Feel - the simplest mental process consisting of reflecting individual properties of objects and phenomena during their direct impact on the corresponding receptors
Receptors - these are sensitive nerve formations that perceive the influence of the external or internal environment and encode it in the form of a set of electrical signals. These signals then go to the brain, which decodes them. This process is accompanied by the emergence of the simplest mental phenomena - sensations.
Some human receptors are combined into more complex formations - sense organs. A person has an organ of vision - the eye, an organ of hearing - the ear, an organ of balance - the vestibular apparatus, an organ of smell - the nose, an organ of taste - the tongue. At the same time, some receptors are not united into one organ, but are scattered over the surface of the entire body. These are receptors for temperature, pain and tactile sensitivity. A large number of receptors are located inside the body: pressure receptors, chemical senses, etc. For example, receptors sensitive to the content of glucose in the blood provide a feeling of hunger. Receptors and sensory organs are the only channels through which the brain can receive information for subsequent processing.
All receptors can be divided into distant , which can perceive irritation at a distance (visual, auditory, olfactory) and contact (taste, tactile, pain).
Analyzer - the material basis of sensations
Sensations are the product of activity analyzers person. An analyzer is an interconnected complex of nerve formations that receives signals, transforms them, configures the receptor apparatus, transmits information to nerve centers, processes it and deciphers it. I.P. Pavlov believed that the analyzer consists of three elements: sense organ , conductive path And cortical section . According to modern concepts, the analyzer includes at least five sections: receptor, conductor, tuning unit, filtering unit and analysis unit. Since the conductor section is essentially just an electrical cable that conducts electrical impulses, the most important role is played by the four sections of the analyzer. The feedback system allows you to make adjustments to the operation of the receptor section when external conditions change (for example, fine-tuning the analyzer with different impact forces).
Thresholds of sensations
In psychology, there are several concepts of sensitivity threshold
Lower absolute sensitivity threshold defined as the lowest strength of stimulus that can cause sensation.
Human receptors are distinguished by very high sensitivity to an adequate stimulus. For example, the lower visual threshold is only 2-4 quanta of light, and the olfactory threshold is equal to 6 molecules of an odorous substance.
Stimuli with a strength less than the threshold do not cause sensations. They're called subliminal and are not realized, but can penetrate the subconscious, determining human behavior, as well as forming the basis for it dreams, intuition, unconscious desires. Research by psychologists shows that the human subconscious can react to very weak or very short stimuli that are not perceived by consciousness.
Upper absolute sensitivity threshold changes the very nature of sensations (most often to pain). For example, with a gradual increase in water temperature, a person begins to perceive not heat, but pain. The same thing happens with strong sound and or pressure on the skin.
Relative threshold (discrimination threshold) is the minimum change in the intensity of the stimulus that causes changes in sensations. According to the Bouguer-Weber law, the relative threshold of sensation is constant when measured as a percentage of the initial value of stimulation.
Bouguer-Weber law: “The discrimination threshold for each analyzer has
constant relative value":
DI / I = const, where I is the strength of the stimulus
Classificationsensations
1. Exteroceptive sensations reflect the properties of objects and phenomena of the external environment (“five senses”). These include visual, auditory, taste, temperature and tactile sensations. In fact, there are more than five receptors that provide these sensations, and the so-called “sixth sense” has nothing to do with it. For example, visual sensations arise when excited chopsticks(“twilight, black and white vision”) and cones(“daytime, color vision”). Temperature sensations in humans occur during separate excitation cold and heat receptors. Tactile sensations reflect the impact on the surface of the body, and they arise when excited or sensitive touch receptors in the upper layer of the skin, or with stronger exposure to pressure receptors in the deep layers of the skin.
2. Interoreceptive sensations reflect the state of internal organs. These include sensations of pain, hunger, thirst, nausea, suffocation, etc. Painful sensations signal damage and irritation of human organs and are a unique manifestation of the body’s protective functions. The intensity of pain varies, reaching great strength in some cases, which can even lead to a state of shock.
3. Proprioceptive sensations (muscular-motor). These are sensations that reflect the position and movements of our body. With the help of muscle-motor sensations, a person receives information about the position of the body in space, the relative position of all its parts, the movement of the body and its parts, the contraction, stretching and relaxation of muscles, the condition of joints and ligaments, etc. Muscle-motor sensations are complex. Simultaneous stimulation of receptors of different quality gives sensations of a unique quality: stimulation of receptor endings in the muscles creates a feeling of muscle tone when performing a movement; sensations of muscle tension and effort are associated with irritation of the nerve endings of the tendons; irritation of the receptors of the articular surfaces gives a sense of direction, shape and speed of movements. Many authors include in this same group of sensations the sensations of balance and acceleration, which arise as a result of stimulation of the receptors of the vestibular analyzer.
Properties of sensations
Sensations have certain properties:
·adaptation,
·contrast,
thresholds of sensations
·sensitization,
·consecutive images.
