The textbook is intended for students of non-chemical specialties of higher educational institutions. It can serve as a guide for individuals independently studying the basics of chemistry, and for students of chemical technical schools and senior high schools.
In the new edition, the material in the manual has been significantly revised and expanded. Added information about organoelement chemistry and chemistry of macromolecular compounds. For the first time, a section “Applied Chemistry” has been included, containing brief information on individual areas for specialists in various fields.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE.
The theory of atomic structure and the theory of the nature of chemical bonds make it possible to understand and describe the relationships of atoms and molecules in the composition of a substance. These theories, together with the periodic system of D.I. Mendeleev form the basis of modern chemistry.
A brief history of the development of ideas about the structure of the atom.
The concept of “atom” arose and took shape as a system of ideas about the structure of the surrounding world in the views of ancient Greek philosophers in 500-200 years. BC e. Leucippus argued that the world consists of tiny particles and emptiness. Democritus called these particles atoms (indivisible) and believed that they eternally exist and are capable of moving. The sizes of atoms were assumed to be so small that they could not be measured. Shape, the external difference of atoms, was believed to impart certain properties to bodies. For example, water atoms are smooth, they are capable of rolling, and therefore fluidity is characteristic of the liquid; Iron atoms have teeth that engage each other, giving iron the properties of a solid. The ability of atoms to independently interact with each other was suggested by Epicurus.
Then, for almost 20 centuries, the doctrine of the atomic structure of the surrounding world did not develop and was consigned to oblivion.
At the beginning of the 19th century. Doc. Dalton, relying on the laws of chemistry discovered by that time - multiple ratios, equivalents, constancy of composition, revived the atomic theory. The main difference between the new provisions of the theory and the ideas of ancient Greek philosophers was that they were based on strict experimental data on the structure of matter. Dalton established that atoms of the same chemical element have the same properties, and different atoms correspond to different elements. The most important characteristic of the atom was introduced - atomic mass, the relative values of which were established for a number of elements. However, the atom was still considered an indivisible particle.
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Preface to the twenty-fourth edition
In this publication, the values of relative atomic masses are given in accordance with the data of the Atomic Weights Commission and IUPAC for 1983. Information on the production of chemical products in the USSR is given, as a rule, as of January 1, 1985.
In order to bring the designations of physical quantities closer to those recommended by the Commission on Electrochemistry and IUPAC, the electrode potential, as is already customary in some domestic manuals on electrochemistry, is designated by the letter ℰ instead of the previously used letter φ; Accordingly, the standard electrode potential is designated as ℰ˚. In this case, the designations of the electromotive force and its standard value remain the same (E and E˚).
Typos noted in the previous edition of the book have also been corrected.
Preface to the twenty-third edition
In continuation of the partial revision of N. L. Glinka’s book “General Chemistry”, associated with the transition to SI units of physical quantities, a number of concepts and definitions are clarified in this edition; in particular, §§ 9 and 10 are more strictly stated, as well as § 74, devoted to methods of expressing the composition of solutions. For the convenience of readers, the appendix provides brief information about SI units, tables for converting some non-systemic units, as well as the values of the most important physical constants. The nomenclature of inorganic compounds (§ 15) is considered taking into account the recommendations of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). The material in §§ 72 and 78 is supplemented with a brief description of some promising methods of water desalination.
From the Preface to the Sixteenth Edition
Professor N. L. Glinka’s textbook “General Chemistry” went through twelve editions during the author’s lifetime and three after his death. This textbook was used by many generations of students to become acquainted with chemistry, schoolchildren used it for in-depth study of chemistry, and specialists in non-chemical professions often resorted to it. All editions of this book have always enjoyed great popularity. This is not surprising, since the textbook had important advantages. The author was able to present educational material clearly, consistently and logically. In addition, the book was a kind of short encyclopedia of general chemistry - it reflected many questions of chemistry, including those that went beyond the scope of the curriculum of non-chemical universities.
