Articulatory classification of consonant sounds
The characteristics of consonant sounds include five main features: 1) place of noise formation, 2) method of noise formation, 3) noise level (sonority/noisiness), 4) deafness/voice, 5) hardness/softness.
There are 36 consonant sounds in the Russian language: [b], [b'], [v], [v'], [g], [g'], [d], [d'], [zh], [z] , [z'], [y'], [k], [k'], [l], [l'], [m], [m'], [n], [n'], [p] , [p'], [p], [p'], [s], [s'], [t], [t'], [f], [f'], [x], [x'] , [ts], [h'], [w], [w: '].
Place of education- that part of the speech apparatus where the speech organs come together or close during the articulation of a consonant. The place of formation of a consonant is determined by the result of the interaction of two movable organs (lips, tongue) or a movable and a fixed one (palate, teeth), and therefore consonants can be determined by both active and passive organs of speech. The classification of consonants by place of formation is based on the structure of the speech apparatus (within the upper resonators). According to the place of formation, all consonants are divided into labial and lingual.
Labial are divided into labiolabial[b, b’, p, p’, m, m’] and labiodental[v, v’, f, f’]. In the formation of these sounds, the role of active organs is played by the lips, especially the lower lip, and the role of passive organs is played by the teeth. During articulation of the labio-labials, both lips close; during articulation of the labio-dentals, the lower lip moves closer to the upper teeth.
lingual consonants differ depending on which part of the back of the tongue - front, middle or back - is the active organ in the formation of sound. Languages are divided into front-lingual[d, d', t, t', z, z', s, s', w, w, w:', c, h, r, r', n, n', l, l'], middle language[j] and posterior lingual[k, k' g, g', x, x'].
Forelingual consonants are formed by touching the back or tip of the tongue to the corresponding parts of the front palate or teeth. According to the passive organ, these consonants have the general name of anteropalatal and are divided into such varieties as dental [d, d' t, t', c, z, z', s, s', n, n'. l, l’] and palatal[w, f, r, r’, h].
When the teeth are formed, the front part of the back of the tongue, together with the tip, articulates as a single whole, closing (or approaching) the upper teeth. When forming palatal consonants, not only the front part of the back of the tongue moves closer to the front part of the palate, but also the back part of the back of the tongue pulls back, moving closer to the posterior soft palate.
Middle language(according to the passive organ - middle palatal) the sound [j] is formed by bringing the middle part of the back of the tongue closer to the middle palate.
Rear lingual sounds are formed by closing [k, k’ g, g’] or bringing together [x, x’] the back of the tongue with the fixed palate.
Determine the method of education consonant means finding out how an obstacle is created, what its nature is, whether it is simple or complex, and how it is overcome by an exhaled air stream. According to the method of formation, consonants are distinguished:
Occlusive(otherwise: explosive, instantaneous, shutter), the necessary moment of articulation of which is a complete shutter of the speech organs, blocking the exit of the air stream to the outside. This obstacle is removed by a strong and short push of air, which quickly comes out, producing an “explosion” effect. It is at this moment that stop consonants are formed [b, b' p, p', d, d', t, t', k, k', g, g'];
Slotted ( or fricatives), when pronounced, the organs of speech no longer form a shutter, but only come closer together, leaving a narrow gap for the passage of a stream of air [v, v' f, f', z, z', s, s', g, w, w :', j, x, x'];
Africates(stop-frictional) – complex consonants [ts, ch]. The uniqueness of affricates is that on the initial basis of formation they are formed as stops: the organs of speech are tightly adjacent to each other (cf. [t]). However, the “explosion” does not occur, since the speech organs have time to switch to the articulation of fricative sounds [s, w], and at the moment of exposure the affricates already sound like fricatives of the same place of formation where the shutter was previously. Thus, during the formation of affricates, the air stream has to overcome a complex barrier (in contrast to the formation of stops and fricatives, where the barrier is simple);
Connectively-passing consonants [l, l' m, m', n, n']. During their formation, a closure is formed in the oral cavity and at the same time there is access for free passage of air through the nose or mouth. These consonants are divided into nasal [m, m’, n, n’] and lateral [l, l’]. Nasal consonants are characterized by complete closure of the oral cavity and simultaneous lowering of the velum palatine. Air passes freely through the nasal cavity. When lateral sounds are formed, the front part of the tongue closes with the palate, the side parts of the tongue are lowered, forming an outlet on both sides for the exhaled stream of air.
