A. G. Sechin
ANCIENT PHYSIOGNOMY AS A METHOD OF TYPIZATION IN FINE ARTS
The work was presented by the Department of Art Education and Museum Pedagogy.
Scientific supervisor - Doctor of Art History, Professor N. A. Yakovleva
The article is devoted to the topic of interpretation of works of fine art through ancient physiognomy, which is considered as a tool, a kind of matrix that generalizes reality according to the laws of logic and rhetoric. The result of this generalization is typical images, in particular the typical masculine image, striking examples of the embodiment of which in plastic were the images of Alexander the Great by Lysippos.
The article is devoted to the theme of interpretation of works of the fine arts by means of ancient physiognomies which is considered as a tool, some kind of a matrix generalizing the reality under laws of logic and rhetoric. A result of this generalization is typical images including a typical masculine image which was embodied, in particular, in Lysippus" portraits of Alexander the Great.
Physiognomy, which teaches how to recognize a person’s character by his appearance, arose in the ancient world as practical knowledge, but later, thanks to Aristotle (384-322 BC), it acquired the status of a science. The name of the great ancient Greek philosopher is associated with the earliest of the physiognomic treatises that have reached us (late 4th or early 3rd century BC). It is usually called “Physiognomy” by Pseudo-Aristotle, since the work of the thinker himself has not been preserved in its entirety, and a brief summary of two manuals on physiognomy that came out from his school has reached us. All subsequent similar works: Polemon of Laodicea (II century AD), Adamantius (IV century AD) and Latin Anonymous (IV century AD) - bear the features of the obvious influence of Aristotle , although they differ in details. Aristotle's treatise postulates the main physiognomic principle of recognizing the character of a living being (man, beast, etc.) by its appearance, for what appears in appearance is not opposed to its essence, but forms a unity with it - eidOz, i.e. holistic volumetric -plastic appearance, defining ways of feeling-
thinking and thinking, as well as the line of behavior of this creature.
Although Pseudo-Aristotle's Physiognomy and other works on this topic mentioned have been known since the Renaissance, they have long been of interest mainly to specialists in the field of classical philology. In 1893, R. Foerster published a scientific edition of ancient physiognomic treatises1, which gave impetus to a broad search for physiognomic descriptions in ancient literature and their study as a phenomenon of a literary text in relation to the typology of the subject2. In classical philology, a view of ancient physiognomy was formed from the point of view of the methods it used to generalize diverse empirical material, the result of which is a number of physiognomic types3. This made the problem of understanding physiognomy as a method of typification in literature and fine arts urgent. But if in literary studies the progress in solving this problem is obvious,4 then in relation to the fine arts the results seem to be very modest, although they have long been noticed
but that ancient physiognomic treatises “are an invaluable... source for reconstructing the semiotics of a Hellenistic portrait or a Byzantine icon”5. Our study is intended to partly fill this gap.
Currently, scientists identify three physiognomic methods of generalizing reality: anatomical, zoological and ethnological. The anatomical method looks for signs of a particular character in the structure of the body and the features of a person’s appearance, thus relying on his innate and unchangeable nature (^and<гг£). Здесь обращает на себя внимание противопоставление мужского начала жен -скому в широком смысле этих определений, а не в узком значении принадлежности к одному из полов. Зоологический метод учитывает внешнее сходство человека с животным определенного вида, поскольку животные одного вида обладают определенным характером. Следует отметить, что значение слова «характер», которое пришло в современные европейские языки из древнегреческого, ранее отличалось от того, что вкладывается в него сейчас. Его смысл претерпел значительные изменения уже на протяжении античности, постепенно подвергаясь процессу интериоризации - движения от внешнего к внутреннему6. Во времена Аристотеля и в эллинистическую эпоху характер (характер) - это черта, знак, примета, присущая человеку или животному по природе, от рождения и указывающая на его внутренние качества. Наконец, этнологический метод основан на различии рас и этносов, а свойственные им черты характера обусловлены разными средами обитания. На основе указанных трех способов обобщения можно выделить соответственно гендерную физиогномику, зоофизиогноми-ку и этнофизиогномику.
In literary texts, the main form of physiognomic characteristics is an iconic (e1koi1ku£) portrait - a condensed non-union description of the appearance of a particular person, which in ancient times
art has been known since the time of Homer and performed a dual function in literary texts: 1) thanks to its realistic form, it gave the fictional image greater persuasiveness; 2) expressed the character’s character through appearance7. Iconic portraits, under the influence of the generalization methods outlined above, under certain conditions, turned into topoi (tolo1), in other words, commonplaces (ko1io1 golo!), which were applied to the character already in finished form, which closely connects physiognomy with the ancient rhetorical tradition. This is especially obvious in relation to works of the biographical genre, where iconic portraits have become an integral part of one of the permanent sections of biography - the external appearance of the hero. Thanks to this transformation, the iconic portrait ceased to be a portrait, but rather became an image - an element of the artistic form. So, physiognomists, while typifying these individual phenomena, developed a peculiar substrate of artistic images - types.
In our opinion, physiognomic topoi have their plastic correlates in ancient fine art, where in this case we should be talking about iconic images. Based on the above definitions of eidos and character, an iconic image is a physiognomic description of the eidos of a living being as a set of its characters. Consequently, the iconic type is an image that has physiognomic characteristics - characters common to any group of living beings.