Sensations are the source of our knowledge about the world and ourselves. All living beings with a nervous system have the ability to sense sensations. Conscious sensations are present only in living beings that have a brain and cerebral cortex. On the one hand, sensations are objective, since they always reflect an external stimulus, and on the other hand, sensations are subjective, since they depend on the state of the nervous system and the individual characteristics of a person.
Objects and phenomena of reality that affect our senses are called irritants. Stimuli cause excitation in nervous tissue. The sensation arises as a reaction of the nervous system to a particular stimulus and, like any mental phenomenon, has a reflex nature.
Sensations can be classified on different grounds. According to the leading modality (qualitative characteristics of sensations), the following sensations are distinguished: visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile, motor, internal (sensations of the internal state of the body).
Visual sensations are a reflection of both achromatic (white, black and intermediate shades of gray) and chromatic (various shades of red, yellow, green, blue) colors. Visual sensations are caused by exposure to light, i.e. electromagnetic waves emitted (or reflected) by physical bodies to the visual analyzer. The external perceptive “device” is the retina of the eye.
Auditory sensations are a reflection of sounds of different heights (high - low), strength (loud - quiet) and different qualities (musical sounds, noises). They are caused by the influence of sound waves created by vibrations of bodies.
Olfactory sensations are a reflection of smells. Olfactory sensations arise due to the penetration of particles of odorous substances spreading in the air into the upper part of the nasopharynx, where they affect the peripheral endings of the olfactory analyzer, embedded in the nasal mucosa.
Taste sensations are a reflection of certain chemical properties of flavoring substances dissolved in water or saliva. The sense of taste plays an important role in the eating process, in distinguishing between different types of food.
Tactile sensations are a reflection of the mechanical properties of objects that are detected when touched, rubbed, or struck. These sensations also reflect the temperature of environmental objects and external pain.
Said sensations are called exteroceptive and form a single group based on the type of analyzers located on or near the surface of the body. Exteroceptive sensations are divided into contact and distant. Contact sensations are caused by direct touching the surface of the body (taste, touch), distant- irritants acting on the senses at some distance (vision, hearing). Olfactory sensations occupy an intermediate position between them.
The next group consists of sensations that reflect the movements and states of the body itself. They are called motor or proprioceptive. Motor sensations reflect the position of the limbs, their movements and the degree of effort applied. Without them, it is impossible to perform movements normally and coordinate them. Feel provisions(equilibrium) along with motor sensations play an important role in the process of perception (for example, stability).
In addition, there is a group of organic sensations - internal (interoceptive). These sensations reflect the internal state of the body. These include feelings of hunger, thirst, nausea, internal pain, etc.
Different types of sensations are common to them properties . These properties include:
quality- an essential feature of sensations that allows one to distinguish one type of sensation from another (for example, auditory from visual), as well as various variations of sensations within a given type (for example, by color, saturation);
intensity - a quantitative characteristic of sensations, which is determined by the strength of the current stimulus and the functional state of the receptor;
duration - temporal characteristics of sensations. It is determined by the functional state of the sense organs, the time of exposure to the stimulus and its intensity.
The quality of sensations of all types depends on the sensitivity of the appropriate type of analyzers.
The intensity of sensations depends not only on the strength of the stimulus and the level of adaptation of the receptors, but also on the irritations currently affecting other sense organs. A change in the sensitivity of analyzers under the influence of irritation of other sense organs is called interaction of sensations. The interaction of sensations is manifested in an increase and decrease in sensitivity: weak stimuli increase the sensitivity of the analyzers, and strong ones decrease it.
The interaction of sensations is manifested in the phenomena of sensitization and synesthesia. Sensitization(Latin sensibilis - sensitive) - increased sensitivity of nerve centers under the influence of a stimulus. Sensitization can develop not only through the use of side stimuli, but also through exercise. Thus, musicians develop high auditory sensitivity, tasters develop olfactory and gustatory sensations. Synesthesia- this is the occurrence, under the influence of irritation of a certain analyzer, of a sensation characteristic of another analyzer. Thus, when exposed to sound stimuli, a person may experience visual images.
3. Perception: concept, types. Basic properties of perception.
Perception- This is a reflection of integral objects and phenomena with their direct impact on the senses. In the course of perception, individual sensations are ordered and combined into holistic images of things. Unlike sensations, which reflect individual properties of the stimulus, perception reflects the object as a whole, in the totality of its properties.
Representatives of Gestalt psychology interpret perception as a kind of holistic configuration - Gestalt. Integrity, according to Gestalt psychology, is always the selection of a figure from the background. Details, parts, properties can only be separated from the whole image later. Gestalt psychologists have established many laws of perceptual organization, completely different from the laws of associations, according to which elements are connected into a coherent structure (laws of proximity, isolation, good form, etc.). They convincingly proved that the holistic structure of the image influences the perception of individual elements and individual sensations. The same element, being included in different images of perception, is perceived differently. For example, two identical circles appear different if one is surrounded by large circles and the other by small ones, etc.