Trembling consonants are formed by trembling (vibration) of the tip of the tongue and closing and opening it with the alveoli: [p, p’].
By noise level(degrees of its intensity) consonants are divided into sonorous[l, l' m, m', n, n', p, p', j] and noisy[b, b' p, p', d, d', t, t', k, k', g, g', c, v' f, f', z, z', s, s', g , w, w:', j, x, x',ts, h]. The noise intensity of noisy consonants is much higher than that of sonorant consonants (from Lat. sonorus– sonorous). This is explained by differences in the tension of the speech organs and in the strength of the air stream when pronouncing sonorant and noisy consonants. Noisy consonants are formed when there is greater muscle tension than in sonorant consonants in the part of the oral cavity where there is an obstruction to the flow of air. Therefore, the force of the air stream emerging from the oral cavity during speech when pronouncing noisy consonants is much greater than when pronouncing sonorous ones.
By voicedness / deafness noisy consonants form pairs: [b - p], [v - f], [g - k], [d - t], [zh - sh], [z - s], etc. The sounds in these pairs differ from each other each other only in that some of them are formed by noise and voice (voiced), while others are formed only by noise (voiceless).
Unpaired consonants include: voiceless [x, ts, ch, sh:’], which do not have correlative pairs in terms of voicing. Also unpaired are the sonorant consonants [l, l' m, m', n, n', p, p', j], which do not have a pair due to deafness.
The division of consonants into hard And soft. When soft consonants are formed, additional articulation occurs - the middle part of the back of the tongue rises to the hard palate. This additional movement, combined and interacting with the main articulation of the consonant, is called palatalization. The general articulatory feature of hard consonants is the absence of palatalization.
Most consonants are paired in hardness-softness:
[b - b', p - p', d - d', t - t', c - c', f - f', s - s', z - z', m - m', n - n' , p - p', l - l', k - k', g - g', x - x'].
All other consonants are unpaired: [ts, sh, zh] - only hard consonants that do not have a soft pair. [ch, sh:’, j] – only soft consonants.
The main articulation of the extra-paired sound [j] is the raising of the middle part of the tongue to the hard palate. This is the articulation that is additional in the formation of soft consonant sounds. For [j] it turns out to be the main and only possible one. Therefore, the sound [j] is called palatal ( soft ), A soft consonants – palatalized(softened).
In addition to palatalization, there are such types of additional articulation as labialization - stretching and rounding of the lips; nasalization (from lat. nasus- nose) - drooping of the soft palate, allowing air to escape into the nasal cavity, which gives all consonants an additional nasal connotation. Velarization (from the Latin Velaris - posterior palatal) is an additional movement of the back of the tongue towards the soft palate during the articulation of non-posterior lingual consonants. But in the Russian language, only palatalization has an independent phonemic meaning, since soft consonants act as independent phonemes.
Articulation table of consonant sounds of the Russian language
| Place of education | Labial | lingual |
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| Method of education | labiolabial | labiodental | front-lingual | medium- lingual | posterior lingual |
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| dental | palatal |
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| noisy | Occlusive | deaf | [p, p’] | [t t"] | [k k"] |
||||
| voiced | [b, b’] | [d d"] | [g g"] |
||||||
| Slotted | deaf | [f f"] | [s s"] | [sh sh:"] | [x x"] |
||||
| voiced | [in in"] | [z z"] | [and] | [j] | |||||
| Africates | deaf | [ts] | [h"] | ||||||
| sonorous | Smychno- checkpoints | nasal | voiced | [mm"] | [n n"] | ||||
| lateral | voiced | [l l"] | |||||||
| Trembling | voiced | [r r"] | |||||||
Key words
Vowel sounds; labialized (rounded) and non-labialized (non-rounded) sounds; climb; row; upper, middle, lower rise; row front, middle, back; consonants; sonorous, noisy; voiced, voiceless; place of formation, labial lingual; mode of formation, plosives, fricatives, affricates, tremors, stop-passes; hard and soft consonants.
