this constancy did not yet exist: “only later did it become a sign of that typically conventional - and class - worldview and style, which we consider, somewhat one-sidedly, to be characteristic of epic and folk poetry" [ ] .
Epithets can be expressed by different parts of speech (Mother Volga, wind-tramp, bright eyes, damp earth). Epithets are a very common concept in literature; without them it is difficult to imagine a work of art.
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What is an epithet? [Lectures on literature]
Russian language | Preparation for the OGE | Task 3. Means of speech expression
Unified State Exam 2017. Literature. Epithet
Subtitles
Dictionaries of Epithets
Epithets of Literary Russian Speech. A. Zelenetsky. 1913
What is an epithet and how to use it correctly in your essays? The epithet comes from the ancient Greek word ἐπίθετον (attached) and is a definition of a word that affects its expressive coloring. As a rule, an epithet is expressed by an adjective, but also by a noun (an hour of separation), a verb (the desire to forget), an adverb (to desire passionately).
An epithet is used to give a word or an entire expression richness and eloquence, a special semantic connotation and some new meaning. The epithet is often used in prose, but most often in poetry. Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin often used epithets to more clearly express thoughts and feelings in his poems.
The epithet does not have any specific position in the literature and approximately refers to those phenomena that are called an adjective in etymologists and called a definition in syntax. Literary theorists have different opinions regarding the nature of the epithet in the works of literary artists. Some consider it an adornment of poetic creativity, while others find it widely used in prose. Some place the epithet along with independent figures that decorate poetic imagery, others identify the epithet with an element of expressiveness and eloquence.
An epithet can be called the beginning of an integral complex of ideas that highlights the characteristic given in the word being defined. This sign is necessary for the consciousness of someone who understands certain phenomena, and the sign highlighted by it may seem random and insignificant to others. But for the creative thought he is not like that.
Let's look at a specific example to understand what an epithet is. In many ancient epics you can find such a phrase - Cherkassy saddle. In this case, this expression is not used to distinguish the saddle from some others, not from Cherkassy. Here we are dealing with the technique of stylistic idealization, and not with a banal definition of the subject. The Cherkassy saddle is the best of all the best, the saddle of a real hero, a saddle that has no equal anywhere in the world.
It is important to understand that an epithet is not one of the specific signs (properties) of an object (phenomenon), but its figurative characteristic (an expressive metaphorical adjective is often used). As we mentioned above, epithets can also be adverbs, and in some cases, nouns.
More examples of epithets:
The light pours sadly
Angelic light
Wonderful evening
Ruddy dawn
Quick thoughts
Light reading
Mighty Oak
Singing bonfire
Stately birch trees
What is one of the main beauties of human interaction? Of course, in communication, sharing your thoughts, emotions, sensations with each other through language. Now imagine if all our conversations came down solely to the transfer of this or that information, bare data without any figurative characteristics or additional meanings reflecting our attitude to what was said. This would be reminiscent of the communication of machines exchanging various combinations of zeros and ones, only instead of numbers there are words that do not carry any emotional connotation. Expressiveness of speech is important not only in everyday communication, but also in literature (and here it is “vital”). Agree, it is difficult to imagine a novel, poem or fairy tale that does not use figurative definitions and others. This is why epithets are important in our speech, both oral and written. What it is? This is precisely what helps make the words and phrases used more colorful, more accurately convey their essential features and express our attitude towards them. Next, we will take a closer look at this concept, define the role and meaning of epithets in speech, and also try to classify them depending on the purposes and features of application.
The concept of an epithet and types of its constructions
Let's start by presenting a complete and deeper understanding of the word "epithet": what it is, what structure it has, how it is used in certain situations.
Adjectives as epithets
From ancient Greek, “epithet” is translated as something “attached” or “added” to the main thing. This is true. These special expressive words always come as a complement to others denoting some object (object or subject). Usually this is a “definition + noun” construction, where the epithet is a definition, usually an adjective (but not necessarily). Let's give simple examples: black melancholy, dead of night, powerful shoulders, sugar lips, a hot kiss, cheerful colors, etc.
