Unit h.pl.
hot-hot-them
want-eat-hot-ite
he wants to-yat
Forms want, wants; want, want, want arise under the influence of the mutual analogy of the singular and plural forms and all turn out to be erroneous.
For science, especially for morphology, the means and methods of expressing grammatical meanings are very important.
Grammatical meaning- this is a meaning that acts as an addition to the lexical meaning of a word and expresses various relationships (attitude to other words in a phrase and sentence; attitude to the person performing the action; attitude of the reported fact to reality and time; attitude of the speaker to the reported, etc.) . Usually a word has several grammatical meanings. Among ways expressions of grammatical meanings are called the following: synthetic, analytical, mixed, agglutination and incorporation. In a diagram it can be represented like this:
Synthetic or fusion method expressions of grammatical meanings (gr. Synthesis “compound”) means the expression of meanings in the word itself. The synthetic method includes:
Affixation – formation of word forms using prefixes, endings, formative suffixes: table, table A, table at; do - With do; write - on write; justify - justify yva t, exchange - exchange willow etc. Affixation in this case has the character of a fusion (Latin fusio “casting”, fusion “merging”). With fusion, the affixes attached to the root are polysemantic, their phonemic composition interacts with the phonemic composition of the root, and the root is sometimes not independent. For example, inflection -a in the word Earth immediately expresses the meaning of zh.r., im.p., singular; in dialects, stressed inflection -a can cause distactic assimilation: zamla; Earth root is not used on its own. This is a striking example of fusion, characteristic of many Indo-European languages.
Internal inflection– alternation of phonemes in the root. Zap e roar - zap And army, nab And army - recruit, etc.
Emphasis. Some languages use stress to express grammatical meanings: rus. city A- G O kind; Komi-Perm.: O lan-you - live, ol A n – life.
Suppletivism(French Suppletif “additional”). Supplemental forms are called forms of the same word, formed from different roots or stems. Man - people, take - take, child - children, go - walked, good - better. In lat. language: ego- I, mei- me. It contains language. Gut- Fine, besser- better .
Reduplication(Latin reduplicatio “doubling”) – repetition of morphemes and words: barely, quietly, willy-nilly; in Malay orange- Human, orang-orang- People; in Kazakh Kyzyl- red, kyzyl-kyzyl- the most red; in Chinese lanlan-sansan - very lazy. Based on this model, Russian combinations with partial changes in phonemes were created: tara-bars, shur-murs, shurum-burum.
Analytical method(gr. analysis “dismemberment, decomposition”) – expression of grammatical meanings outside the word.
Function words: reading - will read, beautiful - more Beautiful. Functional words – prepositions, particles, conjunctions, articles, connectives – play a major role in expressing grammatical meanings. In general, it must be said that function words do not have a real, lexical meaning. Their only meaning is grammatical, because it is connected with the grammatical meaning of significant words. Prepositions and particles, as a rule, express meanings of a syntactic nature and show relationships between members of a sentence or between sentences (adversative, disjunctive, etc.). In languages such as English, function words, in particular prepositions, are the predominant means of expressing grammatical meanings. Among the Slavic languages, the Bulgarian language has lost the system of changing the case endings of nouns, and the expression of grammatical meanings fell to the share of prepositions: s pushka v'v r'ka (with a revolver in hand). There are articles in Arabic, Germanic, and Romance languages. Articles express generics (in German: der, die, das), numeric (German: die– plural) and case meanings of names (German: I. der, R. des, D. dem, IN. den), as well as the meaning of certainty: in it. der –ein, die - eine, das – ein. Connectives are verbs that have lost their lexical meanings and retained only their grammatical meanings. In Russian, the copula became the verb be, in him. haben. Connectives express verbal grammatical meanings of tense, mood, person.
Word order. In Romance and Germanic languages, word order plays a large role in expressing grammatical meanings. In the Malay language it is defining. The word order is also used in Russian. Let's compare the expression for the approximate value: two days (exactly 2), two days (maybe 1-3). Expressing the meaning of the case in the phrase day replaces night - night replaces day.
Intonation. We pay for travel! In all languages, the most important means of expressing relational meanings is intonation. It holds together all linguistic means and gives them a single communicative focus: question, exclamation, motivation, etc. In Chinese, intonation is one of the main grammatical means of expressing grammatical meanings.