Self-test questions:
1.What is articulation?
2.What is the difference between mobile and fixed organs of speech?
3.How is the pronunciation apparatus structured?
4. Describe the human articulatory organs.
7. How do vowel sounds differ from consonants?
8.Name all the vowels of the upper, middle and lower rises.
9.Name all the vowels of the front, middle and back rows.
Tests:
Indicate labialized sounds
B) *[y], [o]
Find labial consonants
A) [b], [d’], [c], [c’], [d]
B) *[p], [b’], [c], [f’], [m]
B) [z], [s’], [w], [h’], [c]
D) [k], [x’], [m], [t’], [l]
Specify transitive stop consonants
A) *[m], [n’], [l], [r’]
B) [t], [d’], [g], [k’]
B) [ts], [h’], [g], [n’]
D) [w], [w’], [i], [p’]
Which consonants do not form voiced-voiceless pairs?
A) [w], [j], [b], [j]
B) [w], [w’], [i], [p’]
B) [w], [w’], [i], [p’]
D) *[m], [h], [ts], [x]
What consonant sounds do not form hard-soft pairs?
A) [g], [ts], [j], [h]
B) [s], [k], [r], [t]
B) [p], [n], [m], [l]
D) [p], [c], [d], [d]
Literature:
1. Avanesov R.I. Phonetics of the modern Russian literary language. M.,
2. Bulanin L.L. Phonetics of the modern Russian language. M., 1987.
3. Zinder L.R. General phonetics. L., 1979.
4. Gvozdev A.N. Modern Russian literary language. Part 1. Phonetics and morphology. M., 1984.
5. Kasatkin L.L. Phonetics of modern literary language. – M.: from Moscow. University, 2003.
6.Matusevich M.I. Modern Russian language. Phonetics. M., 1986.
7.Panov M.V. Modern Russian language. Phonetics. – M.: Higher School, 1979.
8. Reformatsky A.A. Introduction to linguistics. – M.: Aspect Press, 2001.
9.Modern Russian language / Ed. Lekanta P.A. – M.: Bustard, 2002.
10. Shansky N.M. Modern Russian literary language. L., 1988.
LECTURE No. 3. PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION
Plan
The concept of transcription.
Types of transcriptions.
Phonetic transcription
The concept of transcription
Russian writing is phonographic, sound, i.e., in principle, letters record sounds, but modern Russian orthography, which was formed historically on a morphological principle, is phonemic in nature and generally does not reflect the living alternations of Russian speech that arise in the speech stream. Letters and sounds in Russian writing often do not match, for example pond sounds [rod], herself And soma sound [herself], sewn sounds [shshyt], etc.
Correct pronunciation is based on certain sound laws that have a harmonious, systematic nature, and follows certain orthoepic norms of the modern Russian literary language, developed historically. So, between spelling and orthoepy there are, along with fundamental differences, also deep correlations. To study this relationship, it is necessary to record spoken speech in such a way that there is no sharp discrepancy between pronunciation and writing, i.e. sound recording. Sound writing is called scientific writing or scientific transcription, from the Latin word transcriptio, literally “rewriting.”
The need for transcription was determined by the emergence of comparative historical linguistics and the development of phonetics as a science, when a scientist transcribed the studied words of other languages and texts in them with letters of his native language. When transcription systems emerged, two directions emerged, reflecting their purpose.
