Geographical location. What is geographical location? Features and changes in the economic and geographical position of Russia

Geographical position

the position of a geographical object on the surface of the Earth within a given coordinate system and in relation to any data located outside it that has a direct or indirect impact on this object. In a specific study of geographical taxa, micro-, meso- and macrogeographical positions are distinguished. The first describes the geographic location of an object in a small area, where local interactions with components of the geographic environment are significant, and is used in the study of small taxa, for example. cities. The second (on a wider scale) is used when studying a large region and country, the third - on the scale of parts of the world and the Earth as a whole (for example, the macro position of Russia relative to the countries of Western Europe and East Asia). Socio-economic geography studies the geographical location for different levels of spatial hierarchy and its change over time, which is directly related to various stages of socio-economic development, technological progress in communications and changing priorities in world trade. Therefore, special attention has always been paid to the transport and geographical position, which was especially reflected in the emergence and growth of capital cities, including Moscow and St. Petersburg. No less important was and remains the geographical location in political geography, where it influenced the formation of potential and actual theaters of military operations in all historical eras.

Geography. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M.: Rosman. Edited by prof. A. P. Gorkina. 2006 .

See what “geographical location” is in other dictionaries:

Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

geographical position- Characteristics of the location of an object on the earth’s surface relative to other geographical objects and countries of the world... Dictionary of Geography

The position of any point or other object on the earth’s surface in relation to other territories or objects; relative to the Earth's surface, the geographical position is determined using coordinates. Geographical location is distinguished by... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

The position of any point or area of the earth's surface in relation to territories or objects located outside this point or area. In mathematical geography, geographic location means the latitude and longitude of given points or areas, in... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

Position k.l. point or other object on the earth's surface in relation to another territory. or objects; relative to the surface of the Earth, the geometric area is determined using coordinates. A distinction is made between civil rights in relation to natural objects and to economic ones. geogr... ... Natural science. encyclopedic Dictionary

- ... Wikipedia

- (EGP) is the relationship of an object of a city, region, country to external objects that have one or another economic significance, no matter whether these objects are of a natural order or created in the process of history (according to N.N. Baransky). In other words... ... Wikipedia

The position of a region or country relative to other objects of economic importance to it. E. g. p. category is historical, may change in connection with the construction of the railway. or a power plant, the beginning of the development of a useful deposit... ... Geographical encyclopedia

The position of a deposit, enterprise, city, district, country or other economic and geographical object in relation to other economic and geographical objects that have economic significance for it. The assessment of the EGP of an object depends on its position... Financial Dictionary

Books

German. Germany. Geographical location, population, politics. Tutorial. Level B 2, Yakovleva T.A.. This manual includes such regional study topics as the geographical location of Germany, population, demographic problems, linguistic diversity, religions, etc. Also a textbook...
Geographical location and territorial structures. In memory of I. M. Maergoiz, . The collection is dedicated to the memory of the outstanding Soviet economic geographer Isaac Moiseevich Maergoiz. The collection received its name - GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION AND TERRITORIAL STRUCTURES - from two...

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1. The concept of geographical location. Features of nature, population and economy of individual territories of Russia (give examples).

Geographic location is an indicator of the relative position on the earth's surface of geographical objects of various types - one of the main categories of geography. Geographical location can change over time under the influence of various factors, both natural and political-economic.

There are several types of geographical location.

1. Natural-geographical (physical-geographical). This is a characteristic of the location of the object in question in a number of natural objects, for example, in relation to continents and oceans, to landforms, to islands and peninsulas, to rivers and lakes, etc.

2. Mathematical-geographical allows you to estimate the position of an object in the system of coordinates and reference points of the planet, i.e. in relation to the elements of the degree grid (to the equator and the Greenwich meridian), to the poles of the Earth, to the extreme geographical points.

3. Political-geographical - in relation to neighboring countries with their capitals, to political groupings of countries, for example to the European Union.

4. Economic-geographical determines the position of an object among various anthropogenic objects that perform certain economic functions. For example, industrial and agricultural enterprises, mining sites and industrial areas, as well as in relation to economic groupings of countries (OPEC, ASEAN, NAFTA).

5. Transport-geographical assesses the provision of an object with transport and communication capabilities of economic connections (roads and railways, sea and river routes, air routes, oil and gas pipelines, fiber-optic communication lines and power lines, airports, sea and river ports, etc. .).

6. Military-geographical establishes the degree of relation to objects of military-strategic importance (military bases, troop groups, nuclear facilities, ballistic missile silos, enterprises producing nuclear weapons), to military-industrial complex enterprises, as well as in relation to military-political groupings countries (NATO).

7. Ecological-geographical characterizes the background of environmental safety of the location of the object to places that have environmental problems (for example, to points of release of pollutants, to areas of radioactive contamination (Chernobyl), as well as to potentially dangerous objects that create an environmental threat).

Features of nature, population and economy of individual territories of Russia.

The large extent of Russia from west to east and from north to south, and the relief features determine the diversity of natural landscapes (arctic deserts, tundra, forest-tundra, taiga, mixed and broad-leaved forests, forest-steppes and steppes, semi-deserts and deserts).

Tundra. Severe, cold climatic conditions (low average annual air temperatures), long winter - snow cover lasts 7-9 months, short summer period (2 months) and a correspondingly short growing season. The presence of permafrost, excessive moisture - high swampiness of the territory, infertile tundra-gley soils. Large open spaces with strong winds. The existing natural and climatic conditions are unfavorable for humans. As a result, the areas are characterized by low population density and a relative predominance of urban populations. A special type of economy has emerged, the main specialization of which is the exploitation of the natural resources of the Far North (gas, copper, nickel, etc.) and reindeer husbandry.

The steppe is the main agricultural region of Russia due to natural and climatic conditions favorable for agriculture (fertile soil - chernozems, long growing season). This is the zone of the most developed livestock farming (cattle, pig farming, sheep farming, poultry farming). The food industry is developed. The rural population predominates. Significantly high population density.

2. Fuel and energy complex: composition, importance in the economy, development problems. Fuel and energy complex and environmental problems.

The fuel and energy complex is a group of industries associated with the production and distribution of energy. Includes the production of various types of fuel and its transport, the production of electricity and its transport. Recently, fuel extraction and energy production have become expensive, and there has been an increase in the cost of transporting fuel and energy. Energy development: exploration and development of deposits, construction of new processing plants and pipelines are having an increasingly negative impact on the environment, especially in the Far North.

The fuel industry consists of three main sectors – coal, oil and gas.

Among the country's fuel resources in explored geological reserves, coal accounts for more than 90%.

On the basis of the extraction of combustible minerals, territorial production complexes (TPC) of the country are being formed - Timan-Pechora, West Siberian, Kansko-Achinsk Fuel and Energy (KATEK), South Yakutsk.

The production of coking and steam coal is concentrated mainly in Western Siberia (Kuznetsk basin), in the North (Pechora basin) and in the North Caucasus (Russian part of Donbass). The main region of the country for brown coal mining is Eastern Siberia (Kansk-Achinsk basin). In recent years, coal production has decreased, which is caused by a reduction in production capacity and an increase in railway tariffs.