The main ones are identified features (properties) perception:
1) integrity and structure - perception reflects a holistic image of an object, which, in turn, is formed on the basis of generalized knowledge about the individual properties and qualities of the object. Perception is capable of capturing not only individual parts of sensations (individual notes), but also a generalized structure woven from these sensations (the entire melody);
2) constancy- preservation of certain properties of the image of an object that seem constant to us. (When the conditions of perception change.) Thus, an object known to us (for example, a hand), distant from us, will seem to us exactly the same size as the same object that we see close. The property of constancy is involved here: the properties of the image approach the true properties of this object. Our perceptual system corrects the inevitable errors caused by the infinite diversity of the environment and creates adequate images of perception. When a person puts on glasses that distort objects and finds himself in an unfamiliar room, he gradually learns to correct the distortions caused by the glasses, and finally ceases to notice these distortions, although they are reflected on the retina. So, the constancy of perception that is formed during life in the process of objective activity is a necessary condition for a person’s orientation in a changing world;
3) objectivity of perception - this is an act of objectification, i.e., attributing information received from the external world to this world. There is a certain system of actions that provides the subject with the discovery of the objectivity of the world, and the main role is played by touch and movement. Objectivity also plays a big role in regulating behavior. Thanks to this quality, we can distinguish, for example, a brick from a block of explosives, although they will be similar in appearance;
4) meaningfulness. Although perception arises as a result of the direct impact of a stimulus on receptors, perceptual images always have a certain semantic meaning. Perception is thus related to with thinking and speech. We perceive the world through the prism of meaning. To consciously perceive an object means mentally naming it and attributing the perceived object to a certain group, class of objects, and generalizing it in words. For example, when we look at a watch, we do not see something round, shiny, etc., we see a specific object - a watch.
5) activity. During the process of perception, the motor components of the analyzers are involved (hand movements during touch, eye movements during visual perception, etc.). In addition, it is necessary to be able to actively move your body during the process of perception;
6) property of apperception. The perceptual system actively “builds” the image of perception, selectively using not all, but the most informative properties, parts, elements of the stimulus. In this case, information from memory and past experience is also used, which is added to sensory data (apperception). During the process of formation, the image itself and the actions to build it are constantly adjusted through feedback, and the image is compared with the reference one. Influence installations perception is reflected in Gogol’s comedy “The Inspector General”.
Thus, perception depends not only on irritation, but also on the perceiving object itself - a specific person. Perception is always affected by the personality characteristics of the perceiver, his attitude towards what is perceived, needs, aspirations, emotions at the time of perception, etc. Perception is thus closely related to the content of a person’s mental life.
Classification of perception.
At the core one of the classifications of perception, as well as sensations, lie differences in analyzers involved in perception. In accordance with which analyzer plays the predominant role in perception, visual, auditory, tactile, kinesthetic, olfactory and gustatory perceptions are distinguished.
Typically, the perception process is carried out by a number of analyzers interacting with each other. Motor sensations are involved to one degree or another in all types of perceptions. An example is tactile perception, which involves tactile and kinesthetic analyzers. Similarly, the motor analyzer is also involved in auditory and visual perception.
Different types of perception are rarely found in their pure form; they are usually combined, and as a result complex types of perceptions arise. Thus, a student’s perception of text in a lesson includes visual, auditory and kinesthetic perception.
basis second classification are forms of existence of matter. Distinguishes the perception of space, time and movement.
Perception of space This is the perception of shape, size, relative position of objects, their relief, distance and direction. In the perception of the spatial properties of things, tactile and kinesthetic sensations play a certain role, but the basis is visual data.
Two mechanisms play a significant role in the perception of magnitude: accommodation and convergence. The perception of depth and distance is achieved through binocularity. Perception of the direction in which objects are located is possible not only with the help of the visual, but also with the help of the auditory, motor and olfactory analyzer.
Perception of time- reflection of the objective duration, speed and sequence of phenomena of reality. This type of perception is based on a rhythmic change of excitation and inhibition in the central nervous system. Kinesthetic and auditory sensations are involved in the perception of time.
The perception of time is determined by the content that fills it. So, busy with interesting activities, we do not notice the passage of time. While idle, we, on the contrary, do not know how to kill time. However, when we remember, we will evaluate the first interval as longer than the second. This phenomenon reveals the law of the filled time period. The perception of time is also influenced by a person's emotions. The waiting time for a desired event is tedious, but for an unwanted, painful event, it is reduced.
Motion perception- this is a reflection of the change in position that objects occupy in space. There are two ways to perceive movement:
1. When the image of an object on the retina remains more or less motionless.
2. The eye remains relatively motionless, and the image of the object is mixed on the retina.
There are real and apparent movements.
An example of apparent movement is stroboscopic movement, on the principle of which cinema is based. It is known that the visual sensation does not disappear immediately, so we do not see flickering, but see a stable image.
Illusions of perception
The Ebbinghaus illusion (1902).
Which circle is bigger? The one surrounded by small circles
or the one that is surrounded by large ones?
They are identical.
Muller-Lyer illusion (Franz Muller-Lyer, 1889)
(transferring the properties of a whole figure to its individual parts) 
Which of the horizontal segments is longer?