Syntax. The grammatical expression in a word can also be expressed using other words with which the word is associated in a sentence. The tram went to the depot . – The tram left the depot (the meanings of the accusative case of the indeclinable word depo in the first sentence and the genitive case in the second are created in both cases by different connections of this word with other words).
Mixed method(synthetic and analytical). TO rivers e(the meaning of the dative case is expressed by a preposition and a case form.
Agglutination (Latin agglutinare “to stick”). Agglutination is observed in most languages of Asia, Africa and Oceania. Its essence lies in the opposite of the qualities of fusion, i.e. the affixes in these languages are unambiguous, there is no phonemic interaction between the affixes and the root, and, finally, the roots are independent words. A.A. Reformatsky presented the process of agglutination very figuratively: a word constructed on the principle of agglutination is like a long train, where the root is a locomotive, and the chain of affixes are cars, the “gaps” between which are always clearly visible. For example, in the Kazakh language the morpheme at– root meaning “horse”, ha- expresses only the meaning of the dative case, lar– plural meaning only. To say “horses”, you need to put all these forms in a simple sequence: atlarga. Always like this.
An interesting way of morphemic expression of grammatical meanings is incorporation , characteristic of the languages of the American Indians and Paleo-Asian languages (Latin incorporatio - inclusion in one’s composition). A feature of incorporation is the agglutination of roots into a single whole, formalized by function words or affixation. An incorporated unit is a word, a phrase, and a sentence. For example, in Chukotka: na-kora-pelya-myk means: our comrades left us the deer; you-may-ny-kopra-ntyvat-y-rkyn: I’m installing a large network.
Literature
Durnovo N.N.. Selected works on the history of the Russian language. – M.: Languages of Slavic culture, 2000.
Zaliznyak A.A.. Russian nominal inflection. – M.: Languages of Slavic culture, 2002.
Kamchatnov A.M.. Introduction to linguistics: Textbook. – 3rd ed. - M.: Flinta: Science, 2001.
Kochergina V.A.. Introduction to linguistics: Textbook for universities. - M.: Gaudeamus: Academic Project, 2004.
Maslov Yu.S. Introduction to linguistics: A textbook for students of philological and linguistic faculties of higher educational institutions. – 4th ed., erased. - SPb., M.: Philological Faculty of St. Petersburg State University: Academy, 2005.
Reformatsky A.A. Introduction to linguistics. - M., 2003.
Sugar L.V.. How our language works. - M., 1978.
Selishchev A.M. Works on the Russian language. T.1. – M.: Languages of Slavic culture, 2003.
Shmelev. D.N. Selected works on the Russian language. – M.: Languages of Slavic culture, 2002.
Jacobson R.O. Selected works. - M., 1985.
Parts of speech.
Grammatical meaning is an abstract meaning that, determined by the belonging of a word to a certain class of words, manifests itself in the system of forms of a given word.
Lexical meanings in all languages are expressed by root morphemes. Grammatical meanings (GM) in languages can be expressed in different ways. For all languages, grammatical methods are reduced to two types: synthetic and analytical.
Synthetic methods are called in those cases when the means of expressing GL are located inside the word and are combined with lexical ones.
Analytical methods are called in cases where the means of expressing the GL are outside the word, that is, separated from the lexical meaning.
Synthetic modes of expression
Grammatical meaning
1. Affixation– expression of civil rights using a prefix, suffix, postfix or inflection, that is, affixes. This method is widespread in Indo-European, Semitic and Turkic languages.
book – books (singular – plural)
decide – decide (non-owl. species – owl. species)
2. Internal inflection– alternation of sounds within a root to express grammatical differences. The method is common in modern Germanic, Indo-Iranian languages and Russian.
(English) foot - feet (leg - legs)
sing - sang (sings - sang)
(Russian) to pick – to pick (nesov.vid – sov.vid)
collect – collect (non-sov.view – owl.view)
However, not every change in the sound composition of morphemes can be recognized as alternation. The grammatical method is that alternation that leads to a change in grammatical meaning.
Internal inflection often appears in a word in conjunction with an affixation: ask - ask (non-sov.view - sov.view); (English) child – children (child – children).