In terms of oil reserves, Russia ranks second in the world after Saudi Arabia. The largest oil-producing region is Western Siberia (70%), followed by the Urals and the Volga region. Approximately 70% of the country's continental shelf is promising in terms of oil and gas potential. For the vast northern territories of Russia, transporting oil through oil pipelines is more economical than shipping by tanker. The largest concentration of pipelines is Western Siberia, the main oil flows go to the west.

In recent years, oil production has been declining. The reasons are a reduction in reserves at developed fields, insufficient geological exploration work, wear and tear of equipment, and the lack of modern mining equipment that allows for efficient development of fields. The reduction in oil production led to the fact that the share of oil in total fuel production decreased and natural gas took first place (37% and 48%, respectively).

The products of the gas industry are raw materials for the chemical industry and fuel.

Currently, 3/5 of all Russian gas production comes from the fields of Western Siberia, the largest of which are Zapolyarnoye, Medvezhye, Urengoy, and Yamburg. The leading regions for natural gas production are Western Siberian (more than 90%), Ural (about 7%), Volga region (1%). The West Siberian region accounts for more than 30% of all fuel industry products, the Ural region -13%, the Volga region -11% and the Central region - 10%.

Fuel, energy and consumer factors are the main ones when locating power plants. The bulk of electricity is generated at thermal power plants (3/4), hydraulic and nuclear.

Among thermal power plants, a distinction is made between combined heat and power plants (CHP) and condensing power plants (CHP). Based on the type of energy used, thermal power plants are divided into those operating on traditional organic fuel, nuclear and geothermal; according to the nature of service to the population - into district (state district power plants - state district power plants) and central.

Traditional fuel for thermal power plants (TPPs) is coal (more than 50%), petroleum products (fuel oil) and natural gas (more than 40%), peat and oil shale (5%).

Thermal power plants are characterized by free location, electricity generation without seasonal fluctuations, and relatively fast and inexpensive construction. The capacity of the largest thermal power plants (TPPs) is more than 2 million kW. The factor for placing a thermal power plant is a consumer one, since the radius of transportation of one of its types of products (hot water) is a maximum of 12 km.

Nuclear power plants are located taking into account the consumer factor. The world's first nuclear power plant was built in the USSR in 1954 (Obninsk NPP, capacity 5 MW). Currently, Kalinin, Smolensk, Leningrad, Kola, Kursk, Novovoronezh, Balakovo, Beloyarsk and Bilibino automatic telephone exchanges operate in the country. After the Chernobyl disaster, the construction of the Tatar, Bashkir, and Krasnodar nuclear power plants was suspended. In the coming years, units of many power plants in the country should be decommissioned, since the share of costs for uranium mining in the nuclear fuel cycle is approximately 2%, and about 3/4 is spent on waste processing and disposal.

Geothermal power plants (GTPPs) are technologically similar to combined heat and power plants; the factor of their location is fuel and energy. The only operating gas turbine power plant in the country is Pauzhetskaya in Kamchatka.

Hydroelectric power plants are characterized by ease of operation, high efficiency, and generation of relatively cheap electricity.

The country's largest hydraulic power plants are part of two cascades - the Angaro-Yenisei cascade (with a total capacity of 22 million kW) and the Volzhsko-Kama cascade (11.5 million kW). The most powerful hydroelectric power station in Russia is Sayano-Shushenskaya (6.4 million kW).

Tidal power plants (TPPs) operate during the high and low tide phases of sea level changes. The only tidal power plant in the country is Kislogubskaya (400 kW) on the coast of the Barents Sea. Promising regions for the construction of tidal power plants are the waters of the White Sea (the Mezen Tidal Power Plant is being designed with a capacity of 10 million kW) and the Okhotsk Sea (the Tugur Tidal Power Plant is being designed).

Almost all power plants in our country are part of the Unified Energy System (UES) of Russia, with the exception of power plants in the Far East.

In terms of electricity generation, the Central region leads (23%), followed by the Ural region (12%), East Siberian and North Caucasus (11% each).

Electric power industry is a branch of specialization for the Central, East Siberian, West Siberian, Central Black Earth, Northwestern and Northern economic regions.

3. Determination of directions and distances from a topographic map.

Algorithm for determining directions from a topographic map.

1. On the map we mark the point where we are and the point to which we need to determine the direction (azimuth).

2. Connect these two points.

3. Draw a straight line through the point where we are: north – south.

4. Using a protractor, measure the angle between the north-south line and the direction to the desired object. Azimuth is measured from the north direction clockwise.

Algorithm for determining distances from a topographic map.

1. Measure the distance between given points using a ruler.

2. Using a named scale, we convert the obtained values (in cm) into distances on the ground. For example, the distance between points on the map is 10 cm, and the scale is 1 cm - 5 km. We multiply these two numbers and get the desired result: 50 km is the distance on the ground.

3. When measuring distances, you can use a compass, but then a linear scale will take the place of the named scale. In this case, our task is simplified; we can immediately determine the required distance on the ground.

Geographical location of the state - this is the location of a territory, a country relative to other objects, territories, water areas, countries.

Geographic location is one of the fundamental categories of economic and social geography. The concept of “geographical position,” known in science since the 18th century, found particular application in anthropogeography at the end of the 19th century, when the German scientist Ratzel began to use it to characterize the positional properties of the country.

In the context of globalization, the theory of geographical location acquires the status of an interdisciplinary theory, since it allows us to see the world in all its diversity, determined by many regional, state and local characteristics.

The socio-economic space is heterogeneous. Objects do not spatially coincide with the conditions necessary for their existence in the system. The properties of socio-economic space, which reveal the spatial divergence of the object under study and the necessary conditions for its existence (functioning and development), can be defined as the geographical location of the object.

The external environment, through its components, actively influences the object, the geographical location of which is determined. The object itself also influences its own environment.

The concept of “geographical location” is based on the category of “relationships”. According to M. Baransky, the economic-geographical position is the relationship of any place, region or city to objects that lie outside it and have one or another economic significance for it.

The main idea of geographical location as a concept is to reveal the territorial relationship:

In a physical-geographical position, this is a relationship in a geographic coordinate grid, in a real physical-geographical space with its natural zones, regions, orography, distribution of land and sea, etc.;

In economic-geographical position - this is the relationship to economically significant objects;

In the socio-geographical position - to socially significant objects.

In the political-geographical position - to political realities. Methodologically, this means recording and forecasting military, international political, geo-economic, environmental and cultural force fields;

In the ecological-geographical position - to environmentally significant objects, in particular to countries and regions that determine the environmental situation, or to countries and regions whose ecological state can be influenced by a given country.

One of the quantitative indicators of geographic location is the geographic coordinates of an object.

To clarify the content of the concept of geographical location, it is worth noting the significant disagreement between geographical location And location. When characterizing a geographic location, it is necessary to answer the question: regarding what? The location of an object has a different meaning, which lies in the answer to the question: where and what is it part of? So, location reveals localization or belonging, while location reflects relationships in a system. From a methodological point of view, these concepts should be distinguished.

So, when studying the geographical location, you should find out which objects are outside the object and which are inside. In other words, geographic location is characterized by the relationship of an object with its external environment.

When studying the geographical location, it is necessary to build on the results of the impact of the geographical location on the development of the object. The situation is complicated by the fact that the connections (economic and non-economic) of an object are influenced not only by its geographical location.

