(1564-1642) - great Italian physicist and astronomer, creator of the foundations of mechanics, fighter for an advanced worldview. Galileo defended and developed the system (see), opposed church scholasticism, and was the first to use a telescope to observe and study the celestial bodies, which was the beginning of a new era in astronomy. Using a telescope, he proved that there are mountains and valleys on the Moon. This completely shattered the idea of the supposedly fundamental difference between “heavenly” and “earthly” and refuted the religious legend about the special nature of heaven. Galileo discovered four satellites of Jupiter, proved the movement of Venus around the Sun and discovered the rotation of the Sun around its axis (by the movement of dark spots on the Sun). Galileo further established that the Milky Way is a cluster of stars.
He proved the possibility of determining geographic longitude at sea based on the position of Jupiter's satellites, which was of direct practical importance for navigation. Galileo is the founder of dynamics. He established the law of inertia, the law of free fall of bodies, this law of addition; With the help of these laws he solved a number of problems. He discovered the laws of pendulum oscillation and studied the motion of a body thrown at an angle to the horizon. In the development of ideas about space and time, the so-called principle of Galileo’s relativity played a large role - the position that the uniform and rectilinear motion of a physical system of bodies is not reflected in the processes occurring in this system (for example, the movement of a ship relative to the earth and the movement of bodies located on the ship).
In understanding the laws of nature, Galileo demanded specific experimental research. He considered experience to be the only source of knowledge. Despite the fact that his materialism, like the materialism of all philosophers of that time, was mechanistic, Galileo’s concrete research and struggle for scientific, experimental methods of analyzing nature, as well as his general philosophical views (recognition of objectivity, the infinity of the world, the eternity of matter, etc. .) made a valuable contribution to the development of materialist philosophy.
He considered sensory experience and practice to be the only criterion of truth. Contrasting the scientific study of nature with sacred scripture, he declared that not a single saying of scripture has the same coercive force as any natural phenomenon. For his struggle against the church, against scholasticism and obscurantism, Galileo, already at an advanced age, was persecuted by the Inquisition. J.V. Stalin described Galileo as one of the courageous fighters of science, innovators who boldly paved new paths in science. The most important works of Galileo: “Dialogue on the two most important systems of the world, Ptolemaic and Copernican” (1632; Soviet edition - 1948) and “Conversations and mathematical proofs concerning two New branches of science related to mechanics and local motion” (1638; Soviet edition - 1934 ).
Galileo Galileo
Born: February 15, 1564.
Died: January 8, 1642 (77 years old).
Biography
Galileo Galilei (Italian: Galileo Galilei; February 15, 1564, Pisa - January 8, 1642, Arcetri) was an Italian physicist, mechanic, astronomer, philosopher and mathematician who had a significant influence on the science of his time. He was the first to use a telescope to observe celestial bodies and made a number of outstanding astronomical discoveries. Galileo is the founder of experimental physics. With his experiments, he convincingly refuted Aristotle's speculative metaphysics and laid the foundation of classical mechanics.
During his lifetime, he was known as an active supporter of the heliocentric system of the world, which led Galileo to a serious conflict with the Catholic Church.
early years
Galileo was born in 1564 in the Italian city of Pisa, in the family of a well-born but impoverished nobleman, Vincenzo Galilei, a prominent music theorist and lutenist. Galileo Galilei's full name: Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de Galilei (Italian: Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de "Galilei). Representatives of the Galilean family have been mentioned in documents since the 14th century. Several of his direct ancestors were priors (members of the ruling council) of the Florentine Republic, and Galileo's great-great-grandfather , a famous doctor who also bore the name Galileo, was elected head of the republic in 1445.
There were six children in the family of Vincenzo Galilei and Giulia Ammannati, but four managed to survive: Galileo(the eldest of the children), daughters Virginia, Livia and the youngest son Michelangelo, who later also gained fame as a lutenist composer. In 1572, Vincenzo moved to Florence, the capital of the Duchy of Tuscany. The Medici dynasty that ruled there was known for its wide and constant patronage of the arts and sciences.
Little is known about Galileo's childhood. From an early age the boy was attracted to art; Throughout his life he carried with him a love of music and drawing, which he mastered to perfection. In his mature years, the best artists of Florence - Cigoli, Bronzino and others - consulted with him on issues of perspective and composition; Cigoli even claimed that it was to Galileo that he owed his fame. From Galileo's writings one can also conclude that he had remarkable literary talent.