3. Accent - this is the expression of grammatical meaning due to the movement of stress in a word. Stress is a grammatical method only if it is mobile and unfixed (for example, in Russian).
cut – cut out (unsov.view – owl.view)
hands – hands (singular, genitive case – plural, nominative case)
Stress as a grammatical method can be combined with affixation:
house – houses (singular – plural)
scream – shout (non-sov.view – owl.view)
4. Repeat (reduplication) - this is a partial or complete doubling of a stem or a whole word without changing its sound composition or with its partial change to express the grammatical meaning. In Russian, repetitions sometimes appear to express the duration of an action: you work, you work, you walk, you walk. Repeating adjectives is a way of expressing superlatives: snow is white-white. The repetition may be accompanied by a prefix: the house is big, very big. Repetitions are widely present in Indonesian, Vietnamese, Chinese and Japanese.
5. Suppletivism is the formation of grammatical forms of the same word from different roots or from different stems:
take – take (non-sov.view – owl.view)
person – people (singular – plural)
(English) good – better (good – best)
Supplementism is widely represented in Indo-European languages. In Russian, suppletivism is used in the formation of aspectual pairs of verbs along with affixation.
6. Incorporation (word formation) - this is a combination of roots located in a certain way to express grammatical meaning. Compounding is very developed in English, German, Indian, Iranian, Chinese, Vietnamese, and Japanese. For example, in Chinese, the phrase “hao zhen” means “a kind person.” The word “hao,” being in a postposition in relation to the main word, takes on a different meaning: “xiu hao” - “to do good.”
Analytical modes of expression
Grammatical meanings
1. Function words. They convey the relationships between significant words and express their grammatical meanings. Function words include articles, prepositions, postpositions, auxiliary verbs, words of degree, particles.
· Article – a function word whose grammatical functions are different. The article is not found in all languages. First of all, the article acts as an indicator of a noun. Attaching an article to unchangeable words and phrases turns them into nouns. This is observed in Germanic and Romance languages.
In some languages, such as German and French, the article is a way of expressing the categories of gender and number. In German, the article is a way of expressing relationships between words in a sentence, that is, it has the function of expressing the category of case.
· Prepositions and postpositions have the same grammatical functions: they express the relationships between words in a speech chain, clarifying the meaning of cases. A preposition is a function word that comes in position before a significant word. A postposition is a function word that comes in a position after a significant word.
In the ancient Indo-Iranian languages, prepositions and postpositions were not differentiated. Performing certain grammatical functions, they could stand in relation to a noun in both preposition and postposition. Later, a system of postpositions was formed in Indian languages. Modern Persian has a developed system of prepositions and one postposition. The system of prepositions is widely developed in English, French, German, and Indonesian; to a lesser extent - in Russian.
· Auxiliary verbs – These are function words that differ from other function words by being divided into morphemes. With the help of auxiliary verbs, complex (analytical) verb forms are formed in languages. In such forms, the main verb is the bearer of lexical meaning. It is used in an unchanged form (for example, an infinitive), and the totality of grammatical meanings (person, number, tense) is expressed by the forms of auxiliary verbs:
I will write
You you will write
He will write
The system of auxiliary verbs is widely developed in English, French, German, as well as in Russian, Iranian, Japanese, Chinese, and Hindi.
· Words of degree. They form analytical forms of degrees of comparison of qualitative adjectives and adverbs. Degree words are present in languages of various families: Indo-European, Tibetan and Polynesian languages. By origin, these are adverbs of degree (very, more) or pronominal formations (most, all).
· Functional words include particles . In grammar, they can express various modal meanings (target setting of the utterance): for example, convention (studied would) or motivation ( let honors).
2. Intonation. Intonation as a grammatical device relates not to a word, but to a phrase and is thus grammatically related to the sentence and its structure.
· First of all, intonation can create a modal form of a sentence: with the same order of the same words in many languages, it is possible to distinguish interrogative sentences from affirmative ones by intonation ( He came. - He came?), sentences expressing doubt, from sentences expressing surprise ( He came... - He... came?). These shades are expressed by gradation of pitch, intensity and tempo.
· The placement and gradation of pauses within a sentence can show the grouping of sentence members: I couldn’t work for a long time And I couldn’t work for a long time.