Analyzing a problem, the researcher “weighs” real and potential relationships: he discovers real ones empirically, and among potential ones he identifies those that can be realized (actually possible connections). However, the researcher must also establish theoretically possible connections. Thus, when analyzing a geographical location, relationships cannot be understood only as actual economic and other connections. A complete and comprehensive study of a geographic location involves taking into account real, potential and theoretically possible connections.

Geographical location is not only a capacious and multifaceted concept, but also a relative one. In the first case, it is distinguished by several types, in particular by natural, environmental, social, economic or political-geographical location. In the second, we are talking about its constant transformation in space and time, the simultaneous presence in the assessment of the current state of the geographical location, its past development and the factors of its further functioning.

For regional studies, the determining role is played by the concept of the political and geographical location of the country. This is its placement on the political map of the world, continent or individual region in interaction with political realities that influence it in one way or another. At the same time, politics is understood as an activity aimed at winning the struggle for one’s own interests. It can be government, a specific organization or an individual.

In the spatial-territorial sense, we can distinguish global, regional and local-neighborly political and geographical position of countries. Global position is the place of a particular state on the political map of the world in the context of its global connections and relations with other states of our planet. The regional political-geographical position includes the location and relationships with the countries of its own historical-geographical region. Local-neighborhood political-geographical location is the location of a country surrounded by neighboring states and interaction with them. His assessment is an exploration of a complex history of confrontations and partnerships. She is very dynamic. At this level, a real analysis of all types of relations and interconnections between individual states and interstate integration entities is carried out.

The place of a phenomenon (object or process) relative to other phenomena in geospace is characterized by a complex of geographic relations (GR; about them, see 1.3.2) and is defined as geographical position or geolocation. Established GOs influence the formation of the properties of newly emerging objects, and prolonged participation in specific GOs leads to the appearance of secondary properties in objects. The successful location of a subject or object in the system of geographical relations can both give it additional political and economic significance, and vice versa. From a formal point of view, geolocation is assessed by two types of factors: distances (metric and topological) and configurations (directions). Thus, all other things being equal, a port on a river bend has a competitive advantage over a neighboring one, but on a straight section of the same river. Being located in different geographical areas, two even initially similar geographical objects will gradually begin to differ, first in function, and then in internal content. In this sense, it can be argued that, other things being equal, “the political-geographical position acts as a factor that individualizes

political development of countries" [Maergoiz 1971, p. 43]. As a result, the researcher needs to find out how objects are “built in”, adapted to the civil defense system, acquiring a set of specific features, and what specific features they “impose” on the environment. The geospace surrounding the object is infinitely diverse. Therefore, to analyze geolocation, geospace can be divided into analytically integral units (taxa, habitats, polygons, regions, operational-territorial units, etc.), in relation to which geolocation is assessed [Maergoiz 1986, p. 58-59].

The concept of geographical location is quite well developed and covered in the domestic literature, so further we will dwell only on some debatable issues. Thus, if we take into account the different closeness and degree of influence of geological structures, then it seems controversial to assert that the geolocation is determined only by those external data with which the object is in interaction [Geographical 1988, p. 55; Rodoman 1999, p. 77]. A simple example. Let there be points that do not interact with each other A, B, C and 7). We need to plan a route from A V IN with entry into C or 7). The choice of one of the latter will be influenced by their geographical location, which is set before any interaction begins.

In domestic socio-geographical science, the concept of economic-geographical location(EGP). By definition N.N. Baransky, EGP expresses “the relationship of any place, region or city to the data lying outside it, which has one or another economic significance - it doesn’t matter whether these data are of a natural order or created in the process of history” [Baransky 1980, p. 129]. Many other authors spoke similarly [Alaev 1983, p. 192; Leizerovich 2010 and others]. Within the framework of socio-economic geography, this approach turned out to be justified. However, when expanding it to political-geographical and, especially, geopolitical phenomena, we are faced with limitations. Thus, the transport-geographical position can no longer be considered as a type of EGP, since it can be assessed in other, for example, military-geostrategic, coordinates. Therefore, the type can only be transport EGP. To generalize different types of socially significant geolocations, it is advisable to use the concept socio-geographical location. This concept was also used by I.M. Maergoise in the 1970s [Maergoiz 1986, p. 78-79], although other authors did not support it then.

As we have already written, GOs reflect not only the spatial position, but also have meaningful content. This fully applies to geographical location. At the same time, limiting civil defense to only external geospace appears unfounded: civil defense not only correlates the territory of an object with the outside world, but also shapes it “from the inside.” Two extreme points of view have emerged, equally 90

unacceptable for us. The first excludes from consideration the internal structure and characteristics of the object itself [Leizerovich 2010, p. 209]. The second one replaces the geolocation of an object with the geolocations of its internal (lower) taxa relative to each other [Bulaev, Novikov 2002, p. 80] 1 . In addition, the position of relatively integral transboundary geographic systems or areas is of great importance. And it is irrational to evaluate the geographical position only in relation to the “external” part of such a system. These are, for example, transboundary hydrocarbon deposits or transboundary key economic regions.

In our opinion, definitions of geographical location should be supplemented by the relationship of a place or area to inside him lying down or crossing his givens. Let's call it introspective 2 geographical location. In contrast to functional types (such as EGP), it appears as one of the positional (formal-spatial) types of geolocation (Fig. 10) and is partially reciprocal with the traditional (extraspective) geographical position of the internal object. For example, the position of a linguistic area relative to its dialect center and the position of this very center relative to the area. The relationships themselves (distances, etc.) are formally the same, but the semantic content and inclusion in other indirect relationships are different. There are many cases in geopolitical history when it was the introspective geographical position that determined the priority geographic directions of the foreign policy of states. For example, one of the reasons why modern China seeks to improve relations with the countries of Central Asia, including the creation of the SCO, is the need to deprive the Xinjiang separatist movement of a possible “rear base” [Zotov 2009, p. 128]. The need to consider introspective geolocation in individual socio-geographical studies is increasingly recognized (see, for example, the definition of geocriminogenic position in [Badov 2009, p. 49]), but has not yet been clearly formulated at the general geographical level. B.B. Rodoman, even describing the eccentricity of the country relative to the capital, does not, however, connect it with the geographical location of this country itself [Rodoman 1999, p. 152-153].

To study the EGP of large regions, a separate consideration of their parts is really necessary [Saushkin 1973, p. 143], but on the condition that this reveals the features of the EGP of the region itself - the object of study.

From lat. introspectus (intro - inside + spicere - look). The term “internal” is inappropriate in this case. The other option, "spanning" geolocation, contains undesirable restrictions and makes it difficult to contrast with other, "non-spanning" types.

Balanced

Displaced

Boundary

Boundary Linear-

/2nd order secants

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Rice. 10.

geographical location:

Geopolitical situation. Definitions

Most domestic works on the geopolitical situation do not provide a definition of this concept. Therefore, to consider the category of geopolitical position (GPP), it is advisable to rely on more carefully developed ideas about economic-geographical (EGP) and political-geographical positions. Any definition of a geographical location consists of typical semantic blocks filled with different content in different concepts. Let us denote these blocks by the “variables” P (attitude), P (place), b(location), 7) (data), T(time). Then any definition can be presented in the following form:

Let's take as a basis what was mentioned above for the EGP. If we transform the definition of N.N. Baransky [Baransky 1980, p. 129] in relation to political geography, we obtain that political-geographical position (PCL) is the relation [I] of any place [P] to external [b] its underlying given [O], having [T] this or that political significance - it doesn’t matter whether these given natural order or created in the process of history. We emphasize that “having political significance” in general, and not just “for them,” as many other authors add to their definitions [Geographical 1988, p. 341; Rodoman 1999, p. 77].