...................................
Wife or mother-in-law (two picture options). 
Who do you see here?
A young girl or a sad old woman?
Sensation is the simplest mental process that arises as a result of the impact on the senses of objects or phenomena of the material world and consists in reflecting the individual properties of these objects or phenomena.
With the help of sensations, we recognize the properties of things around us: their hardness or softness, roughness or smoothness, their heaviness, temperature, smell and taste, the colors of these things, the sounds they make. In addition, sensations give us information about changes in our own body: we feel the movement and position of individual parts of our body, disturbances in the functioning of internal organs, etc.
Sensations, being a reflection of the properties of the external world, provide material for other, more complex cognitive processes: perceptions, ideas, memories, thinking processes. “Otherwise, as through sensations,” Lenin wrote, “we cannot learn anything about any forms of matter or any forms of motion.”
Material things and processes that affect the senses are called stimuli, and the process of this impact is called irritation. The process that occurs in nervous tissue as a result of irritation is called excitation. When excitation along the centripetal nerves reaches the cerebral cortex, a sensation arises.
I. P. Pavlov proposed calling the entire anatomical and physiological apparatus necessary to obtain sensation an analyzer. Every analyzer consists of three parts: a sensory organ (receptor), centripetal nerves and corresponding parts of the brain. If any part of the analyzer is destroyed, the occurrence of the corresponding sensations becomes impossible. For example, visual sensations cease when the eyes are damaged, when the optic nerves are cut, and when the corresponding areas of the cortex are destroyed.
It is necessary to pay attention to the fact that the term “sense organs” has a conditional meaning. It became widespread at a time when science had not yet made a clear distinction between sensations and feelings. Now, as we know, the word “feeling” denotes a special mental process that is significantly different from sensations. It would therefore be more correct to call receptors not sense organs, but sensory organs.
In the same conventional sense, the word “sense” is used in the expressions: “sense of vision”, “sense of taste”, “vibrational sense”, etc., denoting the ability to have visual, gustatory, vibrational sensations, etc. When encountering such designations, we must remember that they do not refer to “feelings” in the real sense of the word, but to sensations.
The cerebral hemispheres represent the central ends of analyzers that distinguish between external influences and internal states of the body. “In the highest floor of the central nervous system,” notes I. P. Pavlov, “we have the ends of the finest and infinitely varied analyzers.” The brain end of the visual analyzer is located mainly in the occipital lobe of the cortex, the auditory analyzer - mainly in the temporal lobe.
Types of sensations
All sensations can be divided into two groups:
1) Sensations that reflect the properties of things or phenomena located outside of us. The organs of these sensations are located on the surface of the body or close to it.
2) Sensations that reflect the movements of individual parts of our body and the state of our internal organs. The organs of these sensations are located deep in the tissues (for example, muscles) or on the surface of internal organs (for example, in the walls of the stomach, respiratory tract).
The first group includes visual, vocal, olfactory, gustatory and skin sensations.
1. Visual sensations.
The irritant for the organ of vision is light, i.e. electromagnetic waves having a length from 390 to 800 millimicrons (a millimicron is a millionth of a millimeter).
Everything we see has some color. Only an object that is completely transparent and, therefore, invisible can be colorless. Therefore we can say that visual sensations are sensations of colors.
All colors are divided into two large groups: achromatic colors and chromatic colors. Achromatic colors include white, black and all grays, chromatic colors include all the rest, i.e. red, yellow, green, blue with all sorts of shades.
2. Auditory sensations.
The irritant for the organ of hearing is sound waves, i.e. longitudinal vibrations of air particles propagating in all directions from the sound source.
Sound waves are divided into: frequency of vibrations, amplitude, or range, of vibrations and shape of vibrations. Accordingly, auditory sensations have the following three sides: pitch, which is a reflection of the frequency of vibrations, volume - a reflection of the amplitude of vibrations, and timbre - a reflection of the shape of vibrations. Our hearing organ is sensitive to vibrations ranging from 16 vibrations per second to 20,000 vibrations per second. Vibrations with a frequency of more than 20,000 vibrations per second, inaccessible to our hearing, are called ultrasound.
Sounds, according to the nature of the sensations they cause, are divided into musical sounds (sounds of singing, musical instruments, tuning forks) and noises (all kinds of creaks, rustles, knocks, crackling, rumble, etc.). Speech consists of both musical sounds (mainly vowels) and noises (mainly consonants).
3. Olfactory sensations.
The olfactory organs are the olfactory cells located in the upper part of the nasal cavity. The olfactory organ is irritated by particles of odorous substances that enter the nose along with the air.
4. Taste sensations.
The irritants for the taste organ - taste buds - are dissolved (in water or saliva) flavoring substances.
The sense of taste has four different qualities: sweet, sour, salty and bitter. The variety of tastes of various foods largely depends on the addition of olfactory sensations to the taste sensations. If the sense of smell is completely excluded, the taste of tea, coffee and quinine in the corresponding solutions becomes the same.