· Pausing can differentiate between a simple and a complex sentence: I see a face with wrinkles And I see: the face is covered in wrinkles.
· Introductory words and expressions are distinguished by faster tempo and a brittle normal intonation wave, which is how they differ from sentence members: He might be here - He might be here.
However, not every language can easily use intonation as a grammatical device. So, for example, French intonation is very indifferent to the expression of grammar, so in French one can ask and answer with the same intonation wave.
3. Word order. The role of word order in a sentence is largely related to the use of the grammatical method of affixation in the language. The greater the role of affixation in a language, the less role word order plays. In a sentence I am reading a book Any rearrangement of words is possible without changing their grammatical meaning. Changing the order of words plays only a stylistic or logical role. This is due to the presence of affixes. In a sentence The anchor touches the chain the noun is perceived as a subject or an object depending on its position before or after the predicate; The subject comes first, the object comes last. Thus, Russian has a relatively free word order.
In a number of other languages, word order is fixed. For example, in English, French, German. Word order plays a big role in the Indonesian language. For example, the definition always follows the word being defined: guru kita (our teacher). When the word order is changed, the meaning of the statement changes: kita guru (we are teachers). Word order plays an important role in Chinese and Vietnamese.
Parts of speech
Parts of speech- these are the main lexical and grammatical classes of words into which the words of the language are distributed. The grammatical description of any language begins with clarification of the question of parts of speech. For the first time, Greek scientists established a harmonious diagram of parts of speech in relation to their language. With a slight modification, this scheme was repeated by the Romans in relation to the Latin language. Thanks to the role of the Latin language in the culture of the Middle Ages, this ancient scheme began to be used to describe the grammar of European languages, which has survived to this day. Scientists try to squeeze the grammatical categories of different languages into a pre-developed ancient scheme, regardless of the real differences that exist in different languages. Individual parts of speech are determined based on lexical rather than grammatical meaning: names of objects refer to nouns, names of actions refer to verbs, etc. On the same basis, words such as first second Third, fall into numerals. However, the question of parts of speech is much more complex. In different languages, parts of speech relate to each other differently, and they should be defined grammatically, i.e. abstracting from the particular and the concrete. Thus, the usual scheme of parts of speech in Russian and other European languages is completely unsuitable for many languages of Asia and Africa. For example, in Chinese, what we define in Indo-European languages as adjectives and verbs are combined under the broader category predicative. In Russian, adjectives are combined with nouns as names as opposed to verbs. The very approach to determining parts of speech in the Chinese language differs from the corresponding approach in the Russian language, since words in the Chinese language, as a rule, do not have external, morphological features, which are rich in words in the Russian language. In order to determine which part of speech a particular word belongs to in Chinese, you should be guided by two signs:
What part of the sentence does this word serve as?
· with which categories of words this word can or cannot be combined.
Words as building material, being at the disposal of grammar, first of all receive the meaning of one or another part of speech, which affects not only their syntactic use and the ability or inability to make certain combinations, but also their morphological properties. Therefore, for example, verbs in the Russian language are words that express, regardless of their lexical meaning, any actions or states. The noun has a completely different characteristic: its general grammatical meaning is “objectivity”. But this does not mean that nouns are only names of things or objects. On the contrary, overcoming all the diversity of things, beings, phenomena, a noun is able to represent in grammar any action and quality as “objectivity”.
Thus, parts of speech are grammatical categories (and not lexical or lexico-grammatical), the composition and arrangement of which are special in each language, and they are determined by a set of morphological and syntactic differences and possibilities, and not by their lexical properties.
Being the central link in the system of morphological categories, parts of speech themselves represent a complex, ordered system. This system was studied in the most detail in the Russian language by academician V.V. Vinogradov, who identified four types of words:
independent parts of speech
· function words
modal words
· interjections
Independent parts of speech serve to designate objects, features, processes, states, etc. that exist in objective reality. In modern Russian, seven independent parts of speech are contrasted: noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb, state category, adverb.
Noun
A noun is a part of speech that designates an object (substance) and expresses this meaning in the inflectional categories of number and case and in the non-inflectional category of gender.