Let us consider the process of physiognomic typification using the example of the male, or masculine, type, clearly represented in ancient treatises and literary texts. In the animal world, according to ancient physiognomy, the most striking embodiment of masculinity was the lion (about Leai). A fairly detailed physiognomic description of the lion in the treatise of Pseudo-Aristotle
is expressed in the following eloquent passage: “In regard to his soul, he is noble and generous, generous, ambitious, merciful, straightforward and attached to those with whom he lives.”8. In addition, the physiognomic signs of a lion's nature, i.e., lion's characters, as a rule, are marked by people of a courageous type. This correlation is introduced by the often used expression in Physiognomy “this correlates with lions” (aiasreretsi elmtoi^ Aeoitaf, although it should be noted that the expression “this correlates with the masculine [class]” (aiasreretsh ezhm tu arrei [ueioS]) is no less popular. In both cases we are talking about a noble and fearless creature, which makes it possible to combine the lion and the courageous man into one class - a class that we call the masculine type, or the typical masculine image. In ancient literature and fine art, this type is represented by the metaphor of the man-"lion" "
Aristotle repeatedly turned to this metaphor in a wide variety of his writings. A widely known example is from his “Rhetoric”, designed to show the difference between such figures of speech as comparison and metaphor: “So, when the poet says about Achilles: “he rushed like a lion,” this is a comparison. When he says: “the lion rushed” - this is a metaphor: since both have courage, the poet, using the metaphor, called Achilles a lion. In the final chapter of the First Analytics, Aristotle formulates physiognomic logic again using the example of a lion, essentially explaining its symbolic nature: he who has large limbs is brave; every lion has large limbs, therefore, all lions are distinguished by courage10. Consequently, this sign, or character, defines a certain new community of creatures, uniting lions and people with large limbs into a class, or type, which physiognomy interprets as masculine.
Aristotle's physiognomic logic makes it possible to involve ancient
iconic images, modern semiotics and closely related general rhetoric. In the semiotics of a portrait, there is the idea of a tonic sign, which, according to C. S. Peirce, reflects the physical similarity of the image with the model11. W. Eco recently proposed a different, more complex interpretation of this concept. Iconic signs are by no means limited to just visual resemblance to the model, but also contain its conceivable characteristic, which is understandable to the viewer, and, thus, the visible must correspond with the conceivable in a language understandable to the public12. To be understood, artists use easily and immediately recognizable, known to a wide range of viewers and therefore convincing visual metaphors - the equivalent of topoi in literature, especially in rhetoric, and referential metaphors contained in physiognomic treatises. “The artist selects them from both art and experience in order to inform a certain audience - his exemplary [modeled] spectators - about the personality of the model, her desire and right to immortality"13. Physiognomy had excellent opportunities for this, including offering a whole arsenal of signs of the masculine type - the metaphor of a courageous man-"lion": well-articulated limbs and body; slightly sunken eyes; frowning brow; a proportionate square in the forehead; hair above the forehead, facing up and back (aitoLg]). It should be borne in mind that in the plastic arts, taking into account the specifics of spatiality, the listed visual codes of metaphor find their material embodiment. Thus, physiognomy played the role of a kind of matrix for the crystallization of types both in literature and in the visual arts.
In antiquity, the paradigm of the human “lion” found its exemplary embodiment in the images of Alexander the Great (356,323 BC) by the sculptor Lysippos. In Greek society, the masculine type
found its most vivid expression in the form of a hero, for example Achilles, from whom it was most likely borrowed by Alexander14. It is known about the Macedonian king that in life he strove to play the role of his favorite heroes, in particular Achilles15. There is an opinion that Alexander used costume, makeup, and etiquette so actively and purposefully for this that he himself could be considered a work of art16. And from court artists he demanded that his “lion” essence be expressed outwardly, and in such a way that his images could be correctly read by the public.
This was reflected both in the verbal description of the appearance and character of the young king, and in his numerous images. Along with the fairly general features of the young hero’s physiognomic appearance: youth, beauty, “a well-articulated body,” there were also extremely characteristic signs of his lion’s nature, of which the so-called aiasttoLt] received the widest resonance as a visual code - a tuft of hair billowing forehead17.
Currently, the range of works that equate to statues of Alexander by Lysippos usually includes
sculpted heads of four types: Er-bach, Dresden, “Schwarzenberg”, Hazard, as well as a full-figure image of the king like the Louvre figurine of Fouquet18. These statues - mostly marble Roman copies - are associated with Lysippos thanks to comparative stylistic and iconographic analysis, supported by information from ancient written sources. The valor (aretz) and other virtues of Alexander, his masculinity (arreyuta), and finally, the lionism (Aeoitso5r]^ = Aesoi + egdoS) of his nature required an appropriate external expression, the signs of which in plastic works allow one to describe oneself in terms, definitions and constructions from physiognomic treatises.
Thus, there really was a close relationship between ancient physiognomy and the plastic arts, which allows us to interpret the surviving ancient works of fine art through physiognomic descriptions, while relying on a rich set of referential metaphors present in concentrated form in ancient physiognomic treatises.
NOTES
1 Scriptores Physiognomonici Gaeci et Latini: In 2 vol. /Rec. R. Foerster. Lipsiae: Teubner, 1893. In 1981, the treatise of the Latin Anonyme was republished: Anonyme Latin. Traitft de physiognomonie / Texte etabl., trad. et commenffi par J. Andm. Paris: Socifitft d'ftdition "Les Belles Lettres", 1981.
2 Misener G. Iconistic Portraits // Classical Phililogy. 1924. Vol. 19. P. 97-123; Evans E. C. Physiognomics in the Ancient World. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1969.
3 Andru J. Introduction // Anonyme Latin. Traiffi de physiognomonie... P. 12-15; Barton T. S. Power and Knowledge: Astrology, Physiognomics, and Medicine under the Roman Empire. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1994. pp. 115-128.
4 Nakhov I.M. Physiognomy as a reflection of the method of typification in ancient literature: Towards the formulation of the problem // Living Heritage of Antiquity. M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1987. pp. 69-88; IlyushechkinV. N. Ancient physiognomy // Man and society in the ancient world. M.: Nauka, 1998. pp. 441-465. The last article provides a detailed overview of foreign research on this topic.
5 Ayerintsee S.S. Preliminary notes for the study of medieval aesthetics // Old Russian art. Foreign connections. M.: Nauka, 1975. P. 392. Note. 59.
6 MikhailovA. V. From the history of character // Man and culture: Individuality in the history of culture. M.: Nauka, 1990. pp. 43-72.
7 Misener G. Op. cit. P. 97, 103-104.
8 Ps.-Arist. Phsgn. 5. 809b 41.1-26.
9 Arist. Rhet. III. 40. 1406 b. 20-23.
SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES
10 Arist. Anal. pr. II. 27. 70 b 6-39.
11 BelM., BrysenN. Semiotics and art history / Trans. from English E. and G. Revzin // Issues of art criticism: Journal of history and theory of arts. 1996. No. 9 (2/96). pp. 533-534.