However, by now there is a need for a significant revision of N. L. Glinka’s textbook. The need for this is connected, first of all, with the fact that over the past decades the chemical industry of the USSR has developed rapidly, as a result of which the penetration of chemistry into other sectors of the national economy has sharply increased and its role in the training of specialists in many professions has increased. This period of time was also characterized by a colossal increase in the volume of factual chemistry material, which forces us to take a new approach to its selection for the textbook. Finally, the process of transforming chemistry from an empirical science into a field of natural science based on strict scientific foundations, primarily on modern ideas about the structure of matter and on the ideas of thermodynamics, continued intensively. All these circumstances have led to a significant change in the school chemistry curriculum, which now provides for the study of a number of issues that were previously considered only in higher education.
This edition has expanded the sections devoted to the structure of matter and the study of solutions; the basic ideas of chemical thermodynamics and methods of simple chemical-thermodynamic calculations are briefly reviewed; Issues related to redox processes and the properties of metals and alloys are presented in more detail than in previous editions. At the same time, the general plan for constructing the textbook remains largely the same.
Chapters III, IV (Candidate of Chemical Sciences V.A. Rabinovich), V (Candidate of Chemical Sciences P.N. Sokolov), VI, IX (V.A. Rabinovich and P.N.) were written anew or almost anew. Sokolov), X (Doctor of Chemical Sciences A.V. Markovich), XVIII (Doctor of Chemical Sciences A.I. Stetsenko). Chapters I, VII, XI, XVII, XXII revised and supplemented by P. N. Sokolov, II - by V. A. Rabinovich, VIII, XIII, XIV, XIX, XX, XXI - by V. A. Rabinovich and P. N. Sokolov , XII - Ph.D. chem. Sciences K.V. Kotegov, section “Organic compounds” (XV) - Ph.D. chem. Sciences Z. Ya Khavin.
Introduction
1. Matter and its movement.
Chemistry is one of the natural sciences that studies the world around us with all the richness of its forms and the diversity of phenomena occurring in it.
All nature, the whole world objectively exists outside and independently of human consciousness. The world is material; everything that exists is different types of moving matter, which is always in a state of continuous movement, change, development. Movement, as a constant change, is inherent in matter as a whole and in each of its smallest particles.
The forms of motion of matter are varied. Heating and cooling of bodies, emission of light, electric current, chemical transformations, life processes - all these are various forms of movement of matter. Some forms of matter motion can transform into others. Thus, mechanical movement turns into thermal, thermal into chemical, chemical into electrical, etc. These transitions indicate the unity and continuous connection of qualitatively different forms of movement.
With all the various transitions from one form of motion to another, the basic law of nature is strictly observed - the law of the eternity of matter and its motion. This law applies to all types of matter and all forms of its motion; no kind of matter and no form of motion can be obtained from nothing and turned into nothing. This position has been confirmed by all the centuries-old experience of science.
Certain forms of matter motion are studied by various sciences: physics, chemistry, biology and others. The general laws of the development of nature are considered by materialist dialectics.
2. Substances and their changes.
Chemistry subject. Each individual type of matter that, under given conditions, has certain physical properties, for example water, iron, sulfur, lime, oxygen, is called in chemistry substance. Thus, sulfur is brittle crystals of light yellow color, insoluble in water; The density of sulfur is 2.07 g/cm3, it melts at 112.8˚C. All these are characteristic physical properties of sulfur.
To establish the properties of a substance, it is necessary to have it as pure as possible. Sometimes even a very small impurity content can lead to a strong change in some properties of the substance. For example, the content of only hundredths of a percent of iron or copper in zinc accelerates its interaction with hydrochloric acid hundreds of times (see page 539).
Substances in their pure form are not found in nature. Natural substances are mixtures, sometimes consisting of a very large number of different substances. Thus, natural water always contains dissolved salts and gases. When one of the substances is contained in a mixture in a predominant amount, then usually the entire mixture bears its name.
Substances produced by the chemical industry - chemical products- also contain some amount of impurities. To indicate the degree of their purity, there are special designations (qualifications): technical (technical), pure (pure), pure for analysis (analytical grade), chemically pure (chemically pure) and extra pure (pure grade). .). A product classified as “technical” usually contains a significant amount of impurities, less than analytical grade. - even less, x. h. - least of all. With the brand o. h. Only some products are produced. The permissible content of impurities in a chemical product of a particular qualification is established by special state standards (GOSTs).