5. Skin sensations.
The skin, as well as the mucous membrane of the mouth and nose, can give sensations of four types: a) sensations of touch, or tactile sensations, b) sensations of cold, c) sensations of warmth and d) sensations of pain. Some points of the skin give only tactile sensations (touch points), others - only sensations of cold (cold points), others - only sensations of warmth (heat points), and fourth - only sensations of pain (pain points). It is easy to verify by simple experiment the existence of cold spots. To do this, you need to slowly draw the tip of a pencil, lightly touching the skin, over your closed eyelids; From time to time you will get a momentary feeling of cold.
The sensitivity of different areas of the skin to each of these four types of sensations is different. Sensitivity to touch is greatest at the tip of the tongue and at the tips of the fingers, that is, on the most mobile organs; the back, for example, is very little sensitive to touch. Pain sensitivity is distributed completely differently: the skin of the back and cheeks is most sensitive to pain, and the least sensitive is the skin on the fingertips and palms. Thus, those areas of the skin that we use most to feel are the least painful; they are most “hardened” against pain. As for the sensations of heat and cold, those parts of the skin that are usually covered by clothing are most sensitive to them: the skin of the lower back, abdomen, and chest.
The second group includes motor sensations, sensations of balance and organic sensations.
1. Motor sensations.
Their receptors are located in muscles, tendons and on articular surfaces. Motor sensations provide signals about the degree of muscle contraction and the position of our limbs, for example, how much the arm is bent at the shoulder, elbow or wrist joint.
The combination of skin and motor sensations obtained by feeling objects, that is, by touching them with a moving hand, is called touch. The organ of touch is the hand with all its skin, muscle and joint receptors. The hand as an organ of touch first appears in monkeys, but reaches full development only in humans, becoming a tool for him.
Skin sensations themselves signal only the fact of an object touching the body and the location of this touch. When a fly lands on our forehead, we easily notice it, but we can just as easily be misled and mistake the touch of a straw, brush, blade of grass or piece of paper for a fly. To more accurately determine the properties of an object touching the skin, its hardness, softness, roughness, smoothness, shape, outline, etc., you need to feel it. For example, the sensations of hardness and softness depend mainly on how much resistance the body provides when pressure is applied to it; therefore, it is impossible to determine the degree of hardness or softness of objects without the participation of motor sensations.
2. Feelings of balance.
Their receptors are located in the inner ear and provide signals about the movement and position of the head. These sensations play an extremely important role in flying; Therefore, when determining a pilot’s suitability for work, the activity of these organs is always tested.
3. Organic feel.
Their receptors are located in the walls of most internal organs: the esophagus, stomach, intestines, blood vessels, lungs, etc. Organic include the sensations that we have during hunger, thirst, satiety, nausea, internal pain, etc. So far we are completely healthy, well-fed, in general, when the internal organs work normally, we do not notice almost any organic sensations; they mainly give signals about disturbances in the functioning of internal organs. Research by the Pavlovian school, primarily the work of K. M. Bykov, showed that impulses directed to the cortex from the internal organs, without being clearly conscious, underlie the general “well-being” of a person. Internal analyzers monitor, check the chemical composition and blood pressure, the condition of organs and their functioning; at the same time, they can enter into temporary communication with analyzers that bring information about external objects.
They are closely related to each other. Both one and the other are the so-called sensory reflection of objective reality, existing independently of consciousness and due to its influence on the senses: this is their unity. But perception- awareness of a sensory given object or phenomenon; in perception, a world of people, things, and phenomena are usually spread out before us, filled with a certain meaning for us and involved in diverse relationships. These relationships create meaningful situations, of which we are witnesses and participants. Feeling same - a reflection of a separate sensory quality or undifferentiated and non-objectified impressions of the environment. In this last case, sensations and perceptions are distinguished as two different forms or two different relations of consciousness to objective reality. Sensations and perceptions are thus one and different. They make up: the sensory-perceptual level of mental reflection. At the sensory-perceptual level we are talking about those images that arise from the direct impact of objects and phenomena on the senses.
The concept of sensations
The main source of our knowledge about the external world and our own body is sensations. They constitute the main channels through which information about the phenomena of the external world and the states of the body reaches the brain, giving a person the opportunity to navigate the environment and his body. If these channels were closed and the senses did not bring the necessary information, no conscious life would be possible. There are known facts that indicate that a person deprived of a constant source of information falls into a sleepy state. Such cases: occur when a person suddenly loses sight, hearing, smell, and when his conscious sensations are limited by some pathological process. A result close to this is achieved when a person is placed for some time in a light and soundproof chamber, isolating him from external influences. This state first induces sleep and then becomes difficult for the subjects to bear.
Numerous observations have shown that disruption of the flow of information in early childhood, associated with deafness and blindness, causes sharp delays in mental development. If children born blind-deaf or deprived of hearing and vision at an early age are not taught special techniques that compensate for these defects through the sense of touch, their mental development will become impossible and they will not develop independently.