Nouns name objects in the broad sense of the word: these are things (table, wall, trousers, book), persons (person, child, youth), substances (cereals, water, copper), living beings and organisms (dog, bacteria, snake , virus, fish), facts, events, phenomena (fire, performance, fear, vacation, thunderstorm). Nouns can also denote qualities, properties, actions, procedurally represented states (kindness, stupidity, blueness, running, decision, hustle).
Based on semantic characteristics, nouns are divided into lexical-grammatical categories . First of all, common and proper nouns are distinguished. Names common nouns serve as generalized names for homogeneous objects (furniture, computer, mountain). Names own serve as the names of individual objects isolated from a number of homogeneous ones (Ural, Tatyana, Mars, Volga). The boundary between proper names and common nouns is unstable and fluid. Common nouns easily become proper names, nicknames and nicknames (the dog Sharik, the city of Orel).
There are four types of common nouns: concrete, abstract, real and collective.
Specific nouns are words that name things, persons, facts and phenomena of reality. They can be presented separately and counted: pencil, engineer, duel. Varieties of concrete nouns include:
· personal (student, father, sister);
· objects (book, carpet, stone);
single (pearl, fluff, snowflake);
· event-related (hurricane, session, revolution).
Most concrete nouns have singular and plural forms.
Distracted(abstract) nouns are words that name abstract concepts, properties, qualities, actions and states: glory, laughter, good, proximity, travel, swimming. Most of the abstract nouns are words motivated by adjectives and verbs (curvature, cowardice, massage, competition). A minority of abstract nouns are unmotivated words: trouble, mind, fear, comfort, sadness. Abstract nouns usually do not have a plural form.
Nouns real substances are called:
· food products (flour, sugar, fat);
· materials (gypsum, cement);
· types of fabrics (velvet, satin);
· fossil materials, metals (iron, coal, tin);
· chemical elements (uranium, aspirin);
· agricultural crops (oats, potatoes, wheat).
The meaning of materiality in such nouns is expressed only lexically. Real nouns are usually used either only in the singular or only in the plural: honey, tea; perfume, cream. If a material noun, usually used in the singular, takes the plural form, it changes its lexical meaning: cereal – whole or crushed grain; cereals – different types of cereals.
Collective nouns are words that name a collection of homogeneous objects. The meaning of collectiveness in such nouns is usually expressed using special suffixes: -stv (students), -j (beast), -ot (poor). With a broad understanding of collectiveness, similar nouns can also include words that name a collection of objects: tops, small fry, trash, furniture. Such words express collectiveness lexically, but not word-formatively. A distinctive feature of all collective nouns is that they do not form plural forms.
Grammatical meanings are expressed using various means (grammatical indicators): 1) endings; 2) formative suffixes and prefixes; 3) accents; 4) alternation of sounds; 5) prepositions; 6) intonation; 7) auxiliary words.
Using the ending, the following is expressed: a) the meaning of gender, number and case of nouns, adjectives, participles, pronouns: blue sky, blue sky; flying birds, flying birds, flying birds; our-a school-a, our-u ikhkol-u, b) the meaning of the case of numerals: dv-a, dv-uh, dv-um, dv-umya; five-0, five-and, five-yu; c) the meaning of person, number and gender of the verb: sizh-u, sid-ish, sid-yat; sat-0\ sat-a, sat-and would.
One ending can express: a) only one grammatical meaning: tr-i, tr-ex, tr-em\ seb-ya, sob-oh (case meaning); read-i, wrote-i (number meaning); b) two grammatical meanings: read-0, read-a (meanings of gender and number); ink-a, ink-ami, (meaning of number, case); c) three grammatical meanings: red fox, high house-0 (meanings of gender, number and case).
The following are formed by suffixation: a) the past tense form of the verb: thought-l, saw-l, plow-l; b) forms of species: find out - recognize, write down - record (non-sov. view); c) comparative and superlative forms of adjectives: white - white-ee, rare - rare-aysh-ii.
In some categories of nouns, the suffix, together with the ending, expresses the meaning of the plural: husband - husband-j-a, son-in-law - son-in-law-j-a, brother - brother-j-a.
In nouns denoting children and young animals, the singular meaning, except for the ending, is conveyed using the suffix -onok (-yonok), and the plural - using the suffix -at-(yat-), for example: doshkol-enok-doshkol- yat-a, bunny-onok i- bunny-at-a. Here also: honey mushroom - honey mushrooms, butterdish - boletus.