A pure substance is always homogeneous, but mixtures can be homogeneous or heterogeneous. Mixtures in which particles of these substances cannot be detected either directly or with the help of a microscope due to their negligible size are called homogeneous. Such mixtures are mixtures of gases, many liquids, and some alloys.
Examples of heterogeneous mixtures include various rocks, soil, muddy water, and dusty air. The heterogeneity of the mixture is not always immediately noticeable; in some cases it can only be detected using a microscope. For example, blood at first glance appears to be a homogeneous red liquid, but when viewed through a microscope, it is clear that it consists of a colorless liquid in which red and white bodies float.
Everyday one can observe that substances undergo various changes: a lead bullet fired from a rifle barrel, hitting a stone, heats up so much that the lead melts, turning into a liquid; a steel object becomes rusty in humid air; the wood in the stove burns, leaving only a small pile of ash, the fallen leaves of the trees gradually decay, turning into humus, etc.
Glinka N.L.30th ed., rev. - M.: 2003. - 728 p.
The textbook is intended for students of non-chemical specialties of higher educational institutions. It can serve as a guide for individuals independently studying the basics of chemistry, and for students of chemical technical schools and senior high schools.
In the new edition, the material in the manual has been significantly revised and expanded. Added information about organoelement chemistry and chemistry of macromolecular compounds. For the first time, a section “Applied Chemistry” has been included, containing brief information on individual areas for specialists in various fields.
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4. Law of conservation of mass
5. The main content of atomic-molecular teaching
6. Simple substance and. chemical element
7. Law of constancy of composition. Law of Multiples
8. Law of volumetric relations. Avogadro's law
9. Atomic and molecular masses. Mole
10. Determination of molecular weights of substances in a gaseous state
11. Gas partial pressure
12. Equivalent. Law of equivalents
13. Determination of atomic masses. Valence
14. Chemical symbolism
15. The most important classes of inorganic substances
16. Chemical calculations
Chapter II. Periodic law of D. I. Mendeleev
17. Periodic law of D. I. Mendeleev
19. The meaning of the periodic table
Chapter III. The structure of the atom. Development of the periodic law
20. Radioactivity
21. Nuclear model of the atom
22. Atomic spectra
23. Quantum theory of light 25. Initial concepts of quantum mechanics
26. Wave function
27. Energy state of an electron in an atom
28. Principal quantum number
30. Magnetic and spin quantum numbers
31. Multi-electron atoms
33. Sizes of atoms and ions
35. Structure of atomic nuclei. Isogons
86. Radioactive elements and their decay
37. Artificial radioactivity. Nuclear reactions
Chapter IV. Chemical bonding and molecular structure
38. Theory of chemical structure
39. Covalent bond. Valence bond method
40. Bipolar and polar covalent bond
41. Methods of forming a covalent bond
42. Direction of covalent bond
43. Hybridization of atomic electron orbitals
44. Multi-center communications
45. Molecular orbital method
46. Ionic bond
47. Hydrogen bond
Chapter V. Structure of solids and liquids
48. Inter-molecular interaction
49. Crystalline state of matter
50. Internal structure of crystals
51. Real crystals
52. Amorphous state of matter
53. Liquids
Chapter VI. Basic principles of chemical reactions
54. Energy conversions in chemical reactions
55. Thermochemistry
56. Thermochemical calculations
57. Rate of chemical reaction
58. Dependence of the reaction rate on the concentrations of reacting substances
60. Catalysis
61. Reaction rate in heterogeneous systems
62. Chain reactions
65. Factors that determine the direction of chemical reactions
Chapter VII. Water. Solutions
69. Water in nature
70. Physical properties of water
71. Diagram of the state of water
72. Chemical properties of water
Solutions
73. Characteristics of solutions. Dissolution process
74. Concentration of solutions
75. Hydrates and crystalline hydrates
76. Solubility
77. Supersaturated solutions
78. Osmosis
79. Vapor pressure of solutions
80. Freezing and boiling of solutions
Chapter VIII. Electrolyte solutions
81. Features of solutions of salts, acids and bases
82. Theory of electrolytic dissociation
83. Process of dissociation
84. Degree of dissociation. Electrolyte Power
85. Dissociation constant
86. Strong electrolytes
87. Properties of acids, bases and salts from the point of view of the theory of electrolytic dissociation
88. Ionic-molecular equations
89. Solubility product
90. Dissociation of water. pH value
91. Shift of ionic equilibria
92. Hydrolysis of salts
Chapter I X. Redox reactions. Basics of electrochemistry.