Types of transcriptions
Analytical type of transcription helped to register the sound of speech as a physiological-articulatory complex and represented sets of formulas for individual sounds. This method of transcription was non-alphabetic in nature and recorded the entire list of its characteristics in the formula of one sound. Using the formula, you can comprehensively characterize the sounds of speech. This type of transcription was invented by the English scientist J. Wilkins. More famous at present are the systems of Russian linguists I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay and V.A. Bogoroditsky.
Synthetic type of transcription(alphabetic phonetic) has a much wider and more diverse application. Elements of transcription in connection with the beginning of the study of phonetics first appear in the works of M.V. Lomonosov, V.K. Trediakovsky. However, the transcription system had not yet been formed. Its necessity was only realized as a tool for the scientific study of the sound laws of the Russian language and the establishment of the relationship between spelling and spelling.
Subsequently, Russian scientists used both the Latin and Cyrillic alphabet for transcription. Only in the middle of the 19th century. Member of the Russian Academy O.N. Betlingk, in connection with the description of the sounds of Russian speech, proposed the first transcription system based on the Russian alphabet (Cyrillic alphabet). Meanwhile, discrepancies in transcription existed for a long time. Through the efforts of many outstanding Russian scientists: L.V. Shcherby, D.N. Ushakova, E.D. Polivanova, N.F. Yakovleva, V.N. Sidorova, P.S. Kuznetsova, R.I. Avanesova, A.A. Reformatsky and others - the Russian phonetic alphabet was improved and took on a modern form.
Simultaneously with the emergence of the doctrine of the phoneme and the development of phonology, along with phonetic transcription, which graphically records pronounced and audible sounds, in the scientific study of the Russian language, phonemic (or phonological) transcription, denoting only the phonemes of a given language, began to be used.
Phonemic transcription is represented by two varieties (wordophonematic and morphophonematic), developed by prof. R.I. Avanesov.
Word-phonemic transcription conveys in writing the sound shell of a specific linguistic fact, “case” (a word or words in a certain form), partially “undressing” the shortest sound units included in its composition - freeing them from everything “external”, positional, conditioned in this specific linguistic fact phonetic position, and preserving “internal”, everything is independent and functionally significant. A letter as an element of word-phonemic transcription is a sign of a phoneme - strong (in a position of maximum differentiation) or weak (in a position of less differentiation).
Morphophonemic transcription“completely “undresses” the shortest sound units of language, completely frees them from everything external - positional, phonetically determined not only in a given “case” as a concrete and holistic phenomenon (in a word or in one or another grammatical form of a word), but also in each of its morphemes. “Exposes” the shortest sound units, pointing out only those aspects of them that are essential, independent, functionally significant in a strong position (in the position of maximum differentiation) ... That is why it turns out that many words are written the same way using morphophonemic transcription and ordinary Russian orthographic writing .
Phonetic, word-phonemic and morphophonemic transcriptions are three types of synthetic scientific-linguistic transcription; they reflect three aspects of the study of the sound system of a language, are based on the theoretical principles of phonology and are associated with Russian spelling practice.
In this course of lectures only phonetic transcription is discussed in detail. Of course, phonetic transcription is not an ideal, like any written, way of indicating pronunciation, but “the best because... it puts you face to face with reality itself, with what is in the language, with the sounds themselves, and not with their vague descriptions "
Phonetic transcription
Usually the term “transcription” is associated with the concept of phonetic transcription, i.e. such a conventional recording, which, according to the largest phoneticians, “conveys... the whole variety of living sounding speech” (R.I. Avanesov), “pursues the goals of accurate graphic recording pronunciation” (A.A. Reformatsky).
The purpose of the phonetic transcription determines the degree of its accuracy. The sounds of human speech are infinitely varied even within the same language, so phonetic transcription cannot be absolutely accurate. For educational purposes, it is sufficient that it registers all phonemes and their variants without indicating the countless variations of sounds.
When studying phonetics, it is necessary to convey spoken speech in writing as accurately as possible. Therefore, they use a special notation called phonetic transcription.