Galileo received his primary education at the nearby Vallombrosa monastery. The boy loved to study and became one of the best students in the class. He weighed the possibility of becoming a priest, but his father was against it.
In 1581, 17-year-old Galileo, at the insistence of his father, entered the University of Pisa to study medicine. At the university, Galileo also attended lectures on geometry (previously he was completely unfamiliar with mathematics) and became so carried away by this science that his father began to fear that this would interfere with the study of medicine.
Galileo remained a student for less than three years; During this time, he managed to thoroughly familiarize himself with the works of ancient philosophers and mathematicians and earned a reputation among teachers as an indomitable debater. Even then, he considered himself entitled to have his own opinion on all scientific issues, regardless of traditional authorities.
It was probably during these years that he became acquainted with the Copernican theory. Astronomical problems were then actively discussed, especially in connection with the calendar reform that had just been carried out.
Soon, the father’s financial situation worsened, and he was unable to pay for his son’s further education. The request to exempt Galileo from paying fees (such an exception was made for the most capable students) was rejected. Galileo returned to Florence (1585) without receiving his degree. Fortunately, he managed to attract attention with several ingenious inventions (for example, hydrostatic balances), thanks to which he met the educated and wealthy lover of science, the Marquis Guidobaldo del Monte. The Marquis, unlike the Pisan professors, was able to correctly evaluate him. Even then, del Monte said that since the time of Archimedes the world had not seen such a genius as Galileo. Admired by the young man’s extraordinary talent, the Marquis became his friend and patron; he introduced Galileo to the Tuscan Duke Ferdinand I de' Medici and petitioned for a paid scientific position for him.
In 1589, Galileo returned to the University of Pisa, now as a professor of mathematics. There he began to conduct independent research in mechanics and mathematics. True, he was given a minimum salary: 60 crowns a year (a professor of medicine received 2000 crowns). In 1590, Galileo wrote his treatise On Motion.
In 1591, the father died, and responsibility for the family passed to Galileo. First of all, he had to take care of raising his younger brother and the dowry of his two unmarried sisters.
In 1592, Galileo received a position at the prestigious and wealthy University of Padua (Venetian Republic), where he taught astronomy, mechanics and mathematics. Based on the letter of recommendation from the Doge of Venice to the university, one can judge that Galileo’s scientific authority was already extremely high in these years:
Realizing the importance of mathematical knowledge and its benefits for other major sciences, we delayed the appointment, not finding a worthy candidate. Signor Galileo, a former professor at Pisa, who enjoys great fame and is rightly recognized as the most knowledgeable in the mathematical sciences, has now expressed a desire to take this place. Therefore, we are pleased to give him the chair of mathematics for four years with a salary of 180 florins per year.
Padua, 1592-1610
The years of his stay in Padua were the most fruitful period of Galileo's scientific activity. He soon became the most famous professor in Padua. Students flocked to his lectures, the Venetian government constantly entrusted Galileo with the development of various kinds of technical devices, young Kepler and other scientific authorities of that time actively corresponded with him.
During these years he wrote a treatise called Mechanics, which aroused some interest and was republished in a French translation. In early works, as well as in correspondence, Galileo gave the first sketch of a new general theory of falling bodies and the motion of a pendulum.
The reason for a new stage in Galileo's scientific research was the appearance in 1604 of a new star, now called Kepler's Supernova. This awakens general interest in astronomy, and Galileo gives a series of private lectures. Having learned about the invention of the telescope in Holland, Galileo in 1609 constructed the first telescope with his own hands and aimed it at the sky.
What Galileo saw was so amazing that even many years later there were people who refused to believe in his discoveries and claimed that it was an illusion or delusion. Galileo discovered mountains on the Moon, the Milky Way broke up into individual stars, but his contemporaries were especially amazed by the 4 satellites of Jupiter he discovered (1610). In honor of the four sons of his late patron Ferdinand de' Medici (who died in 1609), Galileo named these satellites "Medician stars" (lat. Stellae Medicae). They now bear the more appropriate name of “Galilean satellites.”