In this case, adjectives are epithets that allow us to draw a more complete picture of a particular subject: not just melancholy, but “black”, oppressive, impenetrable; not just a kiss, but a “hot”, passionate, giving pleasure - such a description makes you feel more deeply what the author wants to convey, experience some sensations and emotions.
Using other parts of speech as epithets
However, the role of epithets can be played not only by an adjective; often in this “role” adverbs, nouns, pronouns, and even participial and participial phrases (that is, not one word, but a combination of them) appear. Often it is these parts of speech that make it possible to more accurately and vividly convey an image and create the desired atmosphere than adjectives would do.
Let's look at examples of using various parts of speech as epithets:
- Adverbs. In a sentence they are circumstances. Examples: “The grass bloomed merrily” (Turgenev); “And I complain bitterly, and I shed bitter tears” (Pushkin).
- Nouns. They give a figurative description of the subject. Act as applications or predicates. Examples: “Oh, if only Mother Volga ran back!” (Tolstoy); "Spring of honor, our idol!" (Pushkin).
- Pronouns. They are used as epithets when they express the superlative degree of a phenomenon. Example: "...combat contractions...they say what kind of contractions!" (Lermontov).
- Participles. Example: “...I, enchanted, cut the thread of consciousness...” (Blok).
- Participial phrases. Examples: “A leaf ringing and dancing in the silence of centuries” (Krasko); “...borzopists...who have nothing in their language except words that do not remember kinship” (Saltykov-Shchedrin).
- Participles and participial phrases. Examples: “...playing hide and seek, the sky comes down from the attic” (Pasternak); “... frolicking and playing, it rumbles...” (Tyutchev).
Thus, epithets in speech can be not only adjectives, but also other parts of speech if they help convey an image and more accurately express the properties of the object being described.
Independent epithets
Rarely, there are cases when expressive means are used in a text without a main word; epithets act as independent definitions without qualifiers. Example: “I look for strange and new things on the pages of old, scribbled books” (Block). Here the epithets “strange” and “new” simultaneously play two roles - both the definition and the defined. This technique is typical for the literature of the era of symbolism.
Methods for classifying epithets
So, now we have a fairly clear idea of such an important term in literary theory as epithets. We looked at what it is and how it is used. However, for a better understanding of this phenomenon, it is important to be able to distinguish and classify epithets according to certain criteria. Despite the fact that the main and most important purpose of using these expressive means always comes down to one thing - to describe, to give an artistic definition of an object or phenomenon, all epithets can be classified. They are divided into groups according to different parameters, which we will consider below.
Types of epithets from a genetic point of view
The first group divides epithets into types depending on genetic origin:
- general language (decorating);
- folk poetic (permanent);
- individually-authored.
General linguistic ones, also called decorative ones, represent any characteristics that describe objects and phenomena and their properties. Examples: gentle sea, deathly silence, leaden clouds, ringing silence, etc. We usually use them in everyday speech in order to better convey the atmosphere of the event/object being described and our feelings to the interlocutor.
Folk poetic, or permanent, epithets are words or entire expressions that over many years have become firmly attached to certain words in people's minds. Examples: good fellow, red maiden, clear month, open field and others.
Individual author's epithets are a product of the creative thought of the author himself. That is, previously these words or phrases were not used in speech in exactly this meaning, and therefore were not epithets. There are a lot of them in fiction, especially in poetry. Examples: “the face of the thousand-eyed trust...” (Mayakovsky); “transparent flattery necklace”, “rosary of golden wisdom” (Pushkin); “...an eternal motive in the middle of life” (Brodsky).
Epithets based on metaphor and metonymy
Epithets can also be divided into groups according to other criteria. Since figurative epithets are often associated with the use of words in a figurative meaning, depending on the type of this figurative word (which is an epithet), we can distinguish:
- metaphorical;
- metonymic.
Metaphorical epithets, as is already clear from the name, are based on “light patterns”, “winter silver” (Pushkin); “dull, sad friendship”, “sad, mournful reflection” (Herzen); “barren fields” (Lermontov).