12 Eco U. Missing structure. Introduction to semiology / Transl. from Italian V. G. Reznik and A. G. Pogonyailo. St. Petersburg: Symposium, 2004. pp. 154-180.
13 Stewart A. Faces of Power: Alexander's Image and Hellenistic Politics. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993. P. 69.
14 TrofimovaA. A. The life of myth in ancient art: the fate of Achilles // Schliemann. Petersburg. Troy. Catalog of the exhibition in the State Hermitage, St. Petersburg, June 19 - October 18, 1998. St. Petersburg: JSC “Slavia”, 1998. pp. 187-189.
15 Stewart A. Op. cit. P. 78-86.
16 Hölscher T. Ideal und Wirklichkeit in den Bildnissen Alexanders des Großen. Heidelberg: Winter, 1971. S. 36-42.
17 See, for example: Kiilerich B. Physiognomics and the Iconography of Alexander // Symbolae Osloenses. 1988. Vol. 63. P. 51-66.
18 Vorster Chr. Die Bildnisse Alexanders des Grossen // Die Geschichte der antiken Bildhauerkunst: 2. Klassische Plastik / Hrsg. von P. C. Bol. Mainz am Rhein: Verlag Philipp von Zabern, 2004. S. 409-412.
We judge a person by the first impression of his appearance, and the life experience we have accumulated often allows us to accurately determine character traits based on certain features of appearance. Observations of the relationship between a person’s appearance and his character laid the foundation physiognomy- a knowledge system that allows you to determine a person’s personality type and his spiritual qualities (both innate and acquired) based on an analysis of the characteristic features of his face and expression.
In a narrow sense, physiognomy - This is the expression of a person’s face and figure, determined by the very structure of the face, skull, torso, limbs, regardless of expressive movements. Facial expressions are examined by physiognomy, allowing one to draw conclusions about a person’s emotional manifestations. Also separately allocated kinesics, which studies the totality of human body movements in the process of communication, phrenology, revealing connections between the human psyche and the structure of the surface of his skull, etc.
Physiognomy interprets character based on facial features in three stages:
- Bright, special features, as a manifestation of the main specific character.
- Protruding parts telling about human capabilities.
- Symmetry and asymmetry as an expression of individual personality characteristics.
The asymmetry of the human face is associated with the uneven development of the cerebral hemispheres and structural features of the skull. The presence of asymmetry in a normal human face can be proven by creating images of the same face from two left and two right halves. The two additional portraits are absolutely symmetrical and thus differ significantly from the original.
The basic concepts of physiognomy originated in ancient times. Each culture accumulated its own observations: among the ancient Bedouins - qiyafa, among Muslims - firasat, in China - Xiangfa (Xianshu, Xianzhenshuo), etc. Physiognomy was especially revered in the East, considering it a full-fledged branch of medicine, believing that a person’s entire life path can be read from his face.
In the West, the first physiognomists were Theophrastus and Hippocrates, as well as Aristotle, who is credited with the first systematic treatise in this field - physiognomics.
In the Middle Ages, studies of physiognomy were supplemented by the observations of the philosopher John Scottai and the artist and scientist Leonardo da Vinci.
Physiognomy has not lost its importance today. Modern research confirms the connection between the internal psychological content of a person and the external features of the facial structure. Physiognomy is closely related to psychology; it helps to most fully compose a psychological portrait of a person. Below are some data from modern physiognomy:
- Eyes — mirror of the soul - they will talk about creative and spiritual qualities. Those with large eyes are sensitive and have the makings of a leader. Protruding eyes indicate slowness and laziness. Deeply sunken eyes - in angry, unfriendly people, prone to cunning and insults, physiognomy explains such negative manifestations of character by the fact that this type of eyes is destined for life failures.
- Forehead speaks about the human mind, his philosophy, ideology, ethics and ethics. Wide, high foreheads with open corners and smooth wrinkles are most often found among intellectuals and talented people. A very high forehead with a long face reveals a tough, unkind person prone to violence. A short and narrow forehead indicates a small mind and strong will, as well as hard work and homeliness.
- Chin measures grit and sexuality. If it is wide, it is a sign of a strong character (remember cartoon supermen), a weakly defined jaw indicates softness, and a heavy jaw indicates uncontrollable passions. A slightly cleft chin is characteristic of passionate people and womanizers.
- NoseWith indicates will and activity. A straight nose of moderate thickness and length is a sign of tenderness, agreeableness and hard work, with a hump - in exalted people, inclined to mental work and constant in cordial relationships. A slightly turned-up nose speaks of carelessness, natural cheerfulness and spiritual simplicity, while a nose that is too turned up speaks of courage and a tendency to take risks. A crooked nose reveals the deceit and hypocrisy of the owner.
- Mouth talks about sensuality and love, as well as the inner energy of a person. A large mouth can indicate courage or deceit, a small mouth can indicate timidity, compressed lips can indicate firmness and determination, and a slack jaw can indicate stupidity or serious health problems.
However, it is worth mentioning that all signs are finally formed by the age of forty, until this time one can only assume a person’s predisposition to certain character traits.
Physiognomy— a unique tool for analyzing facial features with deciphering a person’s individual characteristics. The ability to correctly read the internal state, character and inclinations from appearance can help in various situations of interaction in society: during the first personal acquaintance, when recruiting personnel, during important negotiations, etc.
You can practice observing characteristic features at any time and anywhere: on the bus, at work or on the street. You can start with yourself by looking in the mirror. Getting used to observing faces and associating their features with certain forms of behavior significantly improves social communication skills.
Physiognomy (physis - nature, natural inclinations; gnomonikos - knowledgeable, insightful) is a now forgotten science based on the assumption that certain facial features indicate certain character traits and spiritual qualities.