93. Oxidation of elements
96. The most important oxidizing agents and reducing agents
97. Redox duality. Intramolecular oxidation-reduction
98. Chemical sources of electrical energy
99. Electrode potentials
100. Series of metal stresses
101. Electrolysis
102. Laws of electrolysis
103. Electrolysis in industry
104. Electrochemical polarization. Overvoltage
Chapter X. Dispersed systems. Colloids
106. State of matter at the interface
107. Colloids and colloidal solutions
108. Analysis of variance. Optical and molecular-kinetic properties of disperse systems
110. Ion exchange adsorption
111. Chromatography
112. Electrokinetic phenomena
113. Stability and coagulation of dispersed materials; systems
114. Structure formation in disperse systems. Physico-chemical mechanics of solids and dispersed structures
Chapter XI Hydrogen
115. Hydrogen in nature. Hydrogen production
116. Properties and applications of hydrogen
117. Hydrogen peroxide
Chapter XII. Halogens
118. Halogens in nature. Physical properties of halogens
119. Chemical properties of halogens
120. Preparation and use of halogens
121. Compounds of halogens with hydrogen
122. Oxygen-containing halogen compounds
Chapter XIII, Main subgroup of the sixth group
Oxygen
123. Oxygen in nature. Air
124. Production and properties of oxygen
125. Ozsn
126. Sulfur in nature. Obtaining sulfur
127. Properties and uses of sulfur
128. Hydrogen sulfide. Sulfides
129. Sulfur dioxide. Sulfurous acid
130. Sulfur trioxide. Sulfuric acid
131. Preparation and use of sulfuric acid
132. Peroxodisulfuric acid
133. Thiosulfuric acid 134. Sulfur compounds with halogens
135. Selenium. Tellurium
Chapter XIV. Main subgroup of the fifth group
Nitrogen
136. Nitrogen in nature. Production and properties of nitrogen
137. Ammonia. Ammonium salts
138. Fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. Ammonia production
139. Hydrazine. Hydroxnlamine. Hydrogen azide
140. Nitrogen oxides
141. Nitrous acid
142. Nitric acid
143. Industrial production of nitric acid
144. Nitrogen cycle in nature
Phosphorus
145. Phosphorus in nature. Preparation and properties of phosphorus
146. Phosphorus compounds with hydrogen and halogens
147. Oxides and acids of phosphorus
148. Mineral fertilizers
Arsenic, antimony, bismuth
149. Arsenic
150. Antimony
151. Bismuth
Chapter XV. Main subgroup of the fourth group
Carbon
152. Carbon in nature
153. Allotropy of carbon
154. Chemical properties of carbon. Carbides
155. Carbon dioxide. Carbonic acid
156. Carbon monoxide (II
157. Compounds of carbon with sulfur and nitrogen
168. Fuel and its types
159. Gaseous fuel
Organic compounds
160. General characteristics of organic compounds
163. Classification of organic compounds
164. Saturated hydrocarbons
165. Unsaturated (unsaturated) hydrocarbons
166. Limits?! gr cyclic hydrocarbons
167. Aromatic hydrocarbons 168. Halogen derivatives of hydrocarbons
169. Alcohols and phenols
170. Ethers
171. Aldehydes and ketones 173. Esters of carboxylic acids. Fats
174. Carbohydrates
176. Amino acids and proteins
177. Natural and synthetic high molecular weight compounds
178. Silicons in nature. Preparation and properties of silicon
179. Silicon compounds with hydrogen and halogens
180. Silicon dioxide
183. Ceramics
184. Cement
185. Organosilicon compounds
Germanium, tin, lead
186. Germanium
187. Tin
188. Lead
189. Lead battery
Chapter XVI. General properties of metals. Alloys.