The following forms of voice are formed in a postfixed way: wash - wash-sya, roll - roll-sya.
By prefixation, the following are formed: a) superlative forms of adjectives: best - the best, highest - the highest; b) perfect forms of verbs: draw - draw (table), build - no-build (house).
Stress as a grammatical device usually appears together with affixes. Wed: create - create, prove - prove. On its own (without other means), stress rarely expresses grammatical meanings. Using stress, they distinguish, for example: a) singular forms. Part gen. pad. and many more h. them. pad. nouns: del-a (no) and del-y (go well); windows-a (no) and windows-a (facing the street); b) forms of types: pour - pour, cut - cut.
The alternation of sounds, like stress, is usually only an additional means of distinguishing grammatical meanings. It accompanies the affixation, for example: osvet-i-t - illuminate-a-t (t-sh), cool-i-t - cool-a-t (d-zh), collect - collect (0-i), send - send (0s).
Prepositions are widely used to express case meanings of nouns, numerals and pronouns. At the same time, they usually appear together with endings (materially expressed and zero): at house-a, to house-u, at house-0, at house-g, at house-e; from tr-ex, to tr-elg, for whom, to whom, with whom, about whom.
Prepositions express the case meanings of unchangeable nouns independently (without endings): had lunch in a cafe (cf. in the dining room), left the cafe (cf. from the dining room), stood at the cafe (cf. at the store). However, in such cases, not only the preposition, but also the control word, the entire model of the phrase, is involved in the expression of case meanings. This is especially clear in cases where one or another preposition is used with several cases. Wed. constructions with the preposition in in the meaning of direction (go to a cafe, enter a depot, go down to the metro - vin. p.) and place (sit in a cafe, work in a depot, meet in the metro - prev. pad.). Wed. also combinations with other prepositions: put under a coat (vin. pad.) - put on under a coat (tv. pad.), sit at the piano (vin. pad.) - sit at the piano (tv. pad.).
With the help of control, the case meaning of nouns in sentences is expressed: D is pleased with (what?) the coat (tv. pad.). There is no cafe on our street (native pad.).
In morphology, grammatical meanings are rarely expressed using intonation. Intonation plays an active role in conveying various shades of meaning of the imperative mood. Wed: sit, don’t move, don’t fall. Get up! Sit down! Get up! Be silent! Read. The main area of application of intonation for expressing grammatical meanings is syntax.
Auxiliary words, i.e. those that do not have their own lexical meaning, serve the grammatical needs of full-meaning words. With the help of formative particles, forms of the imperative mood are formed: Let the storm strike stronger! (Bitter). Long live labor! - and the subjunctive mood: I would rest, I would sleep; using auxiliary verbs of the future complex form: I will try, you will read; using adverbs and adjectives of the comparative and superlative forms
degrees: more pure, less pure; the most beautiful", the least
suitable
More on the topic § 38. Means of expressing the grammatical meanings of a word:
- 6.3. Basic means and methods of expressing grammatical meanings
- § 62. Ways and means of expressing grammatical meanings of number
- 7. The word as the main nominative unit of language. Signs of a word. Grammatical and lexical meaning of the word. Connotation.
The term “grammar” (from ancient Greek. grammar
techne- letters "written art" - from gramma"letter") is ambiguous: it denotes both the science - a branch of linguistics, and the object of this science - the grammatical structure that objectively exists in each language. The latter is understood either in a broad sense - as a set of laws for the functioning of language units at all levels of its structure, or (more often) in a narrower sense - as a set of rules for constructing: 1) lexical units, primarily words (and their forms) from morphemes, and 2) coherent statements and their parts - from lexical units selected in the process of speech each time according to the thought expressed. The first rules are dealt with by morphology, the second by syntax.
All these construction rules are directly or indirectly correlated with some features of the transmitted content. Grammatical rules are included in the general system of correspondence between the content plan and the expression plan of language, that is, between the meaning (meaning) and the features of the external appearance of the formed language units. Therefore, the rules of construction are at the same time the rules for understanding the expressed meanings, the rules for the transition from the plan of expression of the statement perceived by the addressee to the plan of content encoded in it.