Galileo described his first discoveries with a telescope in his work “The Starry Messenger” (Latin: Sidereus Nuncius), published in Florence in 1610. The book was a sensational success throughout Europe, even crowned heads rushed to order a telescope. Galileo donated several telescopes to the Venetian Senate, which, as a sign of gratitude, appointed him a professor for life with a salary of 1,000 florins. In September 1610, Kepler acquired a telescope, and in December, Galileo's discoveries were confirmed by the influential Roman astronomer Clavius. Universal recognition is coming. Galileo becomes the most famous scientist in Europe; odes are written in his honor, comparing him to Columbus. On April 20, 1610, shortly before his death, the French king Henry IV asked Galileo to discover a star for him. There were, however, some dissatisfied people. Astronomer Francesco Sizzi (Italian: Sizzi) published a pamphlet in which he stated that seven is a perfect number, and even there are seven holes in the human head, so there can only be seven planets, and Galileo’s discoveries are an illusion. Astrologers and doctors also protested, complaining that the emergence of new celestial bodies was “disastrous for astrology and most of medicine,” since all the usual astrological methods “will be completely destroyed.”
During these years, Galileo entered into a civil marriage with the Venetian Marina Gamba (Italian: Marina Gamba). He never married Marina, but became the father of a son and two daughters. He named his son Vincenzo in memory of his father, and his daughters Virginia and Livia in honor of his sisters. Later, in 1619, Galileo officially legitimized his son; both daughters ended their lives in a monastery.
Pan-European fame and the need for money pushed Galileo to take a disastrous step, as it later turned out: in 1610 he left calm Venice, where he was inaccessible to the Inquisition, and moved to Florence. Duke Cosimo II de' Medici, son of Ferdinand, promised Galileo an honorable and profitable position as an adviser at the Tuscan court. He kept his promise, which allowed Galileo to solve the problem of huge debts that had accumulated after the marriage of his two sisters.
Florence, 1610-1632
Galileo's duties at the court of Duke Cosimo II were not burdensome - teaching the sons of the Tuscan Duke and participating in some matters as an adviser and representative of the Duke. Formally, he is also enrolled as a professor at the University of Pisa, but is relieved of the tedious duty of lecturing.
Galileo continues his scientific research and discovers the phases of Venus, spots on the Sun, and then the rotation of the Sun around its axis. Galileo often presented his achievements (as well as his priority) in a cocky polemical style, which earned him many new enemies (in particular, among the Jesuits).
Defense of Copernicanism
The growing influence of Galileo, the independence of his thinking and his sharp opposition to the teachings of Aristotle contributed to the formation of an aggressive circle of his opponents, consisting of Peripatetic professors and some church leaders. Galileo's ill-wishers were especially outraged by his propaganda of the heliocentric system of the world, since, in their opinion, the rotation of the Earth contradicted the texts of the Psalms (Psalm 103:5), a verse from Ecclesiastes (Ecc. 1:5), as well as an episode from the Book of Joshua ( Joshua 10:12), which speaks of the immobility of the Earth and the movement of the Sun. In addition, a detailed substantiation of the concept of the immobility of the Earth and a refutation of hypotheses about its rotation was contained in Aristotle’s treatise “On Heaven” and in Ptolemy’s “Almagest”.
In 1611, Galileo, in the aura of his glory, decided to go to Rome, hoping to convince the Pope that Copernicanism was completely compatible with Catholicism. He was received well, elected the sixth member of the scientific “Academia dei Lincei”, and met Pope Paul V and influential cardinals. He showed them his telescope and gave explanations carefully and carefully. The cardinals created an entire commission to clarify the question of whether it was sinful to look at the sky through a pipe, but they came to the conclusion that this was permissible. It was also encouraging that Roman astronomers openly discussed the question of whether Venus was moving around the Earth or around the Sun (the changing phases of Venus clearly spoke in favor of the second option).
Emboldened, Galileo, in a letter to his student Abbot Castelli (1613), stated that Holy Scripture relates only to the salvation of the soul and is not authoritative in scientific matters: “not a single saying of Scripture has such a coercive force as any natural phenomenon.” Moreover, he published this letter, which caused denunciations to the Inquisition. Also in 1613, Galileo published the book “Letters on Sunspots,” in which he openly spoke out in favor of the Copernican system. On February 25, 1615, the Roman Inquisition began its first case against Galileo on charges of heresy. Galileo's last mistake was his call to Rome to express its final attitude towards Copernicanism (1615).