According to V.A. Dergachev, GPP is “the position of the state and interstate associations [P] in relation to the world [G] centers of power (spheres of influence) [O], including military-political blocs and conflict zones. It is determined by the total power of material and intangible resources [P] (military-political, economic, technological and passional) in the multidimensional communication space of the Earth” [Dergachev 2009, p. 108]. One of the disadvantages of this approach is the reduction of external data only to global centers of power and spheres of influence.

P.Ya. pays great attention to the development of categories of geopolitics. Baklanov [Baklanov 2003; Baklanov, Romanov 2008]. From his point of view, “the geopolitical position of a country (or its large region) is the geographical position [R] of the country (region) [R] in relation [R] to other countries [?)], primarily neighboring [G], with taking into account the similarities and differences of their political systems, the relationship of geopolitical potentials, the presence or absence of mutual geopolitical interests and problems [?)]” [Baklanov 2003, p. 12].

If all the variables do not have any specificity, including political, we get a definition of a general geographical location. And if we take into account the geoadaptation we discussed earlier,

tational approach (see paragraph 2.1), then the geo-adaptation position. Let's look at the variables separately.

Location (b). Defines spatial restrictions. On this basis, several types of geopolitical position can be distinguished. In particular, extraspective and introspective. Also, this variable can set the scale of consideration of external and internal data at the macro-meso- and micro-level. Thus, a number of authors insist on globality as an essential feature of geopolitics.

Time (T). This variable is rarely set explicitly. However, most often it is implied that the concept of TPP is used “to characterize geopolitical entities... at a certain point in time” [Kaledin 1996, p. 98]. By modifying this variable, one can also determine historical GPP And predicted, planned GSP.

Givenness (O). Expresses the characteristics of politically significant geospatial phenomena, which can be of either a political or any other nature (economic, environmental, etc.). Among all the diversity of givens, one should especially highlight the class of strictly political phenomena of geospace (O roc,). These are states, political borders, etc. Also, given the value of the variable b, data can be divided into external and internal.

Here we must keep in mind that political geography and geopolitics usually take into account different sets of these data. N.N. Baransky notes that “a position in the sense of mathematical geography is given on a coordinate grid, a physical-geographical position on a physical map, an economic-geographical position on an economic map, a political-geographical position on a political map” [Baransky 1980, p. 129]. Accordingly, when assessing the physical-geographical position, mining enterprises will not be taken into account, even if they change the topography. Geopolitics, on the other hand, is more integrative: the geopolitical atlas will contain physical, economic, and political-geographical maps created from a geopolitical angle.

Attitude (I). The relationships that form the GLP of a particular object can in many cases be represented as a kind of “positional multipliers” or multipliers of the significance of external data that is essential for the subject, including resources. Thus, if an existing important resource is geographically inaccessible, its multiplier is zero. As accessibility increases, the significance of the resource itself does not increase, but the significance multiplier does. There are also GPOs where the spatial aspect greatly gives way to the qualitative aspect (characteristics of the places themselves). Then the multiplier, on the contrary, is always close to the maximum. Or, on the contrary, the multiplier grows with increasing distance (see types of GPO in paragraph 1.5.2). Although it must be borne in mind that the actual geographical factor in the GPP is gradually changing its role. Its relative share in the definition of GSP is decreasing, but its scale and diversity are increasing, and its qualitative content is becoming more complex.

Next, we should understand whether the geopolitical situation can be determined by other, non-political relations? At first glance, no. But, nevertheless, such a situation is possible in the case of mediation of relations of different natures in a transitive chain closely related phenomena (Fig. 11). But only if at least one link in mediation is political. Therefore, mediated GPO may have a complex, composite nature and is of greater interest for geopolitics than for political geography. Moreover, the assessment of indirect relationships is often more important than the assessment of direct ones. However, the GPO generated in this way further acts as equal to others, as, for example, in the formation of geopolitical triangles (see paragraph 4.4.1). It should also be noted that the length or, rather, the significance of the chains of mediation of GPO depends on the geopolitical potential of the subject and the role of the object. Thus, in the geopolitical position of the United States, such relations extend to almost the entire world and cover many seemingly non-political phenomena.

Geo-Geo-Geo-

A economic IN ecological C political

Subject

attitude _attitude

Indirect GPO _

An object

Rice. 11. Scheme of mediated GPO of complex nature

Place (P). This is not only a territory, but also an evaluated object or subject occupying a certain place. In the general concept of geographical location, a place can also be natural (for example, a lake). In geopolitics, it is a subject of political activity ( PpoSH).

There is another aspect. Let's start with a comparison. Does a natural or public non-economic object (place) have its own EGP? There is no direct economic significance for other objects for them, but they are surrounded by economic phenomena. This example shows that the clarification “meaning for them”, which we mentioned above, is unnecessary. THEM. Maergoiz even wrote that “the lower the self-potential of a region, the clearer [its] EGP” [Maergoiz 1986, p. 67].

If we recognize such an EGP, then we must also recognize a similar political-geographical position, i.e. political and geographical position of natural objects and public non-political subjects. The political content of GPO in this case can only be determined by its other side - the political objects of geospace. In this interpretation, we can talk about the political-geographical position, for example, of a commercial enterprise next to a state-owned

noah border. Or the sea. Those. we are talking about a non-political place on the political map. It turns out that in the general case, to assess the political-geographical position, the political characteristics of the subject itself and its political potential are not important, but it is considered only on the political map.

Geopolitical the situation is traditionally assessed only for political subjects ( PpoSH), i.e. just for those who form and conduct geo -politics. Thus, here we can outline one of the facets of the formal delimitation of the GSP and the political-geographical location, which allows us to avoid synonymization of the two concepts. The complexity of the GPP in taking into account external data of various natures was recognized by domestic authors already at the dawn of the “return” of geopolitics to Russia. So, in 1991 N.M. Mezhevich wrote: “...Geopolitical position is an integrating category in relation to FGP, EGP, PGP, and it is more historical than EGP and PGP...” [Mezhevich 1991, p. 102-103].

We tried to formally distinguish between the GSP and the political-geographical location according to the objects of study, but their semantic difference can also be outlined. It is believed that the political-geographical position has a descriptive, ascertaining nature [Mezhevich 1991, p. 103]. It is determined by historical, current and projected GPO. The predominant type of assessment is placement (positional component) and dependence/independence (functional component). GPP has a clear political connotation, associated with the category of geopolitical interest. Unlike the political-geographical one, it takes into account only those data that have or may have significance for the subject (in this sense, the GPP is narrower than the political-geographical one). The GSP is viewed through the prism of projects, scenarios and strategies, resulting in a multi-variant and “multi-layered” view of the current GSP. The predominant type of assessment is relative political strength and weakness, opportunities and threats, which can be described in the matrices of geo-adaptation strategies 8?OT 3 (see paragraph 2.1.2). In this context, one can note the point of view of S.V. Kuznetsova and S.S. Lachininsky that one of the key differences between the geo-economic position and the economic-geographical one is the consideration of geo-economic risks [Kuznetsov, Lachininsky 2014, p. 109]. But this position looks somewhat one-sided and limited, since it replaces the category of interest with a more specific concept of risk.