As will be described below, the high specialization of the various sense organs is based not only on the structural features of the peripheral part of the analyzer - the “receptors”, but also on the highest specialization of the neurons that make up the central nervous apparatus, which receive signals perceived by the peripheral sense organs.
Reflex nature of sensations
So, sensations are the initial source of all our knowledge about the world. Objects and phenomena of reality that affect our senses are called stimuli, and the impact of stimuli on the senses is called irritation. Irritation, in turn, causes excitation in the nervous tissue. The sensation arises as a reaction of the nervous system to a particular stimulus and, like any mental phenomenon, has a reflex nature.
The physiological mechanism of sensations is the activity of special nervous apparatus called.
Each analyzer consists of three parts:- a peripheral section called the receptor (the receptor is the perceiving part of the analyzer, its main function is the transformation of external energy into a nervous process);
- afferent or sensory nerves (centripetal), conducting excitation to the nerve centers (central section of the analyzer);
- the cortical sections of the analyzer, in which the processing of nerve impulses coming from the peripheral sections occurs.
The cortical part of each analyzer includes an area that represents a projection of the periphery in the cerebral cortex, since certain cells of the periphery (receptors) correspond to certain areas of the cortical cells. For sensation to arise, the entire analyzer as a whole must work. The analyzer is not a passive receiver of energy. This is an organ that reflexively rearranges itself under the influence of stimuli.
Physiological studies show that sensation is not at all a passive process; it always includes motor components. Thus, observations using a microscope of an area of skin carried out by the American psychologist D. Neff made it possible to verify that when it is irritated by a needle, the moment the sensation occurs is accompanied by reflexive motor reactions of this area of the skin. Subsequently, numerous studies have established that each sensation includes movement, sometimes in the form of a vegetative reaction (vasoconstriction, galvanic skin reflex), sometimes in the form of muscle reactions (turning the eyes, tension in the neck muscles, motor reactions of the hand, etc. .). Thus, sensations are not passive processes at all - they are active. The reflex theory of sensations consists of indicating the active nature of all these processes.
Classification of sensations
It has long been customary to distinguish between five main types (modalities) of sensations: smell, taste, touch, sight and hearing. This classification of sensations according to the main modalities is correct, although not exhaustive. A.R. Luria believes that the classification of sensations can be carried out according to at least two basic principles - systematic And genetic(in other words, according to the principle of modality, on the one hand, and according to the principle of complexity or level of their construction, on the other).
Systematic classification of sensations
By identifying the largest and most significant groups of sensations, they can be divided into three main types; interoceptive, proprioceptive and exteroceptive sensations. The first combine signals reaching us from the internal environment of the body; the latter provide information about the position of the body in space and the position of the musculoskeletal system, provide regulation of our movements; finally, still others provide signals from the external world and create the basis for our conscious behavior. Let's consider the main types of sensations separately.
Interoceptive sensationsInteroceptive sensations, signaling the state of the internal processes of the body, bring to the brain irritations from the walls of the stomach and intestines, the heart and circulatory system and other internal organs. This is the most ancient and most elementary group of sensations. Interoceptive sensations are among the least conscious and most diffuse forms of sensations and always retain their proximity to emotional states.
Proprioceptive sensationsProprioceptive sensations provide signals about the position of the body in space and constitute the afferent basis of human movements, playing a decisive role in their regulation. Peripheral receptors of proprioceptive sensitivity are located in muscles and joints (tendons, ligaments) and have the form of special nerve bodies (Paccini bodies). The excitations that arise in these bodies reflect the sensations that occur when muscles are stretched and the position of joints changes. In modern physiology and psychophysiology, the role of proprioception as the afferent basis of movements in animals was studied in detail by A. A. Orbeli, P. K. Anokhin, and in humans - by N. A. Bernstein. The described group of sensations includes a specific type of sensitivity called the feeling of balance, or static sensation. Their peripheral receptors are located in the semicircular canals of the inner ear.
Exteroreactive sensationsThe third and largest group of sensations are exteroreceptive sensations. They bring information from the outside world to a person and are the main group of sensations that connect a person with the external environment. The entire group of exteroceptive sensations is conventionally divided into two subgroups: contact and distant sensations.
Contact sensations are caused by an impact directly applied to the surface of the body and the corresponding perceived organ. Examples of contact sensation are taste and touch.
Distant sensations are caused by stimuli acting on the sense organs at some distance. These senses include smell and especially hearing and vision.
Genetic classification of sensations
Genetic classification allows us to distinguish two types of sensitivity:- protopathic(more primitive, affective, less differentiated and localized), which includes organic feelings (hunger, thirst, etc.);
- epicritic(more subtly differentiating, objectified and rational), which includes the basic human senses.
Epicritic sensitivity is younger in genetic terms, and it controls protopathic sensitivity.
General properties of sensations
Different types of sensations are characterized not only by specificity, but also by properties common to them. These properties include: quality, intensity, duration and spatial localization.
Quality- this is the main feature of a given sensation, distinguishing it from other types of sensations and varying within a given type of sensation. The qualitative diversity of sensations reflects the infinite variety of forms of matter movement.