All this caused a reaction opposite to what was expected. Alarmed by the successes of the Reformation, the Catholic Church decided to strengthen its spiritual monopoly - in particular, by banning Copernicanism. The position of the Church is clarified by a letter from the influential Cardinal Bellarmino, sent on April 12, 1615 to the theologian Paolo Antonio Foscarini, a defender of Copernicanism. The cardinal explains that the Church does not object to the interpretation of Copernicanism as a convenient mathematical device, but accepting it as a reality would mean admitting that the previous, traditional interpretation of the biblical text was erroneous. And this, in turn, will undermine the authority of the church:
First, it seems to me that your priesthood and Mr. Galileo act wisely in being content with what they say tentatively and not absolutely; I always believed that Copernicus said so too. Because if we say that the assumption of the movement of the Earth and the immobility of the Sun allows us to imagine all phenomena better than the acceptance of eccentrics and epicycles, then this will be said perfectly and does not entail any danger. For a mathematician this is quite enough. But to want to assert that the Sun is in fact the center of the world and revolves only around itself, without moving from east to west, that the Earth stands in the third heaven and revolves around the Sun with great speed - to assert this is very dangerous, not only because it means to excite all philosophers and scholastic theologians; this would be to harm the holy faith by representing the provisions of Holy Scripture as false. Secondly, as you know, the [Trent] Council forbade interpreting the Holy Scriptures contrary to the general opinion of the holy fathers. And if your priesthood wants to read not only the Holy Fathers, but also new commentaries on the book of Exodus, Psalms, Ecclesiastes and the book of Jesus, then you will find that everyone agrees that you need to understand literally that the Sun is in the sky and rotates around the Earth with great speed, and the Earth is farthest from the sky and stands motionless in the center of the world. Judge for yourself, with all your prudence, can the Church allow the Scriptures to be given a meaning contrary to everything that the Holy Fathers and all the Greek and Latin interpreters wrote?
Memory
Named after Galileo:
The “Galilean satellites” of Jupiter discovered by him.
Impact crater on the Moon (-63º, +10º).
Crater on Mars (6ºN, 27ºW)
An area with a diameter of 3200 km on Ganymede.
Asteroid (697) Galilee.
The principle of relativity and transformation of coordinates in classical mechanics.
NASA's Galileo space probe (1989-2003).
European project "Galileo" satellite navigation system.
The unit of acceleration “Gal” (Gal) in the CGS system, equal to 1 cm/sec².
Scientific entertainment and educational television program Galileo, shown in several countries. In Russia it has been broadcast since 2007 on STS.
Airport in Pisa.
To commemorate the 400th anniversary of Galileo's first observations, the UN General Assembly declared 2009 the Year of Astronomy.
Galileo in literature and art
Bertolt Brecht. Life of Galileo. Play. - In the book: Bertolt Brecht. Theater. Plays. Articles. Statements. In five volumes. - M.: Art, 1963. - T. 2.
Liliana Cavani (director). "Galileo" (film) (English) (1968). Retrieved March 2, 2009. Archived from the original on August 13, 2011.
Joseph Losey (director). "Galileo" (film adaptation of Brecht's play) (English) (1975). Retrieved March 2, 2009. Archived from the original on August 13, 2011.
Philip Glass (composer), opera Galileo.
Haggard (rock band) - The Observer (based on several facts from Galileo's biography)
Enigma released the track “Eppur si muove” in the album A Posteriori.
GALILEO(Galilei),Galileo
Italian physicist, mechanic and astronomer, one of the founders of natural science, poet, philologist and critic Galileo Galilei was born in Pisa into a noble but impoverished Florentine family. His father, Vincenzo, a famous musician, had a great influence on the development and formation of Galileo's abilities. Until the age of 11, Galileo lived in Pisa, attended school there, then the family moved to Florence. Galileo received further education at the Vallombrosa monastery, where he was accepted as a novice into the monastic order.
Here he became acquainted with the works of Latin and Greek writers. Under the pretext of a serious eye illness, the father took his son from the monastery. At the insistence of his father, in 1581 Galileo entered the University of Pisa, where he studied medicine. Here he first became acquainted with Aristotle's physics, which from the very beginning seemed unconvincing to him. Galileo turned to reading the ancient mathematicians - Euclid and Archimedes. Archimedes became his real teacher. Fascinated by geometry and mechanics, Galileo abandoned medicine and returned to Florence, where he spent 4 years studying mathematics. The result of this period of Galileo's life was a small work, “The Little Balances” (1586, published 1655), which describes the hydrostatic balances built by Galileo to quickly determine the composition of metal alloys, and a geometric study on the centers of gravity of bodily figures.