Thus, the geopolitical situation characterizes the heterogeneity of the complete geopolitical field of the actor and is expressed in the structure of GPO at a certain historical point in time, including trends in their development and the influence of some layers of GPO that have become a thing of the past.

In the complex dynamic structure of the GPP, a certain invariant should be highlighted, i.e. the “framework” of the GPP, stable over very long periods and eras, the change of which is always an important historical milestone. Presented in the form of a complex of stable

interests, this “framework” can be interpreted as a geopolitical code (code) of the subject. Moreover, in the case of the existence of allied or patron-client relations, the induction of geopolitical codes between the actors occurs, and the local code of the satellite can be integrated into the global code of the leader. A single code of the group subject is formed. This occurs due to the induction of geopolitical interests (clause 1.4.2).

In close connection with the concept of GLP, several related and interrelated analogue concepts are used. We briefly outline some of them below.

Geopolitical situation- a superpositional set of geopolitical positions of all subjects in a certain part of geospace at a certain point in time. Note that in Russian the concept of “situation” is close to the concept of “state”, but, unlike the latter, refers to heterogeneous phenomena. Another interpretation is related to the fact that a “geosituation” can be defined as a dynamic set of geo-organisms on a “real-time” scale, as opposed to an inertial “geostructure”.

Geopolitical situation. Can be synonymous with GPP or, more often, with the geopolitical situation. In a narrower sense, it is interpreted as a set of factors that determine the state and prospects for the development of relations between states. That is, in this interpretation, the geopolitical situation is not the GPOs themselves, but those geospatial factors with which GPOs can be established. In this sense, the phrase “geopolitical situation around the country” is legitimate.

Geopolitical potential. An unambiguous approach to determining potential has not yet been developed either in geography or geopolitics. It was often equated to a collection of various resources, to geopolitical power, or to the advantage of a political-geographical location. According to P.Ya. Baklanov, “this is the degree of both the existing and possible potential influence of one country on others, especially neighboring countries” [Baklanov 2003, p. 13].

Geopolitical power in turn, implies not only the potential, the strength of the subject himself, but also his ability to achieve a certain goal in external space (etymologically - from “to be able”, “power”). Those. it is relative to external data. In any case, geopolitical potential is part of the characteristics of the GPP on the part of the subject.

Principles of assessment and the meaning of neighborhood

Based on the above, it can be argued that to describe the GLP it is necessary to consider not so much absolute as relative indicators, both 1) in external and 2) in internal contexts. In the first case, the geopolitical potential of the subject as a whole or a certain potential parameter (for example, GDP) is assessed in the context of certain parameters of neighbors, centers of power and the world as a whole.

scrap. In the second, an external parameter (for example, the GDP of neighboring countries) is assessed in the context of parameters or factors of internal geospace. At the same time, it must be emphasized that even relative indicators do not actually mean assessments GPP. Thus, the population ratio of some territories describes only the geodemographic situation. This parameter characterizes the GPP only when it is included in a comprehensive political characteristic of a geopolitical subject and its surrounding conditions, in the context of political threats and opportunities, strength and weakness. Only in this case can we talk, in particular, about the demographic GSP.

For a quantitative comparison of similar parameters on geopolitical borders, the concept “ geopolitical gradient." For example, the demographic/economic geopolitical gradient on the US-Mexico border, ATS and NATO. In an expanded sense, it also applies to measuring the balances of non-bordering GP fields. There are, however, other options for naming such relationships. Thus, a group of domestic authors proposes to use the term “geopolitical distance” [Kefeli, Malafeev 2013, p. 170]. In our opinion, such use of words is inappropriate. This is approximately the same if the geographic distance (distance) between mountains is measured by the difference in their heights. But geographical relations are an integral part of geopolitical relations. Among all the parameters being assessed, various types of objectively identified and quantitatively measured connections and relationships between countries and regions are of particular importance. As R.F. correctly notes. Turovsky, “otherwise geopolitics can be reduced only to abstract philosophizing and project-making” [Turovsky 1999, p. 49]. In this sense, the actual GPP should be distinguished from various geopolitical projects and mythologies.

When describing various GPOs, we are faced with a certain duality arising from their own nature. On the one hand, it is required to describe the relative quantitative and qualitative parameters of countries, regions, territories, and on the other hand, to give them relative geospatial certainty. As a result, we obtain a certain two-dimensional GPP matrix “parameter x location”. Thus, when characterizing demographic indicators, political regimes, geopolitical disputes, natural phenomena, etc. (rows of the matrix), they are divided into geospatial sections (unequal columns of the matrix), tied to absolute geographic coordinates. The cells of such a matrix are, in fact, a reflection of a number of geopolitical fields or ideas about them.

The geopolitical position, due to its integrity, not only depends on other types of geographic location (EGP, etc.), but also influences them, and through them, the various internal characteristics of the country or its region, their geopolitical potential. T.I. Pototskaya, for example, considers such an impact using the example of the Western region of Russia. In the model she proposed (Fig. 12), the leading component of the influence of not only GSP, but also EGP is the political-geographical location [Pototskaya 1997, p. 13].

Let's look at some of the many possible assessment parameters. P.Ya. Baklanov believes that “based on... the idea of the geopolitical situation, its assessment for a particular country consists of the following stages: assessment of the proximity of other countries to this one, identification of immediate neighbors - 1st, 2nd order, etc.; assessment of the similarities and differences between the political systems of neighboring countries, primarily first-order neighbors with the political system of a given country; assessment of the geopolitical potentials of a given country and its neighbors, assessment of the relationships between these geopolitical potentials; identifying and assessing the mutual geopolitical interests of a given country and its neighbors of different orders; identification and assessment of geopolitical problems that exist between a given country and its neighbors" [Baklanov 2003, p. 12]. In general, one can apparently agree with this approach. However, with further specification, some contradictions and ambiguities appear.

Rice. 12.

Indeed, an extremely important issue for geopolitics remains the assessment geographical proximity. It occupies one of the central places in geopolitical relations and models, introducing a significant share of geographical content into geopolitics even in the modern conditions of a “shrinking”, globalizing world. Moreover, adjacent territories act as “conductors” of connections with distant global centers of power. True, the main attention is paid to neighborhood assessment at the regional and local levels of research, especially for GPO types M-G-M and M-M-M (see paragraph 1.5.2). Neighboring countries of the 1st and 2nd orders are neighboring geopolitical regions of the 1st and 2nd orders. THEM. Maergoiz wrote about neighboring geographic macroregions identified in the same way. Accordingly, highlight

There are regional both EGP and GPP. Maergoiz also noted the special position of double neighbors of the 2nd order [Maergoiz 1986, p. 80, 82, 111]. B.B. Rodoman considers neighboring geopolitical regions to be a type of nuclear geographic zoning [Rodoman 1999, p. 58]. The island position of the country, which has no first-order neighbors at all, is very specific.