190. Physical and chemical properties of metals. Electronic structure of metals, insulators and semiconductors
191. Crystal structure of metals
193. Obtaining high purity metals
194. Alloys
195. Phase diagrams of metal systems
19G. Metal corrosion
Chapter XVII. First group of the periodic table
Alkali metals
197. Alkali metals in nature. Preparation and properties of alkali metals
198. Sodium
199. Potassium
Copper subgroup
200. Copper
201. Silver
202. Gold
Chapter XVIII. Complex connections
203. Basic provisions of coordination theory
205. Spatial structure and isomerism of complex compounds
206. The nature of chemical bonds in complex compounds
207. Stability of complex compounds in solutions
208. Influence of coordination between the ligandon and the central atom. Mutual influence of ligands
Chapter XIX. Second group of the periodic table
Main subgroup of the second group
209. Beryllium
210. Magnesium
211- Kalysh
21-2. Hardness of NATURAL waters and its management
Side subgroup of the second group
214. Zinc
215. Cadmium
216. Mercury
Chapter XX. Third group of the periodic table
Main subgroup of the third group
217. Bor
219. Galin. Indium. Thallium
Actinoids
220. Scandium subgroup
221. Lanthanides
222. Actinides
Chapter XX I. Side subgroups of the fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh groups
223. General characteristics of transition elements
Vanadium subgroup
226. Vanadium
227. Niobium. Tantalum
Chromium subgroup
22Y. Chromium
229. Molybdenum
230. Tungsten
Manganese subgroup
231- Manganese
232. Rhenium
Chapter XXII. Eighth group of the periodic table
Noble gases
233. General characteristics of noble gases
234. Helium
235. Neon. Argon
Side subgroup of the eighth group
Iron family
236. Iron. Being in nature
237. The importance of iron and its alloys in technology. Development of metallurgy in the USSR
238. Physical properties of iron. State diagram of the iron-carbon system
239. Iron and steel production
240. Heat treatment of steel
241. Iron alloys
242. Chemical properties of iron. Iron compounds
243- Cobalt
244 Nickel
Platinum metals
245. General characteristics of platinum metals
246. Platinum
247. Palladium. Iridium
Literature for in-depth study of general and inorganic chemistry
Name index
Subject index
About how to read books in pdf formats, djvu - see section " Programs; archivers; formats pdf, djvu and etc. "
Name: General chemistry. 1985.
The textbook is intended for students of non-chemical specialties of higher educational institutions. It can serve as a manual for people who have independently studied the basics of chemistry, and for students of chemical technical schools and senior high schools.
In this publication, the values of relative atomic masses are given in accordance with the data of the Atomic Weights Commission and IUPAC for 1983. Information on the production of chemical products in the USSR is given, as a rule, as of January 1, 1985.
In order to bring the designations of physical values closer to those recommended by the Commission on Electrochemistry and IUPAC, the electrode potential, as is already customary in some domestic manuals on electrochemistry, is designated by a letter instead of the previously used letter F; Accordingly, the designation for the standard electrode potential is adopted. In this case, the designations of the electromotive force and its standard value remain the same (E and E°).
Typos noted in the previous edition of the book have also been corrected.
Content:
Introduction
1. Matter and its movement
2. Substances and their changes. Chemistry subject
3. The meaning of chemistry.
Chapter I. Atomic-molecular science
4. Law of conservation of mass
5. The main content of atomic-molecular teaching
6. Simple substance and. chemical element
7. Law of constancy of composition. Law of Multiples
8. Law of volumetric relations. Avogadro's law
9. Atomic and molecular masses. Mole
10. Determination of molecular weights of substances in a gaseous state
11. Gas partial pressure
12. Equivalent. Law of equivalents
13. Determination of atomic masses. Valence
14. Chemical symbolism
15. The most important classes of inorganic substances
16. Chemical calculations
Chapter II. Periodic law of D. I. Mendeleev
17. Periodic law of D. I. Mendeleev
19. The meaning of the periodic table
Chapter III. The structure of the atom. Development of the periodic law
20. Radioactivity
21. Nuclear model of the atom
22. Atomic spectra
23. Quantum theory of light
25. Initial concepts of quantum mechanics
26. Wave function
27. Energy state of an electron in an atom
28. Principal quantum number
30. Magnetic and spin quantum numbers
31. Multi-electron atoms
33. Sizes of atoms and ions
35. Structure of atomic nuclei. Isogons
86. Radioactive elements and their decay
37. Artificial radioactivity. Nuclear reactions
Chapter IV. Chemical bonding and molecular structure
38. Theory of chemical structure
39. Covalent bond. Valence bond method
40. Bipolar and polar covalent bond
41. Methods of forming a covalent bond
42. Direction of covalent bond
43. Hybridization of atomic electron orbitals
44. Multi-center communications
45. Molecular orbital method
46. Ionic bond
47. Hydrogen bond
Chapter V Structure of solids and liquids
48. Inter-molecular interaction
49. Crystalline state of matter
50. Internal structure of crystals
51. Real crystals
52. Amorphous state of matter
53. Liquids
Chapter VI. Basic principles of chemical reactions
54. Energy conversions in chemical reactions
55. Thermochemistry
56. Thermochemical calculations
57. Rate of chemical reaction
58. Dependence of the reaction rate on the concentrations of reacting substances
60. Catalysis
61. Reaction rate in heterogeneous systems
62. Chain reactions
65. Factors that determine the direction of chemical reactions
Chapter VII. Water. Solutions
69. Water in nature
70. Physical properties of water
71. Diagram of the state of water
72. Chemical properties of water
Solutions
73. Characteristics of solutions. Dissolution process
74. Concentration of solutions
75. Hydrates and crystalline hydrates
76. Solubility
77. Supersaturated solutions
78. Osmosis
79. Vapor pressure of solutions
80. Freezing and boiling of solutions
Chapter VIII. Electrolyte solutions
81. Features of solutions of salts, acids and bases
82. Theory of electrolytic dissociation
83. Process of dissociation
84. Degree of dissociation. Electrolyte Power
85. Dissociation constant
86. Strong electrolytes
87. Properties of acids, bases and salts from the point of view of the theory of electrolytic dissociation
88. Ionic-molecular equations
89. Solubility product
90. Dissociation of water. pH value
91. Shift of ionic equilibria
92. Hydrolysis of salts
Chapter IX. Redox reactions. Basics of electrochemistry.
93. Oxidation of elements
96. The most important oxidizing agents and reducing agents
97. Redox duality. Intramolecular oxidation-reduction
98. Chemical sources of electrical energy
99. Electrode potentials
100. Series of metal stresses
101. Electrolysis
102. Laws of electrolysis
103. Electrolysis in industry
104. Electrochemical polarization. Overvoltage
Chapter X Dispersed systems. Colloids
106. State of matter at the interface
107. Colloids and colloidal solutions
108. Analysis of variance. Optical and molecular kinetic properties of disperse systems
110. Ion exchange adsorption
111. Chromatography
112. Electrokinetic phenomena
113. Stability and coagulation of dispersed materials; systems
114. Structure formation in disperse systems. Physico-chemical mechanics of solids and dispersed structures
Chapter XI Hydrogen
115. Hydrogen in nature. Hydrogen production
116. Properties and applications of hydrogen
117. Hydrogen peroxide
Chapter XII. Halogens
118. Halogens in nature. Physical properties of halogens
119. Chemical properties of halogens
120. Preparation and use of halogens
121. Compounds of halogens with hydrogen
122. Oxygen-containing halogen compounds
Chapter XIII Main subgroup of the sixth group