The founder of physiognomy is the Swiss pastor, poet and thinker Johann Caspar Lavater (teacher of anatomist F.I. Gall, author of phrenology). His theory is as follows: man is an animal, moral and intellectual being - lustful, feeling and thinking. This nature of a person is expressed in his entire figure, but the most expressive are the skull and face of a person. The intellectual life of a person is expressed in the structure and outline of the skull and forehead; moral and sensual life - in the structure of the facial muscles, in the outlines of the nose and cheeks; Animal qualities of a person are expressed by the lines of the mouth and chin. The central organ of the face is the eyes, with surrounding nerves and muscles. The human face is thus divided, as it were, into “floors”, according to the three main elements that make up any “soul”. According to these floors, physiognomy should also be divided into three sections. Lavater himself defined physiognomy as the permanently inherent composition of a subject's facial features and muscles. Physiognomy, in his opinion, should be divided into two branches: physiognomic (study of the face at rest) and pathognomic (study of the face during excitement). He also highlighted pathognomy and physiognomy in motion.
Lavater studied the psychological characteristics of a person with parishioners in confession, and compared the data obtained with the characteristics of their facial features. Thus, he studied thousands of faces known to him, and on the basis of this material he made conclusions about the connection between the profile shape and the internal make-up of a person. As a result of his observations, Lavater discovered a number of interesting signs. For example, certain folds on the face express annoyance, a protruding lower lip is a sign of stinginess, a wide distance between the eyes and eyebrows indicates an inquisitive mind, belligerence is determined by the sharp contour of the nose and lips, etc. He also believed that beautiful people are highly moral, and ugly people - immoral. These observations are very interesting, but due to the lack of scientific methods of observation, they do not represent scientific value. Lavater was a thinker, not a scientist, and it is not surprising that the presentation of the foundations of his science was often interrupted by various lyrical digressions: he either lectured the reader, or scolded the enemies of physiognomy, and sometimes even indulged in despair at the thought of the unknowability of human nature.
The triumph of physiognomy occurred after Lavater created a fund of 600 tables, sketching a huge number of faces. He called the album compiled from these tables “the bible of physiognomy.” An example of Lavater's physiognomic illustration (facial expressions).
He accurately reproduced the proportions and structural features of the face, without knowing scientific anatomy. Lavater also formulated 100 rules of physiognomy and published a book of the same name. His science enjoyed enormous popularity everywhere, including in Russia. People from everywhere brought children, lovers, acquaintances to him, sent portraits and masks.
Lavater was a convinced Christian and did not understand how one could live and breathe without faith in God. Although he continued to preach and write, gradually physiognomy nevertheless became the main goal of his life. Lavater amazed with his ability to correctly decipher the facial expressions of the person he observed. At the same time, he warned his like-minded people against blind imitation, since “physiognomic sense is a gift from God.” Although this gift, according to him, is present in every person, it is still present to varying degrees. Lavater himself was practically never mistaken when making assumptions about the personality traits of people, and his admirers called him a seer. And everything would be wonderful if everyone could, like Lavater, determine character and predict fate based on his theory. But since this did not happen, no patterns emerged, but only random coincidences. Physiognomy's criticism of Lavater's theory was based on a number of his mistakes that were unacceptable for a serious researcher, namely: the subject of his observations was not all facial features in their interaction, but only its lower part and the so-called facial profile; there was no systematic method of observation and study; objective patterns were replaced by the subjective opinion of the author. As a result, physiognomy began to be forgotten and even ridiculed as a pseudoscience.
Another physiognomy researcher whose theory also failed was Cesare Lombroso, an Italian criminological psychiatrist. All his life he worked as a prison doctor and tried to describe the portrait of a “criminal man.” Lombroso analyzed the external features of 3,839 people who committed crimes and 383 skulls of executed criminals. Based on his research, he suggested that criminals not only differ in appearance from normal people, but also carry vestigial characteristics of primitive man. Among them, he identified: irregular skull structure, facial asymmetry, dull sensitivity, inability to blush, tendency to tattoo, etc. Anomalies in the psyche of these people are expressed in vindictiveness, vanity, pride, weakness of reason, underdevelopment of moral feelings, peculiarities of speech and even a special writing reminiscent of the hieroglyphs of the ancients.
In his book “Criminal Man” (1876), he writes that “murderers are mostly brachycephalic (short-headed, with a large transverse diameter of the head) with powerful jaws, long ears and glassy eyes; thieves - dolichocephals (long-headed, the longitudinal dimensions of the head are significantly larger than the transverse ones) with small eyes; swindlers and arsonists have crooked noses.”
In 1892, the Brussels International Criminal Anthropological Congress was held, which revealed the inconsistency of the concept of a criminal person as a special type, and all the provisions that are derived from this concept. Thus, Lombroso's teachings did not find further application. Of course, it would be very easy and convenient to identify criminals by the shape of their eyebrows or nose. But the experience of criminologists shows that crimes are committed by people of very different appearance, sometimes even quite pleasant and attractive. However, Lombroso has several undeniable merits. For example, considering the criminal case as a branch of physiology and pathology, he for the first time transferred criminal legislation to the field of natural scientific disciplines.
Although the traditional physiognomy of Lavater is still considered quackery, the ancient idea of the connection between face and character cannot be completely rejected. Today, there is scientific evidence confirming the connection between facial features, the body and certain mental functions. The main conclusion that can be drawn by summarizing the entire history of physiognomy is that a huge amount of empirical material has been accumulated, including connections between facial features and human character traits. A significant part of this material consists of the results of Lavater’s observations, because the detail and accuracy of his physiognomic portraits allow them not to lose their value even today.
Physiognomy (from the Greek physis - “nature”, in this context - “external appearance bestowed by nature”, and gnomon - “thought”, “ability to know”) is a doctrine that does not have a scientific basis, according to which, after analyzing the external features and expression By looking at the face and structural features of the body, you can obtain information about the mental qualities and state of health of the individual.
The emotional perception of a person’s face, identification and interpretation of his appearance have taken place at all times. This is reflected in various folklore works, as well as in the information that fortunetellers and healers used in their practice. The Bedouins called the art of reading faces Qiyafa, the ancient Slavs - human vision, Muslims - Firasat, the Chinese - Xianzhenshuo or Xiangfa, the Japanese - Ningso, etc.