P.Ya. Baklanov suggests that “in military-defensive terms, it is apparently better to have fewer first-order neighboring countries. However, for the development of international economic, political, and cultural ties, it is more beneficial to have more first-order neighboring countries” [Baklanov 2003, p. 12]. But let's take an extreme case. How to assess the situation if this, say, the only neighbor is an enemy, and the country itself is an enclave? It turns out that such a GPP, contrary to the thesis, is extremely unprofitable. The case for economic assessment is also mixed: many small neighbors create obstacles to trade through customs barriers. To overcome them, associations like the EU are created. A large number of neighbors is also unprofitable from an environmental point of view [Pototskaya 1997, p. 130].

The role of neighbors of the 2nd and higher orders depends not only on the degree of proximity, but also on their relative position and distance: a neighbor of the 3rd order can be located quite close, while a neighbor of the 2nd order can be located thousands of kilometers away, in a different geographical region ( for example, Macedonia and North Korea relative to Ukraine). That's why we should talk about the proximity of countries of the 2nd and higher orders not only in a topological sense, but also as a distance measure of proximity[cm. Maergoes 1986, p. 68, 80]. In the second case, however, the “normative” measure of proximity can be set either subjectively or tied to other objective parameters. The distance measure is of greatest importance for island countries that do not even have maritime neighbors.

In general, it can be argued that the more diverse neighbors of the first and second orders, the greater the variety of close regional GPOs, the more opportunities for geopolitical maneuver, the less significant threats from individual neighbors, but at the same time, the less stability and sustainability of GPOs, the greater the variety of potential threats and the necessary diplomatic efforts in the region . This dependence in itself is objective, but which combination of GPO is preferable is a matter of specific policy in the real geopolitical situation. In general, based on the designated structure of geopolitical relations, there is a tendency to consider the fragmentation of actual or potentially negative and the integration of positive and potentially positive geopolitical fields of the neighboring region as beneficial. This is also expressed in estimating the number of corresponding neighbors. We wrote about this in detail, but without regard to the neighboring region, in the previous section (see paragraph 2.3.2). In the neighboring region, as the most tense geopolitical field, this trend is especially pronounced. Thus, Israel, as stated by its ambassador to the United States, since 2011 has been interested in overthrowing the Assad regime in Syria in order to break (fragment) the Shiite arc “Beirut-Damascus-Tehran”, even if the new regime would turn out to be no less hostile [ Ketoy 2013].

Depending on the location of the fields involved in fragmentation or integration, two extreme cases are distinguished. Integration of neighbors of the same order or fragmentation of a large GP field into neighbors of different orders is interpreted as the formation of “arcs”, “cordons”, “segments”, “shells”, “belts”, “buffers”, “zones”, etc. The reverse cases are perceived as "corridors", "vectors", "sectors" or "axes". The intersection of “shells” and “sectors” forms special areas - zone-sector facets or trapezoids [Rodoman 1999, p. 70, 136]. The combination of both structures forms, respectively, “long zones/belts” and “wide corridors/sectors”. At the same time, such spatial forms can have different purposes. Thus, political geography identifies countries with “corridors”, but, for example, in Namibia the “corridor” was attached to the territory as a communications sector (Caprivi Strip), and in Afghanistan - as a cordon isolating Russia from India (Wakhan Corridor). From all of the above in this and the previous sections, an unambiguous conclusion suggests itself: it is impossible to give an a priori assessment of the neighborhood in isolation from a specific and very diverse geopolitical context. The latter also contains many complicating factors or GPO, such as international and moral obligations, a system of geopolitical “counterbalances”, historical memory, border configuration, trade and cultural ties, lines of communication.

Main settings

Next, we will briefly outline some parameters by which a country’s GSP can be assessed. Many publications are devoted to a more detailed consideration of them [see: Pototskaya 1997; Geopolitical situation 2000; Baklanov, Romanov 2008, etc.]. The entire set of parameters should be conditionally grouped into several functional blocks. However, each parameter can, and often should, be considered in conjunction with the associated parameters of other blocks. In this case, you will get a three-dimensional matrix of the form “parameter X parameter X location.”

In regional studies, it is customary to begin the study of a territory with a description and assessment of its physical and geographical characteristics. However, for our case, to be consistent, this approach is not suitable. In fact, for such an analysis, a grid of state or geopolitical boundaries must already be specified. But it is not on the physical map. The situation is similar with the assessment of the economic space, information about which is initially grouped specifically by country. As a result, it turns out that the characterization of GSP should begin with a description of the political and geographical location. The territory of the country, accordingly, is not a natural parameter. Having set the coordinate system in this way, the remaining blocks can be opened in different

no sequence, depending on the tasks and emphasis placed.

I. Political-geographical and strategic parameters.

First, the geolocations and configurations of the boundaries of geopolitical entities, the historical stability and variability of boundaries, degrees of proximity, the country’s place in terms of the total area of territory in the world, etc. are determined. All this determines the geospatial basis for further comparative characteristics in terms of profitability.

On this basis, the structure of external political relations should be considered. Their most obvious indicator is direct contacts between geopolitical entities. V.A. Kolosov

and R.F. Turovsky considers geographically linked statistics of state visits to be a key indicator for analyzing the geopolitical position of the country. It is sensitive to changes in the country’s foreign policy [Kolosov, Turovsky 2000]. In this case, visits to the country, from the country and their balance (“balance”) are considered. It is important to emphasize here that it is not visits that shape the geopolitical situation, but this situation itself is reflected in the statistics of visits available to an external observer. But it is important to understand that this indicator does not “capture” the state of negative, conflicting GPOs well.

Many other parameters of this block can be combined into the following groups:

political regimes and their complementarity to each other (including the representativeness of representative bodies of power);
treaties, alliances and counter-alliances (including assessment of “counterweight” and “cordon” countries);
heterogeneity of actors and territorial disputes (including irredentist movements);
spheres of influence of centers of power;
geopolitical images (including the nature of the media, elite perceptions, identity);
military potential and military-strategic position (including: arms trade, conflicts near borders, border configuration factor for land, naval and air operations).

The choice of certain parameters to characterize a geopolitical situation depends on ideas about their role at a certain historical moment or era, as well as on the purpose of such a characterization.

the contrast of the ethnic, cultural and political spaces that “fit” into them. A clear example is the South Caucasus region. Therefore, the first parameter of this block, which is usually paid attention to, is the correspondence or inconsistency of geopolitical borders and natural boundaries. Many authors, especially non-geographers, argue that as the technosphere develops, society's dependence on the natural environment generally weakens. But this is only partly true, since the development of technology, while allowing society to overcome some restrictions, imposes new ones on it. For example, the need for hitherto unprecedented resources (in the ancient world there could not have been competition, for example, for gas and uranium deposits).

Next, the relationship between natural conditions and, above all, territorial resources is considered. Of course, the territory of the subject itself, as we saw above, refers to political parameters. But it is heterogeneous, and therefore its natural features should be assessed. These include the following areas: favorable for life due to natural conditions, suitable for agriculture, forest, shelf, marine territorial waters, etc. Important parameters are indicators of the relative provision of natural resources by their types and, consequently, the complementarity of the natural resource potentials of countries and regions. The ecological and geographical position is significant. Finally, a special parameter of the GSP is its attitude towards specially protected natural areas and water areas, especially those under international control.

geographic location and topology of transport/communication routes, nodes and infrastructure on the borders of the subject and in the region as a whole (for example, density of the road network);
transport unity of the territory of the country/alliance and transport exclaves;
path congestion, assessment of incoming and outgoing flows (including the number of telephone connections);
inclusion in the global communications system and the role of transit communications, the degree of dependence on external transit territories;
development of advanced means of communication and their geography.