Those content elements that stand behind grammatical rules are called grammatical meanings. Grammatical meanings are represented, of course, not only in individual words and their forms, but even more so in meaningful combinations of significant words and in the whole sentence. If in a word grammatical meanings are expressed by the peculiarities of the construction of the word, its individual parts (for example, endings), alternations, stress, etc., then in a phrase and sentence these grammatical means are joined by others - the order of words, intonation, function words, serving the entire sentence or phrase, etc. The grammatical means (or methods) used in languages are formal indicators corresponding grammatical meanings.
The uniqueness of grammatical meanings lies in the fact that, unlike lexical meanings, they are not directly named in our speech, but are expressed incidentally, as if in passing. They accompany lexical meanings, which alone are directly named (named) in the statement. It is not difficult, however, to be convinced that in creating the holistic meaning of a statement, as well as the meaning of all its meaningful parts, grammatical meanings play a very significant role, no less than the lexical meanings of the words used in the statement. Compare, for example, combinations wife's gift And gift for wife(the words are the same, but one ending has been changed and a completely different meaning is obtained); or get a stick! And get it with a stick!; or - with a more subtle difference - drank water And drank water; two hundred people And two hundred people(in the last example the word forms are the same, but changing the order of their arrangement creates an additional meaning of approximateness); Wed, finally, the same thing word forward, used as a one-word sentence with imperative intonation (Forward!) and with a questioning intonation (Forward?). It is grammatical meanings that organize a statement and make it an adequate expression of thought.
In order to better understand what grammatical meaning is and what its role in the language is, consider a short Russian sentence consisting of only two words Petrov is a student. The words that make up this sentence express two lexical meanings: 1) proper name Petrov expresses an idea of a specific person bearing such a surname, 2) a common noun student expresses the concept of a class of persons studying at universities. But the meaning of the sentence Petrov - student cannot be reduced to a simple sum of these two values. The meaning of this sentence lies in the deliberate (special, center of attention) communication of the fact that the person “Petrov” is a member of the class (set) “students”. We can distinguish here the following grammatical meanings:
1) The meaning of a statement of some fact (cf. a question about a fact with a different, interrogative, intonation: Is Petrov a student?).
2) The meaning of deliberate identification (in a certain respect) of two conceivable units (cf. incidental mention of the identity of the same units in Student Petrov did not appear for the exam).
3) The meaning of the fact’s relevance to the present moment (or period) of time, which is expressed here by the absence of a verb (cf.: Petrov was a student, Petrov will be a student).
4) The meaning of the unconditional reality of a fact, also expressed by the absence of a verb (cf.: Petrov would have been a student if he had not failed the entrance exams or If Petrov had been a student, he would have gotten a place in the dormitory).
5) The meaning of the singular, expressed in both one and the other word by the absence of an ending (cf. Petrov-students).
6) Further, both nouns belong to the masculine grammatical gender, which in this case, since these are nouns denoting persons, indicates the male gender (cf. Petrova - student).
We see that grammatical meanings are revealed in oppositions. Grammatical contrasts (oppositions) form systems called grammatical categories. A grammatical category can be defined as a series of homogeneous grammatical meanings opposed to each other, systematically expressed by certain formal indicators. Grammatical categories are extremely diverse. So, there are two-term categories, for example, in modern Russian number(singular: plural), verb aspect (perfect: imperfect); three-membered, for example, face (first: second: third); polynomial, for example, in Russian and many other languages - case.
Grammar is traditionally divided into two large departments morphology, or word grammar, and syntax, or the grammar of connected speech (and in general units larger than a single word). The division into morphology and syntax is to a certain extent arbitrary, since the grammatical meanings behind changes in word forms are fully revealed only when taking into account the syntactic functions of these forms, that is, their functions within the framework of a phrase and sentence. The “grammar of words” includes an area associated with the formation of words as lexical units of a language, and an area associated with the formation of grammatical forms of words . The first area is called the science of word formation (sometimes derivatology), the second - morphology itself.
Grammatical meanings are expressed by certain linguistic means. For example: the meaning of the 1st person singular in a verb writing -y, and the general meaning of the instrumental case in the word forest expressed using the ending -ohm. This expression of grammatical meanings by external linguistic means is called grammatical form.