Intensity sensation is its quantitative characteristic and is determined by the strength of the current stimulus and the functional state of the receptor.
Duration sensations are its temporary characteristics. It is also determined by the functional state of the sensory organ, but mainly by the time of action of the stimulus and its intensity.
When a stimulus acts on a sense organ, the sensation does not arise immediately, but after some time - the so-called latent (hidden) period of sensation. The latent period of different types of sensations is not the same: for example, for tactile sensations it is 130 ms; for pain - 370, and for taste - only 50 ms.
Just as a sensation does not arise simultaneously with the onset of the stimulus, it does not disappear simultaneously with the cessation of its action. The presence of positive sequential images explains why we do not notice breaks between successive frames of a film: they are filled with traces of the frames that acted before - sequential images from them. The consistent image changes over time, the positive image is replaced by a negative one. With colored light sources, the sequential image turns into a complementary color.
Human life is filled with different experiences that come through sensory systems. The simplest phenomenon of all mental processes is sensation. There is nothing more natural for us when we see, hear, feel the touch of objects.
The concept of sensation in psychology
Why is the topic: “Sensation” relevant? In psychology, this phenomenon has been studied for quite a long time, trying to give a more precise definition. Today, scientists are still trying to understand the depth of the inner world and human physiology. Sensation is, in general psychology, the process of displaying individual qualities, as well as features of objects and phenomena of reality under conditions of direct impact on the senses. The ability to gain such experience is characteristic of living organisms that have a nervous system. And for conscious sensations, living beings must have a brain.
The primary stage, before the appearance of such a mental process, was characterized by simple irritability, due to which a selective response to important influences from the external or internal environment occurred. The reaction was accordingly accompanied by changes in the state and behavior of the living organism, which was noticed by general psychology.
Sensation is in psychology the first link in a person’s knowledge of the external and internal world. There are different types of this phenomenon, depending on the stimuli that produce them. These objects or phenomena are connected with different types of energy and, accordingly, give rise to sensations of different quality: auditory, skin, visual. Psychology also distinguishes feelings associated with the muscular system and internal organs. Such phenomena are not realized by humans. The only exception is pain that comes from the internal organs. They do not reach the sphere of consciousness, but are perceived by the nervous system. A person also receives sensations that are associated with concepts such as time, acceleration, vibration and other vital factors.
The stimuli for our analyzers are electromagnetic waves that fall within a certain range.
Characteristics of types of sensations
Psychology provides a description of their various types. The first classification dates back to the ancient period. It is based on analyzers that determine such types as smell, taste, touch, vision and hearing.
Another classification of sensations in psychology is presented by B. G. Ananyev (he identified 11 types). There is also a systematic typology authored by the English physiologist C. Sherrington. It includes interoceptive, proprioceptive and exteroceptive types of sensations. Let's take a closer look at them.
Interoceptive type of sensation: description
This type of sensation gives signals from different organs and systems, which are characterized by certain indicators. Receptors receive signals from the digestive system (through the walls of the stomach and intestines), the cardiovascular system (the walls of blood vessels and the heart), from muscle tissue and other systems. Such nerve formations are called receptors of the internal environment.
These sensations belong to the most ancient and primitive group. They are characterized by unconsciousness, diffuseness and are very close to the emotional state. Another name for these mental processes is organic.
Proprioceptive type of sensation: description
Information about the state of our body is given to a person by proprioceptive sensation. In psychology, there are several subtypes of this type, namely: a sense of statics (balance) and kinesthetics (movements). Muscles and joints (tendons and ligaments) are the locations of receptors. The name of such sensitive areas is quite interesting - Paccini corpuscles. If we talk about peripheral receptors of proprioceptive sensations, they are localized in the tubules of the inner ear.
The concept of sensation in psychology and psychophysiology has been studied quite well. This was done by A. A. Orbeli, P. K. Anokhin, N. A. Bernstein.
Exteroceptive type of sensation: description
These sensations support a person’s connection with the outside world and are divided into contact (taste and tactile) and distant (auditory, olfactory and visual sensations in psychology).
The olfactory sensation in psychology is controversial among scientists because they do not know exactly where to place it. The object that emits the smell is at a distance, but the aroma molecules have contact with the nasal receptors. Or it happens that the object is no longer there, but the smell still hangs in the air. Olfactory sensations are also important in eating food and determining the quality of products.
Intermodal sensations: description
As with the sense of smell, there are other senses that are difficult to categorize. For example, this is vibration sensitivity. It includes sensations from the auditory analyzer, as well as from the skin and muscular system. According to L. E. Komendantov, vibration sensitivity is one of the forms of sound perception. Its enormous importance in the lives of people with limited or absent hearing and voice has been proven. Such people have a high level of development of tactile-vibrational phenomenology and can identify a moving truck or other car even at a long distance.
Other classifications of sensations
Also subject to study in psychology is M. Head, who substantiated the genetic approach to the division of sensitivity. He identified two types of it - protopathic (organic sensations - thirst, hunger, primitive and physiological) and epicritic (this includes all sensations known to scientists).