Metonymic epithets are based on the figurative metonymic meaning of the word. Examples: “her hot, scratching whisper” (Gorky); “birch, cheerful language” (Yesenin).
In addition, epithets based on metaphorical or metonymic meaning can incorporate properties of other tropes: combined with hyperbole, personification, etc.
Examples: “Loudly winged arrows, beating behind the shoulders, sounded / In the procession of an angry god: he walked, like the night” (Homer); “He cursed, begged, cut / climbed after someone to bite into the sides. / In the sky, red as a Marseillaise / the sunset trembled, rounding around” (Mayakovsky).
This use of epithets makes it possible to express the author’s perception of some phenomena/objects even brighter, stronger, and more accurately and to convey these feelings to readers or listeners.
Epithets from the point of view of the author's assessment
Epithets can be divided into groups depending on how the author’s assessment is expressed in the work:
- figurative;
- expressive.
The former are used to express features and focus attention on some significant differences and properties of an object without expressing the author’s assessment of it. Examples: “...in the autumn twilight, how ghostly the transparency of the garden reigns” (Brodsky); “Your fences have a cast-iron pattern / And the flame of the punch is blue” (Pushkin).
Expressive epithets (as is already clear from the name) give readers the opportunity to hear the author’s attitude, his clearly expressed assessment of the described object or phenomenon. Examples: “meaningless and dim light” (Block); “the heart is a cold piece of iron” (Mayakovsky).
However, it is worth noting that such a division is very conditional, since often figurative epithets also have an emotional connotation and are a consequence of the author’s perception of certain objects.
Evolution of the use of epithets in literature
When discussing what epithets are in literature, one cannot help but touch upon the topic of their evolution over time. They are constantly undergoing change, both historically and culturally. In addition, epithets differ depending on the geography (place of residence) of the people who created them. Our upbringing, characteristics and living conditions, experienced events and phenomena, experience gained - all this influences the images created in speech, as well as the meaning that is inherent in them.
Epithets and Russian folk art
Epithets - what are these images in oral folk art? At the early stage of the development of literature, epithets, as a rule, described some physical properties of objects and highlighted significant, key features in them. The emotional component and expression of attitude towards the described object faded into the background or were completely absent. In addition, folk epithets were distinguished by exaggeration of the properties of objects and phenomena. Examples: good fellow, untold riches, etc.
Epithets of the Silver Age and postmodernism
With the passage of time and the development of literature, epithets became more complex, their designs changed, and their role in works changed. The novelty of poetic language, and therefore the use of epithets, is especially clearly visible in the literary works of the Silver Age. Wars, rapid scientific and technological progress and related changes in the world have led to changes in human perception of the world. Writers and poets began searching for new literary forms. Hence the emergence of a large number of “own” (that is, the author’s) words due to the violation of habitual morphemes, stem connections, new forms of words and new ways of combining them.
Examples: “Curls sleep on the shoulders of snowy whiteness” (Muravyev); “Laughers... who laugh with laughter, who laugh with laughter, oh, laugh with laughter!” (Khlebnikov).
Many interesting examples of the use of words and unusual depictions of objects can be found in the works of Mayakovsky. Just look at the poem “The Violin and a Little Tenderly”, in which “the drum... slipped onto the burning Kuznetsky and left”, “the stupid plate clanged out”, “the copper-faced helikon” shouted something to the violin, etc.
The literature of postmodernism is also noteworthy in terms of the use of epithets. This direction (which emerged in the 40s and received its greatest development in the 80s) contrasts itself with realism (especially socialist realism), which dominated in Russia until the end of the 70s. Representatives of postmodernism reject the rules and norms developed by cultural traditions. In their work, the boundaries between reality and fiction, reality and art are erased. Hence - a large number of new verbal forms and techniques, curious and very interesting uses of epithets.
Examples: “The diathesis was blooming / The diapers were turning golden” (Kibrov); “The acacia branch... smells of creosote, vestibule dust... in the evening it tiptoes back into the garden and listens to the movement of electric trains” (Sokolov).
The works of the postmodern era are replete with examples of what epithets are in the literature of our time. One has only to read such authors as Sokolov (an example is presented above), Strochkov, Levin, Sorokin, etc.