These works brought Galileo his first fame among Italian mathematicians. In 1589 he received the chair of mathematics in Pisa, continuing his scientific work. His “Dialogue on Movement,” written in Pisa and directed against Aristotle, has been preserved in manuscripts. Some of the conclusions and argumentation in this work are erroneous, and Galileo subsequently abandoned them. But already here, without naming the name of Copernicus, Galileo gives arguments refuting Aristotle’s objections to the daily rotation of the Earth.
In 1592, Galileo took the chair of mathematics in Padua. The Padua period of Galileo's life (1592–1610) is the time of the highest flowering of his activity. During these years, his static studies on machines arose, where he proceeded from the general principle of equilibrium, coinciding with the principle of possible movements, and his main dynamic works on the laws of free fall of bodies, on falling along an inclined plane, on the movement of a body thrown at an angle to the horizon, matured. , about the isochronism of pendulum oscillations. Research on the strength of materials and the mechanics of animal bodies dates back to the same period; Finally, in Padua, Galileo became a completely convinced follower of Copernicus. However, Galileo's scientific work remained hidden from everyone except his friends. Galileo's lectures were given according to the traditional program, they presented the teachings of Ptolemy. In Padua, Galileo published only a description of a proportional compass, which made it possible to quickly carry out various calculations and constructions.
In 1609, based on the information that reached him about the telescope invented in Holland, Galileo built his first telescope, giving approximately 3x magnification. The operation of the telescope was demonstrated from the tower of St. The stamp was in Venice and made a huge impression. Galileo soon built a telescope with a magnification of 32 times. Observations made with its help destroyed Aristotle’s “ideal spheres” and the dogma of the perfection of celestial bodies: the surface of the Moon turned out to be covered with mountains and pitted with craters, the stars lost their apparent size and their colossal distance was understood for the first time. Jupiter discovered 4 satellites, and a huge number of new stars became visible in the sky. The Milky Way broke up into individual stars. Galileo described his observations in the work “The Starry Messenger” (1610–1611), which made a stunning impression. At the same time, a fierce controversy began. Galileo was accused of the fact that everything he saw was an optical illusion, and it was argued simply that his observations contradicted Aristotle, and therefore were erroneous.
Astronomical discoveries served as a turning point in Galileo’s life: he was freed from teaching and, at the invitation of Duke Cosimo II de’ Medici, moved to Florence. Here he becomes the court "philosopher" and "first mathematician" of the university, without the obligation to lecture.
Continuing telescopic observations, Galileo discovered the phases of Venus, sunspots and the rotation of the Sun, studied the movement of the satellites of Jupiter, and observed Saturn. In 1611, Galileo traveled to Rome, where he received an enthusiastic reception at the papal court and where he struck up a friendship with Prince Cesi, founder of the Accademia dei Lincei (“Lynx-Eyed Academy”), of which he became a member. At the insistence of the Duke, Galileo published his first anti-Aristotelian work, “Discourse on Bodies in Water and Those that Move in It” (1612), where he applied the principle of equal moments to the derivation of equilibrium conditions in liquid bodies.
However, in 1613, a letter from Galileo to Abbot Castelli became known, in which he defended the views of Copernicus. The letter served as a reason for direct denunciation of Galileo to the Inquisition. In 1616, the Jesuit congregation declared the teachings of Copernicus heretical, and Copernicus' book was included in the list of prohibited books. Galileo was not named in the decree, but he was privately ordered to renounce his defense of this doctrine. Galileo formally submitted to the decree. For several years he was forced to remain silent about the Copernican system or speak about it in hints. Galileo's only major work during this period was The Assayer (1623), a polemical treatise on the three comets that appeared in 1618. In terms of literary form, wit and refinement of style, this is one of Galileo's most remarkable works.
In 1623, Galileo's friend Cardinal Maffeo Barberini ascended the papal throne under the name of Urban VIII. For Galileo, this event seemed tantamount to liberation from the bonds of interdict (decree). In 1630, he arrived in Rome with the finished manuscript of the “Dialogue on the Ebb and Flow of the Tides” (the first title of the “Dialogue on the Two Major Systems of the World”), in which the systems of Copernicus and Ptolemy are presented in conversations between three interlocutors: Sagredo, Salviati and Simplicio.