To master the principles of phonetic transcription of Russian literary pronunciation, you need to remember the following:
each transcription sign is used to designate one sound;
there should be no letters that do not represent sounds;
Each letter must always represent the same sound.
1. Introduction
2. Articulatory characteristics of vowel sounds in the Russian language
3. Articulatory characteristics of vowel sounds in English
4. Sonograms and oscillograms of English and Russian vowel sounds
6. List of references used
Introduction
Phonetics is the science of the sound side of human speech. This is one of the main branches of linguistics (linguistics). The word "phonetics" comes from the Greek. phonetikos "sound, voice" (phone sound). The special position of phonetics as a science is determined by the fact that it, the only one of all linguistic sciences, studies such units of language, the nature of which is material. The material carrier of sounding speech is air vibrations specially generated by the speaker. The listener receives information about the meaning of the message conveyed by the speaker primarily on the basis of his auditory perception.
The sound of speech is the minimal, indivisible unit of speech flow perceived by the ear. This is a real sound spoken by a specific person at a specific moment in time. The variety of speech sounds is endless. Each speaker pronounces sounds in his own way; it is not for nothing that you can recognize a person by hearing his speech. On the other hand, we are able to evaluate certain speech sounds as identical, from the point of view of belonging to one or another sound type. This sound type, the standard of sound that exists in the linguistic consciousness of speakers, is called the sound of the language. It combines similar, close speech sounds and is an abstract unit.
In this work I want to consider the formation of vowel sounds in English and Russian. And also make a comparative analysis of them.
All speech sounds are divided into vowels and consonants. They differ articulatory and acoustically.
1. When forming vowels, the air stream passes through the mouth freely, without encountering any obstacles. When consonants are formed, the air stream overcomes an obstacle in the oral cavity. This basic articulatory difference between vowels and consonants determines their other differences.
2. Vowels are tonal sounds; they are formed as a result of vibration of the vocal cords at the moment a stream of air passes through the larynx. These vibrations are periodic, they create a tone, a musical sound. Consonants are characterized by the presence of noise. Noise is a non-periodic sound; it arises as a result of an air stream overcoming various obstacles.
3. Vowels are characterized by a weak air stream, and to overcome an obstacle when pronouncing consonants, a stronger air stream is needed.
4. When forming vowels, muscle tension spreads almost equally throughout the entire oral cavity, and when forming consonants, muscle tension is concentrated in the place where the obstruction occurs.
5. V.A. Bogoroditsky called vowels mouth-openers, consonants - mouth-closers: the louder we want to pronounce a vowel, the wider we should open our mouth, the louder we want to pronounce a consonant, the closer we should bring the organs of speech together.
6. M.V. Panov cited another difference between vowels and consonants: vowels can be shouted, but it is impossible to shout with consonants alone.
Articulatory classification of vowel sounds in the Russian language.
Vowels are purely tonal sounds. Having arisen in the larynx as a result of vibrations of the vocal cords, the musical tone and voice acquires a special timbre in the supraglottic cavities. The mouth and pharynx are the resonators in which differences between vowels are formed. These differences are determined by the volume and shape of the resonating cavities, which can change as a result of the movement of the lips, tongue and lower jaw. Each vowel is pronounced in a special position of the speech organs, characteristic only of this sound.
The classification of vowel sounds is based on three characteristics:
· participation of lips
degree of elevation of the tongue vertically relative to the palate
degree of tongue advancement or retraction along the larynx
Based on the participation of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded (labialized) and unrounded (non-labialized) (from the Latin labium - lip () abialized and unrounded () long (about this sound, the position of the ragons can change as a result of the movement of the lip timbre). When rounded vowels are formed, the lips come closer together, rounded and protruded forward, reducing the outlet and lengthening the oral resonator. The degree of rounding can be different: less at [o], greater at [u]. Vowels [a], [e], [i], [s] are unrounded.