Fairy tales and their characteristic epithets
Epithets occupy a special place in fairy tales. Folklore works of different times and different peoples of the world contain many examples of the use of epithets. For example, Russian folk tales are characterized by the frequent use of distance epithets, as well as definitions describing the surrounding nature. Examples: “open field, dark forest, high mountains”; "far away lands, in a distant state" ("Finist - the clear falcon", Russian folk tale).
But Iranian fairy tales, for example, are characterized by oriental imagery and florid speech rich in various epithets. Examples: "... a pious and wise sultan, who delved into state affairs with extraordinary care..." ("The History of Sultan Sanjar").
Thus, using the example of epithets used in folk art, one can trace the cultural characteristics inherent in a particular people.
Epithets in epics and myths of different peoples of the world
At the same time, folklore works from around the world are characterized by common features of the use of epithets that serve a specific purpose. This can be easily seen in the example of ancient Greek myths, Celtic legends and Russian epics. All these works are united by the metaphorical and fantastic nature of the events; epithets with a negative connotation are used to describe frightening places, events or phenomena.
Examples: “boundless dark Chaos” (ancient Greek myths), “wild screams, monstrous laughter” (Celtic legends), “filthy idol” (Russian epics). Such epithets serve not only to vividly describe places and phenomena, but also to form a special perception and attitude of the reader towards what he read.
What is the richness of the Russian language? Epithets and their role in colloquial and artistic speech
Let's start with a simple example. A short dialogue of two sentences: “Hello, son. I’m on my way home. How are you? What are you doing?” - “Hi, mom. Good. I ate the soup.” This conversation is a dry exchange of information: the mother is going home, the child has eaten soup. Such communication does not carry any emotions, does not create a mood and, one might say, does not give us any information about the feelings and real state of affairs of the interlocutors.
It’s another matter if epithets “interfere” in the communication process. What does it change? Example: “Hello, my sweet son. I’m driving home tired and exhausted like a dog. How are you doing? What are you doing?” - “Hello, beloved mommy. I had a hot day today, in a good way! I ate the soup, it was great.” This example very well answers the question of why epithets in modern speech are so important, even if it is an ordinary everyday conversation. Agree, from such a conversation it is much easier to understand what mood each of the interlocutors is in: the mother will be glad that her son is doing well, and is pleased that he liked the soup; the son, in turn, will understand that his mother is tired and will heat up dinner for her arrival or do something else useful. And all this thanks to epithets!
Epithet in Russian: role and examples of use in artistic speech
Let's move from simple to complex. In artistic speech, epithets are no less, and perhaps even more important. Not a single literary work will be interesting and will not be able to captivate the reader if it contains few epithets (with rare exceptions, of course). In addition to the fact that they make it possible to make the image of the depicted phenomena and objects brighter and more expressive, epithets also perform other roles in:
- They emphasize some characteristic features and properties of the object being described. Examples: “yellow ray”, “wild cave”, “smooth skull” (Lermontov).
- They explain and clarify the features that distinguish an object (for example, color, size, etc.). Example: “Forest... lilac, gold, crimson...” (Bunin).
- Used as a basis for creating an oxymoron by combining words with contrasting meanings. Examples: “brilliant shadow”, “poor luxury”.
- They allow the author to express his attitude to the phenomenon being described, give his assessment and convey this perception to readers. Example: “And we value the prophetic word, and we honor the Russian word” (Sergeev-Tsensky).
- They help create a vivid idea of the subject. Example: “...the first ringing of spring... rumbles in the blue sky” (Tyutchev).
- They create a certain atmosphere and evoke the desired emotional state. Example: “...lonely and a stranger to everything, walking alone along an abandoned high road” (Tolstoy).
- They form in readers a certain attitude towards a phenomenon, object or character. Examples: “A rustic peasant is riding, and he is sitting on a good horse” (Russian epic); “Onegin was, in the opinion of many... / A small scientist, but a pedant” (Pushkin).