Pope Urban VIII agreed to publish a book in which the teachings of Copernicus would be presented as one of the possible hypotheses. After lengthy censorship ordeals, Galileo received the long-awaited permission to publish the Dialogue with some changes; the book appeared in Florence in Italian in January 1632. A few months after the book's publication, Galileo received an order from Rome to stop further sales of the publication. At the request of the Inquisition, Galileo was forced to come to Rome in February 1633. A trial was initiated against him. During four interrogations - from April 12 to June 21, 1633 - Galileo renounced the teachings of Copernicus and on June 22 brought public repentance on his knees in the Church of Maria Sopra Minerva. “Dialogue” was banned, and Galileo was officially considered a “prisoner of the Inquisition” for 9 years. First he lived in Rome, in the ducal palace, then in his villa Arcetri, near Florence. He was forbidden to talk with anyone about the movement of the Earth and publish works. Despite the papal interdict, a Latin translation of the Dialogue appeared in Protestant countries, and Galileo's discussion of the relationship between the Bible and natural science was published in Holland. Finally, in 1638, one of Galileo’s most important works was published in Holland, summing up his physical research and containing a rationale for dynamics - “Conversations and mathematical proofs concerning two new branches of science...”
In 1637 Galileo went blind; he died on January 8, 1642. In 1737, Galileo's last will was fulfilled - his ashes were transferred to Florence to the Church of Santa Croce, where he was buried next to Michelangelo.
Galileo's influence on the development of mechanics, optics and astronomy in the 17th century. invaluable. His scientific activity, the enormous importance of his discovery, and scientific courage were decisive for the victory of the heliocentric system of the world. Galileo's work on the creation of the basic principles of mechanics was especially significant. If the basic laws of motion were not expressed by Galileo with the clarity with which Isaac Newton did, then in essence the law of inertia and the law of addition of motions were fully understood by him and applied to the solution of practical problems. The history of statics begins with Archimedes; Galileo discovers the history of dynamics. He was the first to put forward the idea of the relativity of motion and solved a number of basic mechanical problems. This includes, first of all, the study of the laws of free fall of bodies and their fall along an inclined plane; laws of motion of a body thrown at an angle to the horizon; establishing the conservation of mechanical energy when a pendulum oscillates. Galileo dealt a blow to Aristotelian dogmatic ideas about absolutely light bodies (fire, air); in a series of ingenious experiments, he showed that air is a heavy body and even determined its specific gravity in relation to water.
The basis of Galileo’s worldview is the recognition of the objective existence of the world, i.e. its existence outside and independent of human consciousness. The world is infinite, he believed, matter is eternal. In all processes occurring in nature, nothing is destroyed or generated - only a change in the relative position of bodies or their parts occurs. Matter consists of absolutely indivisible atoms, its movement is the only universal mechanical movement. The celestial bodies are similar to the Earth and obey the same laws of mechanics. Everything in nature is subject to strict mechanical causality. Galileo saw the true goal of science in finding the causes of phenomena. According to Galileo, knowledge of the inner necessity of phenomena is the highest level of knowledge. Galileo considered observation to be the starting point for knowledge of nature, and experience to be the basis of science. Rejecting the attempts of the scholastics to obtain the truth from a comparison of texts of recognized authorities and through abstract speculation, Galileo argued that the task of a scientist is “... to study the great book of nature, which is the real subject of philosophy.” Those who blindly adhere to the opinions of authorities, not wanting to study natural phenomena on their own, Galileo called “slavish minds,” considered them unworthy of the title of philosopher and branded them “doctors of rote learning.” However, limited by the conditions of his time, Galileo was not consistent; he shared the theory of dual truth and assumed a divine first impulse.
Galileo's talent was not limited to the field of science: he was a musician, artist, lover of the arts and a brilliant writer. His scientific treatises, most of which were written in vernacular Italian, although Galileo was fluent in Latin, can also be classified as works of art due to the simplicity and clarity of their presentation and the brilliance of their literary style. Galileo translated from Greek into Latin, studied ancient classics and Renaissance poets (the works “Notes on Ariosto”, “Criticism of Tasso”), spoke at the Florentine Academy on the study of Dante, wrote a burlesque poem “Satire on Toga Wearers”. Galileo is a co-author of A. Salvadori’s canzone “On the Medici Stars” - the satellites of Jupiter, discovered by Galileo in 1610.
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Galileo Galilei (Italian: Galileo Galilei; February 15, 1564 – January 8, 1642) was an Italian philosopher, physicist and astronomer who had a significant influence on the science of his time. Galileo is mainly known for his observations of planets and stars, his active support of the heliocentric system of the world, and his experiments in mechanics.