The results of observations, which reveal the relationship between a person’s external appearance and his spiritual qualities, were used in the works of ancient philosophers and writers. The term “physiognomy” was first found in the works of the “father of medicine” Hippocrates and the Greek philosopher Aristotle. Nowadays, the following types of physiognomy are distinguished:
Ethnological (from the Greek ethnos - “people” and logos - “teaching”) - studies the connection between a person’s external appearance and living conditions (the surrounding landscape, climate, temperature conditions, etc.). Described in the work of Hippocrates “On air, waters and places” and in the works of the Greek philosophers Xenophon, Cicero, Plato;
Astrological (from the Greek astrum - “star”, logos - “teaching”) - focuses on the connection between celestial objects (stars, planets, zodiac signs) and parts of the face. Reflected in the works of the Italian philosopher and doctor D. Cardano and the natural philosopher and naturalist, German doctor K.G. Karusa;
Geometric, based on the works of E. Ledo (France). This physiologist identifies and characterizes 5 geometric types of faces (triangular, quadrangular, oval, round and conical), each of which is also divided into 3 classes (pure or basic, long and short);
Mimic, whose followers (such as P. Camper, C. Bell and G. Duchesne, C. Darwin, I.M. Sechenov, I.A. Sikorsky) argue that it is not so much the traits of his character that are imprinted on a person’s face, but the expressed them emotions and feelings;
Pathological, focusing on the diagnosis of possible diseases (physical or mental) based on a person’s appearance. For example, the German psychologist and psychiatrist E. Kretschmer argued that people with an athletic build are prone to epilepsy, and normosthenics (individuals of the pyknic type) more often suffer from psychosis and depression;
Ethological (from the gr. etos - “custom”, “habit” and logos - “teaching”) - studies various types of human behavior in certain situations (focusing on gestures, facial expressions, etc.).
The word “physiognomy” came into Russian from the Greek language. There is no consensus on this matter. Some researchers (in particular I.A. Sikorsky) believe that the word “physiognomy” was indeed borrowed from the Greek language, and this term is an abbreviation for “physiognomonics” (physiognomonica), used in the meaning of “external signs used for recognition.”
According to another version, the word “physiognomy” originally appeared in the Russian language, borrowed from French (French physionomie - “appearance”, “facial expression”) and for some time was used as a synonym for the word “physiognomy” to denote the art of recognizing a person’s character traits by features faces. And only over time the word “physiognomy” began to be used to refer to the face, and instead of “physiognomy” the term “physiognomy” began to be used.
And finally, there is an opinion that the word “physiognomy” was introduced into use by the Russian writer, poet, historiographer N.M. Karamzin, who mentioned in his work “Letters of a Russian Traveler” the work of the theologian, poet and writer from Switzerland I.K. Lavater “Physiognomic fragments” and, thereby, aroused the interest of Russian authors in this branch of knowledge. However, it should be taken into account that much earlier writers (especially prose writers and playwrights), wanting to more clearly reveal certain character traits of a character, gave their heroes certain external features and features of facial expressions, poses and gestures.
The subject of physiognomy is the human face. At different periods of time, the term “physiognomy” was given different meanings. In ancient times, the subject of physiognomy (or physiognomonics) was the entire human body (facial expression, skin condition, proportionality of body parts, etc. were taken into account), which was positioned as the physiological basis of the character and spiritual qualities of the individual. Moreover, to substantiate one point of view or another, researchers of those times often cited the characteristic faces of animals as examples.
Nowadays, physiognomy has been divided into several areas of knowledge. Gestures and facial expressions are the subject of the study of kinesics (from the gr. kinesis - “movement”); eye movement during communication is studied by oculesics. Physiognomy has really narrowed the range of interests, and deals primarily with the interpretation of certain features of the human face. Moreover, within this discipline, separate directions have emerged. For example, metoscopy studies the lines of the forehead.
Phrenology (from the gr. phren - “spirit”) tries to discover the connection between the structure of the surface of the skull (according to the Austrian anatomist and physician J.F. Gall, reflecting the structure of the brain, hypertrophied or underdeveloped areas of which are the cause of the manifestation of certain mental properties of the individual) and the qualities of a person’s character. , “reason” and logos - “word”, “teaching”). This pseudoscience was very popular at the beginning of the 19th century. and was practically forgotten after, with the development of neurophysiology, scientists proved the inconsistency of J.F.’s conclusions. Gallya.
Physiognomy takes into account only facial features and congenital markings. Mechanical damage is not taken into account. Wrong opinion. Of course, first of all, when analyzing facial features, they take into account their shape, size and location, and also pay attention to skin color, moles and birthmarks, bulges and indentations. However, acne, warts, scars and bruises, traces of plastic surgery (rhinoplasty, blepharoplasty, lipofilling, Botox, etc.) and cosmetic procedures (for example, plucking eyebrows), as well as lines and wrinkles formed next to them or directly at the site of a bruise, scar, etc.
The most beautiful faces that predict a person’s happy destiny are perfectly symmetrical. This is not entirely true. Firstly, perfectly symmetrical faces are extremely rare, as evidenced by a study in which a person's face was divided in half, and a mirror image was added to each of the resulting halves. As a result, they received not two copies of the subject, but an image of 2 different people, completely different from the appearance that was the object of the study. Secondly, absolutely symmetrical faces are not always considered the most beautiful - on the contrary, slight asymmetry is regarded by others as an expression of individuality, while a perfectly symmetrical appearance seems mediocre and uninteresting. And finally, physiognomists evaluate a symmetrical face differently. Some argue that those with symmetrical faces are characterized by good health, are successful, and are attractive to the opposite sex. Others, on the contrary, believe that asymmetry (within the physiological norm) is a sign of success and energetic strength, and maximum symmetry of features is characteristic of people only on the verge of death.
When studying the appearance of their interlocutor, representatives of different nationalities focus on different parts of his face. This is true. According to research, Europeans pay the most attention to visually examining the eyes and mouth of a new acquaintance, while Asians concentrate on the area of their interlocutor’s nose. Moreover, both are right - scientists claim that the information genetically embedded in a person is most clearly displayed in the area of the corners of the mouth (to which Europeans are so attentive) and the tip of the nose (which is the first thing that residents of Asian countries study).