Thus, the role of epithets in fiction is invaluable. It is these expressive words that make a work, be it a poem, a story or a novel, lively, fascinating, capable of evoking certain emotions, moods, and assessments. We can safely say that if there were no epithets, the very possibility of the existence of literature as an art would be called into question.
Conclusion
In this article, we tried to most fully answer the question and examined various ways of classifying these means of expression, and also talked about the role of epithets in life and creativity. We hope this has helped you expand your understanding of such an important term in literary theory as epithet.
Imagine if people communicated with each other like machines. We would exchange combinations of zeros and ones - bare data and no emotions. Would it be more difficult for us to find common ground? I think yes, it is more difficult.
People exchange many messages every day: “What did you eat today?”, “What movie did you watch?”, “How is grandma feeling?” Saying you ate soup is simply providing information. And to say that the soup was delicious- means to complicate the message with additional meanings. Convey additional information that you liked the soup, that it was delicious - and thereby praise the mother who cooked it, give her a hint on what kind of lunch to please her with next time.
And so with all other things: the film was scary, or funny, or romantic. Grandma was cheerful or tired– each of these messages evokes additional emotions, tells a whole story in literally one word, describes with one definition. And this definition is called an epithet.
- Epithet- a means of verbal expressiveness, the main purpose of which is to describe the significant properties of an object, to give it a figurative characteristic.
Functions of epithets
Without epithets, speech would be poor and inexpressive. After all, figurative speech simplifies the perception of information. With one apt word you can convey not only a message about a fact, but also tell what emotions it evokes, what significance this fact has.
Epithets can vary in the strength of the emotions conveyed and in the degree of expression of a particular characteristic. For example, say “cold water” and you will only get approximate temperature information. Say “ice water” - and along with the basic information you will convey sensations, emotions, an expressive metaphorical image and associations with the prickly, piercing cold of ice.
In this case, one can distinguish epithets commonly used, understandable and familiar to everyone, and unique, copyright, this is what writers usually have. An example of the former can be almost any descriptive definition from everyday life: dress cheerful colors, book boring. To illustrate the author's unique epithets, it is worth looking into fiction, and best of all, poetry.
For example, examples of epithets from works of art may look like this: “And the fox became downy wash your paws. || Soaring up fiery tail sail" (V. Khlebnikov). Or like this: “Face thousand-eyed the trust shines with smooth electricity” (V. Mayakovsky). Or even just like this: “Every morning, with six-wheeled exactly, at the same hour and at the same minute, we, millions, rise as one. At the same hour one million let's start work - one million let’s finish” (E. Zamyatin).
Structure of epithets
Epithets are not necessarily adjectives, although from the ancient Greek word ἐπίθετον This is exactly how it is translated.
The most common epithets with the structure object+definition expressed by different parts of speech. The role of definition is often adjective:
- “Nothing comes for free: fate || Victims redemptive asks” (N. Nekrasov).
But with equal success and even a greater degree of artistic expressiveness, epithets can also be nouns, adverbs, as well as other parts of speech.
- Nouns: “Sitting in the pavilion, he saw a short young lady walk along the embankment, blonde"(A. Chekhov); “And here is public opinion! || Spring of honor, our idol!|| And this is what the world revolves on!” (A. Pushkin);
- Adverbs: “There is grass all around funny bloomed" (I. Turgenev);
- Participles and verbal adjectives: “What if I, spellbound, || Soz-nanya, who broke the thread, || I will return home humiliated, || Can you forgive me? (A. Blok);
- Participles: “I love thunderstorms in early May, || When spring, the first thunder, || As if frolicking and playing, || Rumbling in the blue sky" (F. Tyutchev).
! It is worth keeping in mind that not every adjective or other part of speech, even if they denote a characteristic in some way, are necessarily epithets. They can carry a logical load in a statement and perform certain syntactic functions in a sentence (be a predicate, an object or a circumstance). And for this reason, they should not be epithets.
Classification of epithets
In general, an attempt to classify epithets based on their structure lies in the field of linguistics. Other parameters are important for literary criticism. In particular, the epithets can be divided into groups:
- decorating;
- permanent;
- copyright.