Consequently, forms of a word are varieties of the same word that differ from each other in grammatical meanings. Outside of the grammatical form there is not a single GC.
Before we talk about ways of expressing grammatical meanings in Russian, we need to talk about means of expressing grammatical values.
Grammatical meanings are expressed using various means (grammatical indicators):
1) endings; 2) formative suffixes and prefixes; 3) accents; 4) alternation of sounds; 5) prepositions; 6) intonation; 7) auxiliary words.
By using graduation The meanings of gender, number and case of nouns are expressed: tree -u, -om, -e; tree; table-; board; arable land- arable land; eye - eyes; adjectives: green tree, green tree, green tree; Beautiful, -aya, -oe, -s; participles: flying bird, flying bird, flying bird, flying birds; pronouns: our country, our country; meaning of the case of numerals: two, two, two, two.
The meaning of person, number and gender of the verb: love, love, love, loved, loved, would love.
By using word-forming and formative affixes The past tense form of the verb is formed: drew; imperfect form of verbs: sketch- sris-ovy-vat, find out- uzn-ava-t; perfect form of verbs: build- build, read- pro-read; comparative and superlative forms of adjectives: red - red, important- important. Forms of pledge: learn- learn, cut - cut your hair. Superlative forms of adjectives - the most important.
WITH using stress species forms are formed: pour - pour, cut- cut; There are nouns of the nominative plural case and nouns of the genitive singular case. numbers: (none) stamps and (what?) brands (plural); (No) horses and (plural) horses.
Grammatical meanings also differ with using alternation sounds. They distinguish the type of verb: equip - equip, cool- cool.
Prepositions are used to express the grammatical meaning of case in nouns, numerals and pronouns: at the table, above the table, about the table, across the table.
Intonation helps to distinguish the imperative mood of a verb (imperative) from the infinitive: Get up! Be silent!
Auxiliary words form the forms of the imperative mood: May there always be sunshine! Forms of the future complex - I will look for; subjunctive mood - I would take a look.
Formative affixes can express several grammatical meanings at once, for example: in a verb are coming ending -ut expresses both person, number, and mood.
It should be especially noted that formal grammatical means are of two types: paradigmatic and syntagmatic. The morphological (inflectional) paradigm of a word is the totality of all grammatical varieties (word forms) of a given word. The ability of a word to form a paradigm is called inflection. Some words do not have inflection: they always appear in the same form (such as, for example, function words y, but, only). Such words have a zero paradigm. But most words in the Russian language do not have a zero paradigm. Thus, the morphological inflectional paradigm of the word school formed by word forms: school, schools, school, school, school, (about) school; schools, schools, schools, schools,(O) schools.
Inflectional affixes of all the above types and auxiliary words belong to the paradigmatic means of expressing the grammatical meaning of a word (since they participate in the formation of the inflectional paradigm of the word). In addition to the main paradigmatic means, some words also contain additional ones, often accompanying the main means of expressing grammatical meaning:
1) alternation (or alternation) of phonemes in the base ( I'm running-run; dream- sleep(“fluent” vowel);
2) extension, truncation or alternation of stem-forming suffixes in the stem [Brother- brothers (brother-]-a); peasant- peasants; give- I give; dance- dancing (dance-u]-u)];
3) suppletivism - alternation of roots (I'm going-walked; person people);
4) changing the place of stress (tree-trees; was-were).
The grammatical meanings of words are expressed not only paradigmatically, but also syntagmatically, those. in a phrase. For example, in phrases new book, new books the meaning of a number is expressed not only by the endings of the noun, but also by the endings of the adjective that agrees with it. Here, paradigmatic and syntagmatic means of expressing grammatical meanings complement one another. And in cases where there are no paradigmatic means of expressing grammatical meaning, the only formal means of detecting this meaning becomes the grammatical syntagmatics (combinability) of the word. For example, if a noun does not have externally distinct endings, i.e. it is “indeclinable” (such as coat, thermal power plant), the grammatical meaning of a number can only be expressed “beyond” the noun itself, in consistent forms of the adjective (new/new coats; powerful/powerful thermal power plants). These examples show that morphology, as a grammatical study of a word that actually functions in speech, must take into account all means of expressing the grammatical meanings of a word, both paradigmatic and syntagmatic.