According to the degree of rise in relation to the palate, the vowels of the upper rise differ: [i], [s], [y]; medium rise [e], [o]; lower [a]. When articulating high vowels, the tongue occupies the highest position. In this case, the lower jaw usually moves slightly away from the upper, creating a narrow mouth opening. Therefore, high vowels are also called narrow vowels. When articulating low vowels, the lower jaw is usually lowered to its lowest position, creating a wide mouth opening, which is why such vowels are also called wide.
The front vowels differ according to the degree to which the tongue moves forward or is pushed back horizontally: [i], [e]; middle row: [s], [a] and back row: [y], [o]. When articulating front and back vowels, the tongue is concentrated in the front or back of the mouth, respectively. In this case, the shape of the tongue can be different: when the vowels of the front row are formed, the front part of the tongue is raised towards the front of the palate, and when the vowels of the back row are formed, the back of the tongue is raised towards the back of the palate. When forming the vowels of the middle row of the tongue, it is either concentrated in the middle part of the oral cavity and raised by the middle part to the middle part of the palate, as sometimes happens when pronouncing [ы] (a number of such vowels are otherwise called central), or lies flat, as when pronouncing [a] ( a number of such vowels are otherwise called mixed).
The simplest table of Russian vowels is:
A different pattern is represented by the vowel triangle:
More accurately represents the articulatory space of trapezoidal vowels. It reflects the structural features of the oral cavity and the possibilities of tongue movements: in the lower and back parts of the mouth they are more limited than in the upper and front.
But the division into three rows and three rises does not reflect the full richness of vowel sounds. So, in addition to [and], there is also a sound pronounced with a slightly greater openness of the mouth and a slightly lower rise of the tongue. This sound is called "[and] open"; in a more accurate transcription it is “[and] prone to [e].”
Shades of sounds can be considered as special sounds. Then the table should be more detailed. M.V. Panov proposed a table with five rows and five rises (although, of course, not all vowels of the Russian language are shown in it):
The vowel [e] is one of the most common sounds in the literary language. It is pronounced in some unstressed syllables, for example in the words p[e]khod. It occurs extremely rarely under stress, for example in the affirmative Yes, pronounced with a tinge of regret [de?] (“?” Means a sharp closure of the vocal cords, a blow to the glottis). Isolated [e] can be pronounced if you form a continuous series of transitional sounds from [s] to [a] and stop in the middle.
The vowels [a], [e], [o], [u] are advanced and upward compared to [a], [e], [o], [u]. They are pronounced between soft consonants: five[p΄ät΄], aunt[t΄ö t΄]i, tulle[t΄t΄].
The upward shift and closedness of the front vowels [i], [e] between soft consonants can be indicated in transcription in another way: [i], [e], or [i], [e], or [i], [e]. A “cover” over a vowel is also used to indicate the tension of the vowel.
The closed vowel [e] in the first pre-stressed syllable after a soft consonant is usually indicated by the sign [e]: v[e]sna, b[e]ga, r[e]dy. This pronunciation is typical for ekanya - the older literary norm, in contrast to the dominant ikanya in the modern literary language: in and] c na, b[i]ga, r[i]dy.
The vowel [e] is pronounced under stress after hard consonants: ant[enna]nna, m[er]r, sh[é]st.
Vowels [i], [s], [a] are only in an unstressed position: [i]skrit, d[y]shi, in [a]da. For some speakers, instead of [a], the sound is [l], an unrounded vowel, the position of the tongue is intermediate between [a] and [o]. Such pronunciation, as a rule, is a trace of the previous okanya - the distinction between unstressed [a] and [o].
Of course, not all vowel sounds are represented in these tables. A more detailed examination will reveal more subtle positional dependencies of sounds. For example, in words I'll give And gave usually transcribe the same vowel [a]. But in reality, different sounds are pronounced here: [a] of the middle row in the word I'll give and [a] mid-back in a word gave. The sound [l] causes the preceding vowel to shift backward. In words Houses And gave usually transcribe the same pre-stressed vowel [a]. But with a more accurate transcription, one should distinguish between [dama] and [dla]: the consonant sound [l] here affects the pre-stressed vowel in the same way as the stressed one.