Decorating epithets - any descriptive characteristics: sea affectionate, silence ringing. Permanent They call such epithets that have long been firmly attached to certain words in the minds of many people. There are many of them in works of oral folk art, folklore and fairy tales: red Sun, clear month, Kind Well done, mighty shoulders, red girl, etc.
Evolution of epithets
Historically and culturally, epithets have undergone changes over time and depending on the geography of the people who created them. The conditions in which we live. What kind of experience do we get throughout our lives? What phenomena we encounter and how we comprehend them in our culture. All this affects speech patterns and the meanings and feelings encoded in them.
It is widely known, for example, that among the peoples of the Far North there are dozens of synonyms-epithets for the word “white”. A resident of tropical islands is unlikely to come up with even one or two.
Or take the color black, which has diametrically opposite meanings in the cultures of different peoples. In Europe it symbolizes mourning and sorrow, and in Japan it symbolizes joy. Traditionally, Europeans wear black for funerals, while the Japanese wear black for weddings.
Accordingly, the role of epithets with the word “black” changes when they are used in the speech of Europeans or Japanese.
It is curious that in early oral folk art and literature in its early stages, epithets did not so much express emotions as they literally described phenomena and objects in terms of their physical properties and key features. In addition, there were obvious epic exaggerations of the properties of phenomena and objects.
Remember that in Russian epics the enemy armies are always countless, forests dense, monsters filthy, and all the heroes kind Well done.
With the development of literature, both the epithets themselves and the roles that epithets play in literary works change. As a result of evolution, epithets became more complex structurally and semantically. Particularly interesting examples are given to us by the poetry of the Silver Age and postmodern prose.
Epithets in folklore
To more clearly imagine all of the above, let's look at fairy tales and other folklore works of the peoples of the world, prose and poetic texts of different periods - and look for epithets in them.
Let's start with fairy tales. The vocabulary of epithets, its richness and imagery are largely determined by the traditions of the people who created it.
Thus, in the Russian folk tale “Finist - the Clear Falcon” one can see traditional folklore descriptions of nature and man. You can easily detect distance epithets traditional for folk art:
- “And a well done man appeared to her indescribable beauty. By morning the young man hit the floor and became a falcon. Maryushka opened the window for him, and the falcon flew away to blue to the sky."
- “Maryushka ordered three iron shoes, three iron staves, three iron caps and set off on her journey. distant, search desired Finista – clear falcon She walked clean field, walked dark forest, high mountains. Birds cheerful the songs made her heart happy, the streams of her face white washed, forests dark greeted."
- “Your clear falcon is far away, in far away state."
But Iranian fairy tales provide examples of oriental figurative, florid and rich in various epithets of speech. Let's look at the fairy tale “The History of Sultan Sanjar”:
- “They say that a certain person ruled in one country pious And wise Sultan named Sanjar, with with extraordinary care delved into the affairs of the state and subjects, without relying on his associates.”
- ABOUT moon-faced, O pearl beauty! Who did you such harm? Why is fate so unkind to you?
Using the example of these two fairy tales, one can already see how very interestingly the cultural characteristics of a particular people can be traced at the level of epithets and other means of expression. Let's take, for example, Russian epics about the glorious deeds of heroes, Celtic heroic legends and ancient Greek myths. They are united by heroic pathos, metaphorical nature and the obvious fantastic nature of the events described. And phenomena of the same order are described in them by epithets of a comparable level of emotionality:
- Russian epics: “Take off your dress, take off your bast shoes - hemmings, give me your hat downy yes to your stick hunchbacked: I’ll dress up as a crosswalker so that they won’t find out Idol nasty me, Ilya Muromets."
- Ancient Greek myths: “In the beginning there was only eternal, limitless, dark Chaos " “Far under the Earth, as far as far from us immense, bright sky, in immeasurable born in the depths gloomy Tartarus – terrible abyss, full of eternal darkness ».
- Celtic myths: “But the children of Calatin continued to fill the plain with the ghosts of battle, and fire and smoke rose to the sky, and the winds carried wild screams and lamentations, monstrous laughter and the sounds of trumpets and horns."