Galileo was born in 1564 in Pisa, Italy. At the age of 18, following the instructions of his father, he entered the University of Pisa to study medicine. While at the university, Galileo Galilei became interested in mathematics and physics. He was soon forced to leave the university for financial reasons and began independent research in mechanics. In 1589, Galileo returned to the University of Pisa at the invitation to teach mathematics. He later moved to the University of Padua, where he taught geometry, mechanics and astronomy. At that time, he began to make significant scientific discoveries.
Everyone can speak confusedly, but few can speak clearly.
Galileo Galilei
In 1609, Galileo Galilei independently built his first telescope with a convex lens and a concave eyepiece. The tube provided approximately threefold magnification. Soon he managed to build a telescope that gave a magnification of 32 times. Observations through a telescope showed that the Moon was covered with mountains and pitted with craters, the stars lost their apparent size, and for the first time their colossal distance was comprehended, Jupiter discovered its own moons - four satellites, the Milky Way broke up into individual stars, and a huge number of new stars became visible. Galileo discovers the phases of Venus, sunspots and the rotation of the Sun.
Based on observations of the sky, Galileo concluded that the heliocentric system of the world proposed by N. Copernicus was correct. This was at odds with the literal reading of Psalms 93 and 104, as well as the verse from Ecclesiastes 1:5, which talks about the immobility of the Earth. Galileo was summoned to Rome and demanded to stop promoting his views, to which he was forced to submit.
In 1632, the book “Dialogue on the two most important systems of the world - Ptolemaic and Copernican” was published. The book is written in the form of a dialogue between two adherents of Copernicus and one adherent of Aristotle and Ptolemy. Despite the fact that the publication of the book was authorized by Pope Urban VIII, a friend of Galileo, a few months later the sale of the book was banned, and Galileo was summoned to Rome for trial, where he arrived in February 1633. The investigation lasted from April 21 to June 21, 1633, and on June 22, Galileo had to pronounce the text of renunciation proposed to him. In the last years of his life he had to work in difficult conditions. At his villa Archertri (Florence) he was under house arrest (under constant surveillance by the Inquisition) and was not allowed to visit the city (Rome). In 1634, Galileo's beloved daughter, who was caring for him, died.
Galileo Galilei died on January 8, 1642, and was buried in Archertree, without honors or gravestone. Only in 1737 was his last will fulfilled - his ashes were transferred to the monastic chapel of the Cathedral of Santa Croce in Florence, where on March 17 he was solemnly buried next to Michelangelo.
From 1979 to 1981, on the initiative of Pope John Paul II, a commission for the rehabilitation of Galileo Galilei worked, and on October 31, 1992, Pope John Paul II officially admitted that the Inquisition in 1633 made a mistake by forcefully forcing the scientist to renounce the Copernican theory.
I prefer to find one truth, even in insignificant things, rather than argue for a long time about the greatest issues without achieving any truth.
Name: Galileo Galilei
State: Italy
Field of activity: Scientist
Greatest Achievement: Proved that the planets revolve around the sun. He made enormous contributions to astronomy, physics, and mathematics. He laid the foundation for classical mechanics.
Italy can rightfully be considered a forge of science - famous scientists who revolutionized the concept of the structure of the world, physicists, astronomers, sculptors, and architects came from this wonderful country. Not afraid of conflict with the Roman Catholic Church, they zealously defended their knowledge. To save life and the opportunity to work, some renounced their beliefs.
The most striking example of this behavior is Galileo Galilei. The scientist (most people simply call him Galileo) was one of the most significant people in the history of science. He lived at a turning point in time, when different threads of thought met at the crossroads of sciences.
These were:
- natural philosophy based on the ideas of Aristotle;
- beliefs of the Catholic Church;
- evidence-based research.
Looking ahead, we note that in the end, the ideas of Galileo and other scientists triumphed because they were able to prove their truth.
early years
The future great scientist was born in the city of Pisa on February 15, 1564 into an aristocratic family. However, it cannot be said that the family bathed in luxury - on the contrary, only one name remained from aristocracy. Galileo's father, Vincenzo, was a musician. Although the family was impoverished, some members of the Galileo family held prominent positions in the past. Thus, several ancestors were members of the Council of the Florentine Republic, and one of the ancestors was even elected head of the city.