IV. Geodemographic parameters.

In economic terms, “the demogeographical position is the position relative to places of excess and shortage of labor resources, as well as places of departure and entry of migrants” [Maergoiz 1986, p. 62]. Geopolitics is also interested in other aspects. First of all, this is the ratio of the total populations of countries. Let us note here a circumstance that is interesting for general geopolitics: in many Eastern cultures, counting the people of one’s community, especially by name, was considered unacceptable and dangerous from a mystical point of view.

Trends in demographic data (even more than their absolute values) are often more objective geopolitical indicators, even compared to arbitrarily interpreted reports on trends in gross domestic product (GDP), investment and opinion polls. Demographic trends reflect the real medium-term state of communities. It would be appropriate to mention here that in 1976, the French sociologist E. Todd became the first to predict the collapse of the USSR, focusing specifically on the negative dynamics of demographic indicators (such as a decrease in life expectancy, an increase in infant mortality and the number of suicides).

Most parameters can be grouped into the following groups:

connection and correlation of settlement systems and their supporting frameworks in neighboring countries and regions;
the magnitude and dynamics of demographic indicators (including mobilization potential), their ratio;
assessment of migration processes;
types of population reproduction.

are so complex and multidirectional that it is possible to single out a cross-cutting “basis” only at the philosophical level. The vulgarization of these ideas, similar to what was sometimes observed in the USSR, leads to economic determinism. Many states in history have repeatedly made economic losses for the sake of increasing political prestige and influence, for the sake of “flag honor” and “projection of power.” Also, interethnic relations and conflicts do not always have an economic basis.

It should also be taken into account that GDP, trade balance and other aggregate monetary indicators can greatly distort ideas about the real geopolitical situation and create the illusion of accuracy in cross-country comparisons [KarabeP 2014]. Thus, the US trade balance with China turns out to be large and negative in a summary assessment, but with a detailed analysis of mutual ties, including trade in components and intellectual products, the picture appears completely different. In our opinion, it is more realistic to compare the volumes of production and services in physical terms and component by component. In the era of the information society, there is no longer any need to base any analysis on summary indicators alone. Moreover, these indicators themselves, like GDP, were developed for the industrial 20th century, and in the 21st century. “work” no longer as intended.

In addition, in the economic block, the economic significance of parameters from other sections can be considered. For example, foreign economic programs of parliamentary parties in neighboring countries, the impact of demographic processes on labor resources, etc.

Most parameters can be grouped into the following groups:

indicators of economic size, including gross and per capita;
correlation and complementarity of territorial structures of the economy;
degree of self-sufficiency, including energy availability;
scientific and technological development;
foreign trade and investment, dependence on foreign markets and resources, the control of the latter by friendly or hostile political forces;
the ratio of the economic influence of the actor and third countries on any country in a neighboring or distant region;
socio-economic indicators, including the class structure of societies.

skaya value of external and internal territories. Thus, Alsace and Algeria had different values for the French. The second, unlike the first, was not considered a genuine part of France. It is important to trace the possible influence of the geopolitical position of the country on the national character and historical individuality of the people. I.A. Kostetskaya, for example, notes such an influence using the example of South Korea [Kostetskaya 2000].

Other parameters include: mutual “historical grievances” and their significance in election campaigns, cultivation of enemy images, tribalism, educational and scientific migrations, ethnic parties, minorities and diasporas, ethnic politics, educational policy (foreign universities, religious schools etc.), number of religious groups, etc. Apparently, some integral indicators can also be included in this series, such as the UN Human Development Index (HDI), which reflects the standard of living, literacy, education and life expectancy. In general, the cultural aspect of the GPP is of great importance for the formation of “soft power” and the reformatting of the GPP itself. Thus, French President Charles de Gaulle during the collapse of the colonial empire (1960s) successfully embodied the concept of francophonie (a community of French-speaking countries). The French language became the basis of French influence in the former colonies of Tropical Africa.

Unlike the time 100, and even more so 200, years ago, image-based public education programs are of great importance. Many of them can be considered as “myths about the country” (one’s own and another) in the system of national historical myths or stereotypes, and as “cultural radiation” of the country [Geopolitical situation... 2000, p. 19, 10]. And as the quintessence of various cultural aspects, a certain multifaceted “project of the future” appears, imprinted in the mass consciousness and traditions of a certain community. The cultural-geopolitical code of the country - its unique geopolitical DNA - is closely connected with this “project”. Here it is important to take into account the degree of compatibility or conflict potential of the “projects of the future” of different interacting communities.

ny assessment of WPP. For example, when assessing national potentials (CINC) or “statuses” of countries. We will mention these models later (see section 4.2.2, section 4.4.2).

- central, remote; 12- coinciding, combined; 13- intermediate: equidistant and axial, symmetrical; 14- remote, isolated; 15 - centering, covering; 21 - eccentric, deep, peripheral; 23 - intermediate, offset, asymmetrical, in a particular case - angular; 24 - close, in the field of influence; 25 - eccentric, enveloping; 31 - border, outlying; 32 - transboundary, junction, transitional; 34 - neighboring, adjacent, on-site; 35 - delimiting, connecting; 41 - border lth order; 42 - transareal (-border) lth order; 43 - neighboring/adjacent lth order; 45 - delimiting lth order; 51 - dissecting, crossing; 52 - crossing; 54 - intersecting (black box model); 55 - crossed, transit, junction
Natural-geographical parameters. In the concepts of “hard” geographic determinism, they were given a priority policy-forming role. Their influence is indeed great, but it lies in imposing certain incentives and restrictions on public life. In particular, contrasting landscapes and mountainous terrain contribute to increased complexity, 102
Transport and communication parameters. WITH The transport and geographical position is closely related to the natural geographical features of the territory. This becomes obvious if we look at the development of transport routes since ancient times. It was the natural objects themselves (rivers, passes, etc.) that became the main lines of communication. Therefore, the transport situation should not be included entirely in the economic sphere, as is sometimes proposed. Almost all representatives of classical geopolitics attached a huge role to the location of countries relative to lines of communication. Currently, we can confidently say that the transport-geographical or, in broad terms, communication-geographical position affects most components of the geopolitical position: military-strategic, political, cultural, economic, environmental, demographic and others. Various types of transport, wired networks (including fiber optic highways), radio and space communications, and information flows in virtual space are considered. At the next stage, the real degree of use of the existing transport and communication potential, the possibility of increasing it and the existing threats to it are assessed.
Economic and geographical parameters. These characteristics are extremely important for assessing WPP. In Marxist and neo-Marxist literature, it is economic relations, phenomena and processes that are ultimately considered as the basis for the development of all other manifestations of social life. However, the connections in which economic phenomena are involved 104
Ethno-civilizational and cultural parameters. The key characteristics are the positions of the geopolitical subject on the ethnolinguistic and historical maps. From this position, the localization of ethnic groups, super-ethnic groups and super-ethnic systems, the complementarity of neighboring ethnic groups (according to L.N. Gumilyov) is determined. The historical map reveals differences in cultural and symbolic
Integral geopolitical parameters. Some characteristics that summarize different parameters from the above can be separated into a separate group. This, for example, is a complex geopolitical zoning of the region and interpretation of the GLP from the point of view of any integral global concept (for example, regarding the heartland of H. Mackinder, pan-regions of K. Haushofer, geopolitical regions of S. Cohen, civilizational platforms of V. Tsymbursky, etc. ). It is possible to use integral quantitative indicators (indices) for complex- Partial provisions are published in [Elatskov 2012a].