Those. in all three examples (underlined) some monstrous creatures, places, events or phenomena that amaze the imagination and frighten a person are described by epithets with a sharply negative connotation. And the task of these epithets is not only to give these creatures, places, events or phenomena a description and definition, but also to form a given attitude towards them, necessary for the storyteller. Evoke the emotions necessary to perceive the further narrative.
! By the way, translated texts bear the imprint of the cultural baggage of the translator, including the traditions of imagery of his native language. This means that the epithet in Russian, English or Chinese can be used differently for the same phenomena. Although in a talented professional translation, as a rule, epithets are selected so as not to distort the original meaning and correspond to the linguistic culture of the original text.
Epithets in literary classics
Over time, the inspiring impact of epithets and other linguistic means of expression began to be used in literature (and not only) much more often and wider. After all, it is important for writers and poets to stimulate the empathy of listeners and readers - it is one of the necessary components of joint creativity. Which, without a doubt, is the creation and subsequent reading of any talented work.
Let's take Russian classics from a school literature course and the epithets in it. For example, a couple of quotes from the novel “Fathers and Sons” by I. Turgenev:
- « <…>dry the maple leaf comes off and falls to the ground; its movements are completely similar to the flight of a butterfly. Isn't it strange? The saddest thing And dead- similar to the most cheerful And alive».
- "Whatever passionate, sinful, rebellious the heart is not hidden in the grave, the flowers growing on it, serenely look at us with their innocent eyes: not about one eternal calmly they tell us that great tranquility " indifferent» nature; they also talk about eternal reconciliation and life endless…»
Poetry shows us many examples of how epithets create a mood and set the tone for a narrative. In poems, epithets are used even more often than other tropes.
- "Child, look around; baby, come to me; || There is a lot of fun in my side: || Flowers turquoise, pearl jets; || Cast from gold my palaces." V. Zhukovsky, poem "The Forest King".
- "On an evening like this golden And clear, || In this breath of spring all-victorious|| Don't remember me, oh my friend beautiful, || You are about our love timid And poor" A. Fet.
- “You drink my soul like a straw. || I know the taste of it bitter And hops. || But I will not break the torture with prayer. || Oh my peace multi-week" A. Akhmatova.
The role of epithets in poems and prose can also be realized in this way: when epithets are part of a complex syntactic structure, which as a whole should also not only convey to the reader the author’s idea, but also emotionally enrich it:
- "IN white raincoat with bloody lining, shuffling cavalry gait, early on the morning of the fourteenth day of the spring month of Nisan in covered The procurator of Judea, Pontius Pilate, came out between the two wings of the palace of Herod the Great..." M. Bulkagov, "The Master and Margarita."
The author strings epithets on top of each other, giving this section of text a rhythm similar to the gait of an old man. And he uses epithets that not only describe color or gait, but also convey non-textual information. The lining of the cloak is not just red, but symbolically bloody. And the epithets to describe the gait give an idea of the past of its owner and the fact that he has retained the bearing of a military man. The remaining epithets are descriptions of the circumstances of place and time.
Successfully combining epithets, personifications, comparisons, metaphors, writers create non-standard images:
- “You, Book! You alone will not deceive, you will not hit, you will not offend, you will not leave! Quiet, - and you laugh, scream, eat; submissive, - you amaze, tease, lure; small- and in you there are nations without number; a handful of letters, that’s just it, but if you want to, you’ll turn your head, confuse, spin, cloud, tears will bubble, your breath will become stifled, your whole soul, like a canvas in the wind, will agitate, rise in waves, flap its wings!” T. Tolstaya, “Kys”.
Conclusion
Epithets play a very important role in communication at different levels: from everyday life to the level of art and literature. They make speech not only interesting and pleasant to read, but also more informative. Because additional, extra-textual information and emotions are encoded in the form of epithets.
There are several ways to classify epithets and divide them into groups. The basis for this division is the structure of epithets, their origin, and frequency of use in speech.
Epithets reflect the traditions of the language and culture of a certain people, and are also a kind of sign of the time that gave birth to them.
Illustrative examples of epithets of different levels of complexity can be found in folklore works and literature of subsequent periods.
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