A vertical wrinkle located in the center of the forehead is a sign of hard fate and poverty. This is not entirely true. The mentioned line, called a “hanging needle” by Chinese physiognomists, is indeed positioned as an omen of problems in marital relationships and situations that pose a threat to the personal safety of the person on whose forehead there is such a sign. However, firstly, such a line does not predict poverty. On the contrary, it speaks of a person’s intelligence and success - most often a “hanging needle” can be seen on the forehead of outstanding actors and politicians. Secondly, if there are compensating features (classically shaped nose, eyes, eyebrows), the impact of the “hanging needle” can be minimized.
Three vertical lines between the eyebrows are a sign that a person can occupy a high position in society. It depends on what these lines look like. If they are even, the above statement is true. However, if the mentioned lines are curved, the person most likely has some mental disorders and is prone to violence and illegal actions.
If the forehead is crossed by one clear horizontal line, the person will live a noble and happy life. Yes it is. But you should carefully analyze the location of the line. The closer it is to the eyebrows, the greater the risk for a person at a young age to get into an unpleasant situation.
Physiognomy can help you form an opinion about your future partner. According to physiognomists, certain lines on the face can indeed indicate the temperament of an individual and how happy he will be in marriage. For example, wrinkles that extend from the outer corner of the eye and are called “fish tail” or “crow’s feet” reveal a loving person, not inclined to be faithful, and also cunning and successful in business.
These same lines (if they clearly manifest themselves by the age of 20, and some of them bend upward) indicate that marriages in the life of a given individual will be quite frequent (as well as divorces). An unhappy marriage is predicted by 3 vertical lines located under a person’s eyes, as well as a widened in the middle and slightly flattened dorsum of the nose, horizontally crossed by small wrinkles (this structural feature of the nose is also a sign of future financial difficulties).
In addition, physiognomists recommend paying attention to the ears of your future partner. A voluptuous nature, prone to adultery, will most likely have flat, small ears, with their inner rim turned outward. And a woman who has large ears similar to men’s with a poorly developed lobe and unclear relief is most likely prone to same-sex love.
Studying the eyes and interpreting a person's gaze can provide a lot of information about him. Indeed, the eyes can tell not only about character and temperament, but also about intellectual abilities, life experience, acquired and hereditary diseases. For example, if a person’s upper eyelids are constantly swollen, the person has lost his purpose in life, energy and ambition. However, physiognomists argue that information of this kind is best obtained from a person who has crossed the 40-year mark, since it is from this age that personal characteristics are imprinted in eyes, gain stability.
An intellectual always has a clear view, such a person is very active, constantly on the move. Not necessary. Firstly, an intelligent person is most often distinguished by unshakable calm (both emotional and spiritual), therefore he can give the impression of being very inactive and even sleepy. He may well be inferior in reaction speed to someone more efficient, but his final conclusions are basically correct, while a more active and agile opponent does not always assess the situation correctly and acts flawlessly.
Secondly, a clean and clear gaze is not necessarily a sign of giftedness. Many brilliant poets, composers, and artists looked at the world through the eyes of an absent-minded dreamer. In addition, even the most talented person can experience moments of fatigue, depression, or suffer from any physical ailments - at such moments his gaze becomes heavy, dull and cloudy, but this is not at all evidence of the individual’s intellectual failure.
The longer the nose, the more temperamental the person. Physiognomists really believe that a long nose is a sign of a proud, temperamental, active, authoritative and very sexually active individual. A drooping tip of the nose (called a “dangling gall”, meaning the so-called “ink nut” - a growth that appears on plant leaves under the influence of bacteria, fungi, etc.), in their opinion, indicates the hypersexuality of the individual, occupying a high position in society. At the same time, this sign exposes a person who is potentially capable of betrayal.
A drooping forehead and a protruding lower jaw are the external signs of a criminal. This opinion was expressed by criminologist Cesare Lombroso (Italy). However, modern researchers have recognized the inconsistency of this hypothesis, based on an analysis of the external appearance of numerous criminals. Some lawbreakers (especially scammers and rapists) have a very pleasant appearance, are sociable and open - that is why people trust them, not suspecting that such a nice and attractive person intends to encroach on their money or honor.
The larger the skull (and the size of the brain, respectively), the more gifted the person. There is no direct relationship between the mentioned parameters, as craniologists claim (craniology - from the Greek kranion - “skull” and logos - “teaching”). Typically, the weight of the adult brain is 1400-1600 grams. The brain of the talented Russian writer I. Turgenev weighed slightly more - 2012 grams, the brain of the no less talented and famous French writer Anatole France - 1180 grams, and the brain of Einstein - 1230 grams.
Blonde people are calm, good-natured people. Blonde (as well as fair-haired and dark-blond) people are indeed most often distinguished by a kind-hearted disposition, timidity and shyness, and a tendency to fantasize. However, their desire to hide from cruel reality in some cases manifests itself either in the form of depression, anxiety and sociopathy, or in the form of aggressiveness and arrogance towards others.
In physiognomy, several different methods for assessing facial features are used. This is true. Many ways to analyze a person’s appearance are divided into 2 large groups:
Microanalysis, the purpose of which is to determine the personality traits of a person by his appearance;
Macroanalysis (macro perspective) - methods that allow, in the process of analyzing an individual’s appearance, to determine what significant events and at what point in time can occur in his life, as well as to identify the potential level of success of a person in professional activities, personal life, etc.
In the process of diagnostics of this kind, a person’s face is “zoned”, i.e. divided into several study parts in various ways. For example, when diagnosing a health condition, plastic surgery uses topographic division of the face. Moreover, different methods are used to study each of the selected parts: iridodiagnostics focuses on the condition of a person’s eyes, hair is the subject of trichology, auriculodiagnostics is carried out on the auricle, etc.
Astrologers divide a person's face into 7 parts, each of which is influenced by a specific planet or zodiac sign (for example, the nose is under the influence of Mars and Libra, the chin is under the influence of Saturn and Pisces, etc.). In addition, they also use vertical (on the left and right sides) and horizontal (into 3 equal parts) division of the face, etc.