Almost nothing is known about the boy's early years. When the child turned 8 years old, the family moved to Florence. This city was not chosen by chance; the Medici family always patronized scientists and cultural figures. Upon reaching 18 years of age, he entered the University of Pisa at the Faculty of Medicine. Then interest in mathematics awakens. She so absorbed the young student that the father was afraid that his son would abandon medicine. Already at that time, Galileo positioned himself as a fierce debater, defending his views to the bitter end, even if they ran counter to the authoritative opinion of scientists.
Unfortunately, Galileo was a student for only 3 years - the family’s money ran out, and the father could no longer pay for his son’s education. Galileo returns to Florence without a degree.
Carier start
Gradually abandoning his studies in medicine, he became an inventor. One of his first instruments was a hydrostatic balance. Then, at the age of 22, Galileo published a book on hydrostatic balance - thus his name became known in the city. However, for now it was necessary to find an opportunity to earn a living - technological progress was in its very infancy. Galileo first worked as an art teacher.
At the age of 24, he began teaching art. He did not stay long in this job - his scientific and mathematical abilities were noticed, and in 1589, at the age of only 25, he received a job offer at the Faculty of Mathematics at the University of Pisa. The young scholar worked here for three years before moving to Padua and becoming a teacher at the local university in 1592. Galileo settled in this city, where he taught mathematics, physics and astronomy, and made many important scientific discoveries.
These happy, fruitful years were overshadowed by a sad event - his father died in 1591.
He continued his research and in 1593 published the first book “Mechanics”, where he described all his observations over several years. After the publication of his scientific work, the name of Galileo became known throughout almost all of Italy. But the main invention was waiting for him ahead - a telescope with a concave eyepiece, with which it was possible to observe the stars and make various astronomical discoveries.
Of course, such research could not go unnoticed by the church - already in 1604 the first denunciation of Galileo was laid on the table of the Inquisition. Allegedly, he read forbidden literature in his room and practiced astrology, which was then equivalent to alchemy. However, this time he was lucky - the inquisitor in Padua sympathized with the young talent and ignored the denunciation.
Nevertheless, with the help of a telescope, Galileo made several stunning discoveries that, years later, did not cease to excite descendants - he discovered the first satellites in the orbit of a planet other than Earth - Jupiter. The four largest moons of the planet that he discovered were named Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. And together they are known as the satellites of Galileo. Galileo also discovered that Venus has phases similar to the Moon, ranging from a thin crescent to a full moon.
This was the first practical, observational evidence that the sun is at the center of the solar system. In addition, he is credited with the discovery of the rings of Saturn. Well, a truly revolutionary discovery - there are mountains on the Moon. For that time it was a real shock. The Milky Way, according to Galileo’s research, consisted of stars located close to each other (which gives the impression of a lunar “path”).
He was also the first person to see the planet Neptune. This is known for certain from the drawings in his notebook. He noticed that it was moving, unlike other stars. At the time of Galileo, the planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn had been known for thousands of years, and no others were considered or sought. Unfortunately, Galileo lost track of the moving star he had found. Neptune was only rediscovered in 1846.
Galileo Galilei also adhered to the heliocentric system - the same one that Copernicus proposed. Through his telescope, he saw that the Polish astronomer was right, and his own research proved that it was the Sun that was in the center, and the planets revolved around it. Unfortunately, in those days, many scientific discoveries were contrary to church teachings. Therefore, the Inquisition began to pay closer attention to Galileo. The scientist was summoned and demanded to stop his research and not mislead the people. I had to obey. But Galileo did not give up and in 1632 published a book-dialogue in which supporters of both the teachings and Ptolemy discussed the solar system and planets.
The book was published and was a success in the first two months. Then it was banned, and the author was again summoned to the Pope. This time the matter was set in motion. The investigation lasted several months, and the result was Galileo's renunciation of his beliefs.
last years of life
The trial ended in 1633, and he was ordered to go to his villa Archertree near Florence and was prohibited from going to Rome or engaging in scientific activities. I had to do this secretly. During these years, the scientist’s health noticeably weakened; the years took their toll. After all, he was already over sixty. Scientific activities had to be carried out secretly - the Inquisition did not take its watchful eyes off Galileo.
Galileo Galilei died on January 8, 1642, he was 77 years old. He survived his eldest daughter Virginia, who had died 8 years earlier and was caring for her ailing father. Two representatives of the Inquisition were present at the funeral; all works were subject to careful inspection. A little later, another daughter of Galileo, Livia, died. And then, the scientist’s grandson, named after him, became a monk and destroyed all his grandfather’s works in a fire. Thus, the originals of Galileo's works have not reached us. However, his business continues to live.