B. M. Teplov also developed a classification of sensations, distinguishing two types of receptors - interoreceptors and exteroceptors.
Characteristics of the properties of sensations
It should be noted that sensations of the same modality can be completely different from each other. The properties of such a cognitive process are its individual characteristics: quality, intensity, spatial localization, duration, sensation thresholds. In psychology, these phenomena were described by physiological scientists who were the first to begin to deal with such a problem.
Quality and intensity of sensation
In principle, any indicators of phenomena can be divided into quantitative and qualitative types. The quality of the sensation determines its differences from other types of this phenomenon and carries basic information from the stimulator. It is impossible to measure quality using any numerical instruments. If we take the visual sensation in psychology, then its quality will be color. For taste and olfactory sensitivity, this is the concept of sweet, sour, bitter, salty, aromatic, and so on.
The quantitative characteristic of a sensation is its intensity. This property is necessary for a person, since it is important for us to determine loud or quiet music, as well as whether it is light or dark in a room. Intensity is experienced differently depending on the following factors: the strength of the current stimulus (physical parameters) and the functional state of the receptor that is affected. The greater the indicators of the physical characteristics of the stimulus, the greater the intensity of the sensation.
Duration and spatial localization of sensation
Another important characteristic is duration, which indicates the temporary indicators of sensation. This property is also subject to the action of objective and subjective factors. If the stimulus acts for a long time, then the sensation will be long-lasting. This is an objective factor. Subjective lies in the functional state of the analyzer.
Stimuli that irritate the senses have their location in space. Sensations help determine the location of an object, which plays a significant role in human life.
Thresholds of sensations in psychology: absolute and relative
The absolute threshold is understood as those physical parameters of the stimulus in a minimal amount that cause sensation. There are stimuli that are lower than the absolute threshold level and do not cause sensitivity. But the human body is still influenced by these patterns of sensations. In psychology, researcher G. V. Gershuni presented the results of experiments in which it was found that sound stimuli that were lower than the absolute threshold caused certain electrical activity in the brain and pupil enlargement. This zone is a subsensory area.
There is also an upper absolute threshold - this is an indicator of a stimulus that cannot be adequately perceived by the senses. Such experiences cause pain, but not always (ultrasound).
In addition to properties, there are also patterns of sensations: synesthesia, sensitization, adaptation, interaction.
Characteristics of perception
Sensation and perception in psychology are the primary cognitive processes in relation to memory and thinking. We have given a brief description of this mental phenomenon, and now let’s move on to perception. This is a mental process of a holistic reflection of objects and phenomena of reality in their direct contact with the sense organs. Sensation and perception in psychology were studied by physiologists and psychologists L. A. Venger, A. V. Zaporozhets, V. P. Zinchenko, T. S. Komarova and other scientists. The process of collecting information provides a person with orientation in the outside world.
It should be noted that perception is characteristic only of humans and higher animals that are capable of forming images. This is a process of objectification. Delivery of information about the properties of objects to the cerebral cortex is a function of sensations. In the psychology of perception, they distinguish the formation of an image obtained on the basis of collected information about an object and its properties. The image is obtained as a result of the interaction of several sensory systems.
Types of perception
In perception there are three groups. Here are the most common classifications:
Properties of perception
S. L. Rubinstein states that people’s perceptions are generalized and directed.
So, the first property of this process is considered to be objectivity. Perception is impossible without objects, because they have their own specific colors, shape, size and purpose. We define a violin as a musical instrument, and a plate as a cutlery.
The second property is integrity. Sensations convey to the brain the elements of an object, its certain qualities, and with the help of perception these individual features are combined into a holistic image. At an orchestra concert, we listen to the music as a whole, and not to the sounds of each musical instrument separately (violin, double bass, cello).
The third property is constancy. It characterizes the relative constancy of shapes, shades of color and quantities that we perceive. For example, we see a cat as a certain animal, regardless of whether it is in the dark or in a bright room.
The fourth property is generality. It is human nature to classify objects and assign them to a certain class, depending on the characteristics that are present.
The fifth property is meaningfulness. When we perceive objects, we relate them to our experience and knowledge. Even if the object is unfamiliar, the human brain tries to compare it with familiar objects and identify common features.
The sixth property is selectivity. First of all, objects that have a connection with a person’s personal experience or activity are perceived. For example, while watching a play, an actor and a stranger will experience what is happening on stage differently.
Each process can occur both normally and in pathology. consider hyperesthesia (increased sensitivity to ordinary environmental stimuli), hypoesthesia (decreased level of sensitivity), agnosia (impaired recognition of objects in a state of clear consciousness and a slight decrease in general sensitivity), hallucinations (perception of non-existent objects in reality). Illusions are characterized by an erroneous perception of objects that exist in reality.
Finally, I would like to say that the human psyche is a rather complex device, and a separate consideration of processes such as sensation, perception, memory and thinking is artificial, because in reality all these phenomena occur in parallel or sequentially.