Having studied several treatises on physiognomy, you can easily determine the character and disposition of your interlocutor. Wrong opinion. Firstly, as in any other area relating to interpersonal communication and, especially, determining the obvious or hidden character traits of a counterpart (especially if he diligently hides them), in physiognomy even a large amount of information gleaned from books cannot replace personal experience . Secondly, it should be taken into account that it is advisable to analyze some facial features only in people who have reached a certain age (some features are clearly defined only after 40 years). Thirdly, even an experienced physiognomist is not immune from errors generated by the subjective perception of others, upbringing, cultural characteristics, beliefs, etc.
For example, they incorrectly assess the character of the interlocutor due to the effect of beauty (beautiful people, in the opinion of others, are kind, wise, healthy, honest, etc., although in reality this opinion is by no means always correct), the effect of stereotyping (manifests itself in the case of , if the person behaved inappropriately upon first meeting), etc.
And finally, through intensive work on oneself, a person can improve character traits, although external signs will remain practically unchanged and, again, can serve as a source of misconceptions. A striking example of this is the legend of Socrates: when a physiognomist suspected that the philosopher had bad inclinations, he replied that in his youth he really did not have the best character. However, in the process of self-knowledge and work on himself, he managed to improve his character.
In China, physiognomy has long been revered as a science. The first mention of the art of determining a person’s character and predicting his fate by appearance (xiangshu, xiangfa and xianzhenshuo) was found in the treatise Zuozhuan, dated to the 5th century BC, and the mentioned “arts” were considered one of the branches of medicine. However, already in the 3rd century BC. some philosophers (for example, Xunzi) questioned the practicality and validity of this science.
The physiognomic type, meaning by this expression not only facial features, but also the impression caused by the general structure of the body and the nature of certain body movements from an astrological point of view, is determined by the following circumstances, which I present in order of their importance:
- staying in the 1st house of certain planets;
- the nature of the owner of the 1st house;
- the natures of the planets casting aspects on Ascendens;
- the nature of the Zodiac Sign that Ascendens falls on;
- the nature of the Master of the entire horoscope;
- other horoscopic data.
These influences are always (or almost always) mixed; to talk about them, they artificially imagine seven pure planetary types, theoretically corresponding to the influence only one planets per subject.
This is how Tradition characterizes these “Planetary Types”.
Saturn type
The characteristic features of this type are: tall growth; excellent skeletal development; pallor of the face, often taking on earthy tones; dryness and roughness of the skin; black thick hair, partly falling out in adulthood, without leaving, however, bald spots or bald patches. Saturnians usually bend their knees when walking; they move slowly, lowering their gaze to the ground. The heads are elongated, with sunken cheeks, long ears, thin pointed noses and a large mouth bordered by thin lips, from which the lower one protrudes noticeably. Saturnians' teeth are white and short-lived; gums are pale; the beard is black and sparse. The lower jaw is very massive and protrudes forward; The Adam's apple is very developed. The chest is covered with hair; high shoulders; the arms are narrow and bony. The leg tendons and veins are very noticeable.Saturnians are prone to fatigue from movement; they become decrepit early. Among the unpleasant accidents they experience are: falls with broken bones and all sorts of dislocations. Among the diseases they are characterized by: nervous diseases, paralysis, rheumatism, diseases of the legs, teeth, ears and hemorrhoids.
Saturnians are distinguished by distrust in everything; independence of judgment, with some, however, inclination towards superstition.
The following professions are suitable for them: mathematics, law, agriculture, mining.
They like black color in clothes; stingy; seek loneliness and are prone to melancholy.
Jupiter type
People of average height with fresh, pinkish skin, good complexion, moderately plump; have large cheerful eyes, wide arched eyebrows, brown hair, a straight nose of moderate size, a fairly large mouth, fleshy lips (the upper covers the lower), large teeth (the incisors especially protrude), full cheeks, an elongated chin with a dimple that fits tightly to the head ears, graceful neck and powerful nape.They are distinguished by a clear, ringing voice and a tendency to early baldness. Sweat easily (especially the forehead).
They show self-confidence, love for celebrations, formalities, noisy feasts and conversations. Great gastronomes and drink connoisseurs; hunters for official appearances; proud; love to patronize others; When working, they always count on reward in one form or another. They have a lively temperament; sometimes hot-tempered, sometimes vain, but, in general, they show good-heartedness; They value religious and family traditions, are always friendly and easily make and keep friends.
The most typical diseases of Jupiterians: a rush of blood to the brain and apoplexy.
Jupiterians make good administrators, convinced masters of ceremonies, good chairmen of large meetings.
Type of Mars
Martians are taller than average, have a strong build, a small wide head, a high forehead, round rosy cheeks with a dark complexion; red hair growing like a brush; large sparkling, often bloodshot eyes; sideburns darker than the hair on the head; a large mouth with thin lips and a wide lower jaw; small wide teeth of a yellowish tint; a strongly prominent chin, covered with a short and harsh beard; a beak-shaped crooked nose, small protruding ears and a very wide and prominent chest. Often have a red spot on the instep of the right leg.Their voice is commanding; cutting movements; walk with long steps; like to dress in red; are distinguished by their fearlessness; great lovers of all kinds of weapons and all kinds of noise and din; wasteful; willingly lead a tavern life; they love raw meat and strong drinks; easily offended; become very irritated; capable of becoming enraged and prone to violent actions.
Among the professions suitable for Martians are military service, theatrical and decorative arts, surgery, and fire fighting.
The diseases characteristic of them are: all kinds of inflammatory processes (mostly pneumonia; blood diseases; diseases of the cervical vessels).
Due to their natural inclinations, Martians are more susceptible than other types to the danger of wounds, concussions, etc.
A parody of the pure type of Mars we have in the figure of the traditional Polichinelle.
Sun type
People of the Sunny type have a beautiful appearance, average height, a yellowish-darkish complexion, a lush beard, long thin hair, most often blond with a golden tint; low but convex forehead; large, beautiful eyes with a moist shine, expressing either gentleness of character or extreme severity; fleshy cheeks, a thin straight nose, long arched eyebrows covering the eyes, a medium-sized mouth, moderate lips, off-white teeth, a round prominent chin, medium-sized ears and a long, muscular neck. They are broad-shouldered and distinguished by the grace of their somewhat elongated limbs, in particular their very graceful, thin feet. Their voice is very clear; There is nobility in the gait, often along with clumsiness.The sunny type greatly values the respect of their neighbors and is prone to hot temper, which, however, is easily moderated; Everyone seems very handsome, but does not know how to make reliable friends.