The capital of the Russian Federation is Moscow - one of the largest megacities in the modern world. It is home to more than 12 million people. Where is Moscow? In what part of the country is it located? What is the geographical location of Moscow and the Moscow region?

Moscow is capital of Russia

According to historians, Moscow first became the capital of the Russian state back in 1340. Today this city is home to 12.4 million people. According to this indicator, Moscow is among the top ten cities on the planet in terms of population. Here is the largest library in Europe and one of the most visited attractions - the Moscow Kremlin.

People have long chosen these places for their lives. This is evidenced by numerous archaeological finds. Later, the convenient geographical location of Moscow attracted traders and artisans to the city. The latter were mainly engaged in tanning leather, making wood and iron products.

Trying to explain the origin of the toponym “Moscow”, researchers split into two camps. The first associate it with the ancient Slavic language, from which this word can be translated as “dampness.” The latter insist that the roots of this toponym are Finnish. In this case, the modern name “Moscow” can be composed of two Finnish words: “mosk” (bear) and “va” (water).

Where is Moscow? Let's pay more attention to the geography of the capital city.

Geographical location of the city

Moscow is an important financial, scientific and Russian city. The city was founded in the mid-12th century and today is the most populated in Europe. What is the geographical location of Moscow? And how did it influence the history of the city's development?

Moscow is located in the very plain, between the Volga and Oka rivers. The city itself stands on the Moscow River, which gave it its name. quite heterogeneous: low hills alternate here with low depressions. The average height of the urban area is 144 meters.

The total length of Moscow from north to south is 51.7 km, and from west to east - 29.7 km. In the extreme southwest, the urban area extends to the borders of the Kaluga region.

The more precise location of Moscow on the map of Russia is shown below.

Geographic coordinates and area of the capital

A description of the geographical location of Moscow will be incomplete without indicating its coordinates. So, the city is located in the North and East. Its exact coordinates are: 55° 45" north latitude, 37° 36" east. etc. By the way, such famous cities as Copenhagen, Edinburgh, Kazan are located at the same latitude. The minimum distance from Moscow to the Russian state border is 390 km.

But the distances from Moscow to some other European capitals and large Russian cities:

Minsk - 675 km;
Kyiv - 750 km;
Riga - 850 km;
Berlin - 1620 km;
Rome - 2380 km;
London - 2520 km;
Ekaterinburg - 1420 km;
Rostov-on-Don - 960 km;
Khabarovsk - 6150 km;
St. Petersburg - 640 km.

Moscow is a very dynamic city. Therefore, its boundaries are constantly changing towards expansion. Today the capital occupies an area of 2561 square meters. km. This is roughly comparable to the area of Luxembourg.

Moscow is an important transport hub

The extremely convenient geographical location of Moscow contributed to the gradual transformation of the city into an important transport hub. Back in 1155, Andrei Bogolyubsky walked through these places, carrying the miraculous icon of the Mother of God to Vladimir. Today, important transport corridors radiate out from Moscow in different directions.

The city's internal transport system is also quite developed. In total, there are five airports and nine railway stations in Moscow. All areas of the capital are densely penetrated by a network of bus, trolleybus and tram routes. The Moscow metro is considered one of the largest in the world. The total length of its lines (there are 12 in total) is 278 kilometers. By the way, according to one hypothesis, there is a secret metro line in the capital connecting the Kremlin with military bunkers for shelter.

General features of Moscow nature

The capital of Russia is located at the junction of three orographic structures. These are the Smolensk-Moscow Upland in the west, in the east and the Moskvoretsko-Oka Plain in the south. It is this fact that explains the heterogeneity of its relief. Some are densely cut by steep ravines and ravines, others, on the contrary, are flat and swampy lowlands.

The city is located in a temperate continental climate zone with average temperatures in January -10 degrees, July - +18 degrees. The amount of precipitation in Moscow, as a rule, does not exceed 600-650 mm per year.

Within the city, dozens of rivers, streams and small watercourses carry their waters. The largest of them are Khodynka, Yauza and Neglinnaya. True, today most of Moscow’s rivers are “hidden” in underground sewers.

There is no need to talk about any continuous soil cover in such a large metropolis as Moscow. In areas of the city free from residential or industrial development, soddy-podzolic soils are most common.

Moscow is surrounded on almost all sides by forests - pine, oak, spruce and linden. In the city itself, many parks, squares and green areas have been created. The largest natural park within the capital is Losiny Ostrov.

Economic-geographical position of Moscow and its assessment

The city's EGP is extremely beneficial. First of all, from a transport point of view. Important road and railway routes connect Moscow not only with major Russian cities, but also with other neighboring countries. In addition, powerful fuel and metallurgical bases of the state are located relatively close to the city.

The second advantageous factor of the Moscow EGP is the capital status of the city. It was he who determined the location of key government bodies, foreign embassies, important universities and financial institutions.

In general, the advantageous central geographical location of Moscow has been the main factor in its economic development for several centuries. Today, four free economic zones have been created and operate within the capital and its immediate surroundings.

Geographical location of the Moscow region

To put it figuratively, the capital is, as it were, enclosed in the careful embrace of the Moscow region or Moscow region, as they like to call this region unofficially. In terms of area, it is the 55th subject of the Russian Federation.

The Moscow region is located within the East European Plain and directly borders the Kaluga, Smolensk, Tver, Yaroslavl, Vladimir, Tula and Ryazan regions. The region's topography is predominantly flat. Only in the west is the territory slightly hilly.

The region is not rich in mineral resources. Within its boundaries there are minor deposits of phosphorites, sandstone, limestone, brown coal and peat. The Moscow region is located in a temperate continental climate with humid summers and fairly snowy winters. The region has a developed hydrological network. The largest rivers of the Moscow region are Moskva, Oka, Klyazma, Osetra.

Interesting fact: the region is almost equally distant from the nearest seas (Black, Baltic, White and Azov). Important transport routes connecting Russia with the countries of Eastern Europe pass through its territory.

The modern Moscow region is an important industrial region. In terms of total industrial production, it ranks ninth in Russia.

Conclusion

So, what features distinguish the geographical location of Moscow? To summarize, we list the most significant of them:

Moscow is located in the European part of the country, at the 55th parallel of the Earth’s Northern Hemisphere;
the capital of Russia is located in the heart of the East European Plain, in a zone of temperate continental climate;
Moscow is closer in distance to many capitals of Europe than to some large cities in Russia;
the city is located at the intersection of important transport routes that have long connected Europe with Russia and Asia;
all the benefits of Moscow's geographical location are only enhanced by its capital status.