Oxygen
123. Oxygen in nature. Air
124. Production and properties of oxygen
125. Ozone
126. Sulfur in nature. Obtaining sulfur
127. Properties and uses of sulfur
128. Hydrogen sulfide. Sulfides
129. Sulfur dioxide. Sulfurous acid
130. Sulfur trioxide. Sulfuric acid
131. Preparation and use of sulfuric acid
132. Peroxodisulfuric acid
133. Thiosulfuric acid
134. Sulfur compounds with halogens
135. Selenium. Tellurium
Chapter XIV. Main subgroup of the fifth group Nitrogen
136. Nitrogen in nature. Production and properties of nitrogen
137. Ammonia. Ammonium salts
138. Fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. Ammonia production
139. Hydrazine. Hydroxylamine. Hydrogen azide
140. Nitrogen oxides
141. Nitrous acid
142. Nitric acid
143. Industrial production of nitric acid
144. Nitrogen cycle in nature Phosphorus
145. Phosphorus in nature. Preparation and properties of phosphorus
146. Phosphorus compounds with hydrogen and halogens
147. Oxides and acids of phosphorus
148. Mineral fertilizers
Arsenic, antimony, bismuth
149. Arsenic
150. Antimony
151. Bismuth
Chapter XV. Main subgroup of the fourth group Carbon
152. Carbon in nature
153. Allotropy of carbon
154. Chemical properties of carbon. Carbides
155. Carbon dioxide. Carbonic acid
156. Carbon monoxide (II
157. Compounds of carbon with sulfur and nitrogen
168. Fuel and its types
159. Gaseous fuel
Organic compounds
160. General characteristics of organic compounds
163. Classification of organic compounds
164. Saturated hydrocarbons
165. Unsaturated (unsaturated) hydrocarbons
166. Limits of cyclic hydrocarbons
167. Aromatic hydrocarbons
168. Halogen derivatives of hydrocarbons
169. Alcohols and phenols
170. Ethers
171. Aldehydes and ketones
173. Esters of carboxylic acids. Fats
174. Carbohydrates
176. Amino acids and proteins
177. Natural and synthetic high molecular weight compounds
178. Silicons in nature. Preparation and properties of silicon
179. Silicon compounds with hydrogen and halogens
180. Silicon dioxide
183. Ceramics
184. Cement
185. Organosilicon compounds
Germanium, tin, lead
186. Germanium
187. Tin
188. Lead
189. Lead battery
Chapter XVI. General properties of metals. Alloys.
190. Physical and chemical properties of metals. Electronic structure of metals, insulators and semiconductors
191. Crystal structure of metals
193. Obtaining high purity metals
194. Alloys
195. Phase diagrams of metal systems
19G. Metal corrosion
Chapter XVII. First group of the periodic table
Alkali metals
197. Alkali metals in nature. Preparation and properties of alkali metals
198. Sodium
199. Potassium
Copper subgroup
200. Copper
201. Silver
202. Gold
Chapter XVIII. Complex connections
203. Basic provisions of coordination theory
205. Spatial structure and isomerism of complex compounds
206. The nature of chemical bonds in complex compounds
207. Stability of complex compounds in solutions
208. The influence of coordination on the properties of ligands and the central atom. Mutual influence of ligands
Chapter XIX. Second group of the periodic table
Main subgroup of the second group
209. Beryllium
210. Magnesium
211- Calcium
21-2. Hardness of natural waters and its elimination
Side subgroup of the second group
214. Zinc
215. Cadmium
216. Mercury
Chapter XX. Third group of the periodic table
Main subgroup of the third group
217. Bor
219. Galin. Indium. Thallium
Actinoids
220. Scandium subgroup
221. Lanthanides
222. Actinides
Chapter XXI. Side subgroups of the fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh groups
223. General characteristics of transition elements
Vanadium subgroup
226. Vanadium
227. Niobium. Tantalum
Chromium subgroup
22Y. Chromium
229. Molybdenum
230. Tungsten
Manganese subgroup
231- Manganese
232. Rhenium
Chapter XXII. Eighth group of the periodic table
Noble gases
233. General characteristics of noble gases
234. Helium
235. Neon. Argon
Side subgroup of the eighth group
Iron family
236. Iron. Being in nature
237. The importance of iron and its alloys in technology. Development of metallurgy in the USSR
238. Physical properties of iron. State diagram of the iron-carbon system
239. Iron and steel production
240. Heat treatment of steel
241. Iron alloys
242. Chemical properties of iron. Iron compounds
243- Cobalt
244 Nickel
Platinum metals
245. General characteristics of platinum metals
246. Platinum
247. Palladium. Iridium
Literature for in-depth study of general and inorganic chemistry
Name index
Subject index