Solar type men are often deceived by their own wives and abandoned by their own children. They love walking, reading; religious, trusting, proud and prone to conceit, they dress in an original but elegant way, they love jewelry and decorations. Very inclined to engage in occultism.
By profession, they are most often inventors in the field of technology, good commentators and industrialists, and even more often artists.
Diseases of this type are characterized by: heart disease, eye diseases and heavy bleeding.
Venus type
People of this type are very similar to Jupiterians, differing from them in beauty and tenderness of build. They have whitish-pinkish transparent skin; small in stature; They are distinguished by a beautiful small plump face, full cheeks with a dimple on one of them and a beautiful, although small, round forehead. They have bushy eyebrows; wonderful hair of black or chestnut color, an elegant nose with a rounded tip and widened nostrils, large, cheerful dark-colored eyes, a thick pink mouth with swelling on the right half of the lower lip, well-colored gums and white, regular-shaped teeth. Their chin is round, fat, with a dimple; the ears are small and fleshy. The neck is mostly full and white. Venusians are stooped, narrow-chested; Venusians also, which does not prevent them from having some fleshiness of the breasts with their typical drooping, so gracefully prominent on the ancient statues of Venus. Small legs complete the ensemble of the type who loves bright colors in clothes, preliminaries in love, etc., which does not prevent them from sometimes being impeccable in behavior and even being naive.Venusians judge and invent best by first impression. They adore flowers and perfumes, are lovers of fine gastronomy, in music they give preference to melody over harmony, they hate quarrels and abuse, they are distinguished by their courtesy and friendliness; gullible to the extreme and compassionate and merciful to the extreme.
Among the diseases assigned to this type are venereal and female.
Mercury type
This type is characterized by short stature with a proportional build, something childish in appearance, an elongated, pretty pale, slightly yellowish face, which blushes easily, rich dark curly hair, soft skin, a high forehead, a short typical chin covered with sparse dark hair, narrow long fused eyebrows, sunken, restless but penetrating eyes, a long straight nose with a rounded tip, thin lips (the upper one is thicker than the lower one and protrudes forward), miniature teeth, a powerful neck, broad shoulders, a well-formed chest and a strong but flexible spine. The bones of the arms and legs are very thin, but gracefully formed. The voice is weak. They differ from nature in their liveliness, agility, dexterity and ingenuity.Mercurians are gentle in their manners; in trade they are inventive in all kinds of speculation; tend to be competitive. Cheerful disposition; They love jokes, they are distinguished by homebodies and love of children. By profession - speakers, professors, doctors, astrologers. Tend to practice magic. They skillfully engage in trade. They manage other people's affairs well, but do not deserve unlimited trust.
Women of this type are unattractive. They are distinguished by coquetry, precocity, cunning and a tendency to betrayal and deception.
Among the pathological phenomena this type is characterized by: liver and gallbladder diseases and some disorders of the nervous system.
Lunar type
This type is characterized by tall growth, a round head, too wide at the cheekbones, a white matte (rarely reddish) complexion, flabbiness of the muscular system and extreme scarcity of vegetation. People of the Lunar type have long hair, most often blond, short noses, have a small mouth, thick lips, long wide, somewhat irregularly shaped yellowish teeth, pale high gums, large round transparent convex, slightly watery eyes of greenish-bluish tones, inconspicuous but converging blond eyebrows, a wide fat chin, ears tightly fitting to the head, a rather long beautiful white neck, broad shoulders. Men's breasts are fleshy; Women's breasts are very underdeveloped. The lunar type is characterized by a swollen belly and thin legs with knobby knees.Representatives and representatives of this type are very fickle, easily susceptible to moods, frivolous, characterized by selfishness, coldness, laziness, a tendency towards melancholy, lack of love for family life and a thirst for travel, mainly sea travel. The picture is completed by their love of drugs, constant concern for their own health, love of a fantastic trend in art, commitment to reading romantic literature, easy inspiration; a tendency towards mysticism, the ability to clairvoyance, prophetic dreams; love for the use of animal magnetism and a constant search for the society of mature and experienced people.
The Moon type produces many poets, many occultists of junior degrees of Initiation, many travelers and adventurers. Among its representatives there are also high mystics.
Diseases of the Lunar type are: dropsy, disorders of the visual apparatus, up to blindness; disorders of the kidneys and bladder (of course, the whole class of gouty diseases) and all kinds of diseases of the uterus.
Of course, it is difficult to meet a person who fits exactly one of the described types. We almost always find a mixture of types, but with a predominance of certain planets, the nature of which we must take into account. When deciding questions about the subject’s abilities, his choice of profession, etc. The most interesting thing for an occultist is to know how the abilities for individual branches of esotericism and the inclination for one or another of its practical applications are distributed between types.
IN teachers Esotericism requires Saturn, Mercury and Venus. The presence of the Sun is desirable: sometimes Mars is appropriate.
For senior figures in Freemasonry Jupiter, Venus and Mars are important.
Magoo Saturn, Mercury and Mars are needed.
Theurge we need the Sun and Venus.
Kabbalist theorist, like an armchair astrologer, Saturn and Mercury are needed.
Clairvoyants, psychometers, fortune tellers and so on. always have a solid Moon.
For experiments with mediums, hysterics, sensitives, etc. It is best to deal with patients of the pure mixture of Venus and Moon type, and in the absence of such, with the pure Venus type. The latter are very susceptible to all kinds of suggestions.
In the Initiatory Chains, among the representatives of the lower degrees of Initiation, one always notices an abundance of young people with a predominant Lunar influence. At first, they obey the Teachers well, make good progress, but almost always subsequently fight off the Initiatory Chains due to the inherent susceptibility of the Lunar type to outside influences.
Regarding the pure or almost pure Solar type, I will say that Priestly occupations are very suitable for him without the complication of such by Teaching.
Pure Jupiter is very suitable for studying the history of Esotericism.