Articulatory phonetics.
Articulatory phonetics studies the anatomical and physiological basis of articulation (speech apparatus) and the mechanisms of speech production. The articulatory characteristic allows us to consider the sound from the speaker’s position. Sound, from the point of view of articulation, is a certain sound unity, which consists of an attack (excursion), exposure and retreat (recursion). An articulation attack is when the speech organs move from a calm state to the position necessary to pronounce a given sound. Exposure is maintaining the position necessary to pronounce a sound. Indentation of articulation consists of transferring the speech organs to a calm state. The articulatory characteristics are based on the work of the pronunciation organs, primarily the active organs of speech (tongue, lips).
The speech apparatus, i.e. a set of speech organs, which include: lips, teeth, tongue, palate, small tongue, epiglottis, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, diaphragm should be understood conditionally.
The entire speech apparatus of linguistics, i.e. From the point of view of the formation of speech sounds, speech can be divided into three parts:
Everything below the larynx
Everything above the larynx
The space in which articulation can occur from the vocal cords to the lips is called the vocal tract. Knowledge of articulation makes it possible to classify the sounds of the Russian language.
Articulatory differences determine the division of the sounds of the Russian language into vowels and consonants. When vowel sounds are formed, a weak air stream passes freely without encountering obstacles. When consonant sounds are formed, a stronger air stream encounters obstacles on its path.
Articulatory phonetics studies the anatomical and physiological basis of articulation (speech apparatus) and the mechanisms of speech production. The articulatory characteristic allows us to consider the sound from the position of the speaker. Sound (from the point of view of articulation) is a certain sound unity, which consists of an attack (excursion) and an indentation (recursion). The articulatory characteristics are based on the work of the pronunciation organs, primarily the active organs.
The term “speech apparatus”, i.e. the totality of speech organs, which include lips, teeth, tongue, palate, small tongue, epiglottis, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, diaphragm, should be understood conditionally. Therefore, the entire speech apparatus linguistically (i.e. from the point of view of the formation of sounds in speech) can be divided into three parts:
1. everything below the larynx (the respiratory apparatus necessary for the formation of speech sounds);
2. larynx (air flow transformation);
3. everything above the larynx (in which articulation occurs).
The space in which articulation can occur from the vocal cords to the lips is called the vocal tract.
The meaning of articulation makes it possible to classify the sounds of the Russian language. Articulatory differences determine the division of the sounds of the Russian language into vowels and consonants. When vowel sounds are formed, a weak air stream passes freely without encountering obstacles. When consonants are formed, a stronger air stream encounters obstacles.
In russian language vowels classified according to 3 criteria:
1.by row– determined by the horizontal movement of the tongue:
· vowels front row - and, uh
· vowels average row - s, a
2.on the rise– vertical movement of the tongue:
· lower lifting – A
· average lifting – uh, oh
· upper lifting – and, y, y
3.by the presence or absence of labialization, those. by stretching or rounding the lips:
· labialized – OU
· non-labialized – other
Consonants sounds are characterized by 4 main characteristics:
[p] [l] [m] [n] [j]
[r, ] [l, ] [m, ] [n, ]
· noisy
- voiced [b] [c] [d] [e] [h] [g] [th]
[b, ] [c, ] [d, ] [d, ] [h, ]
- deaf [p] [t] [k] [s] [x] [ts] [h]
[p, ] [t, ] [k, ] [s, ]
2. by place of education:
Consonants:
· labial
Ø labiolabial [b] [p] [m]
[b, ] [p, ] [m, ]
Ø labiodental [v] [f]
[v, ] [f, ]
· lingual
Ø anterior lingual:
Dental [d] [t] [z] [s] [l] [n] [c]
[d, ] [t, ] [z, ] [s, ] [l, ] [n, ] [ts, ]
Palatal [f] [w] [r] [h]
[zh, ] [w, ] [r, ] [h, ]
Ø middle language [j]
Ø posterior lingual [g] [k] [x]
[g, ] [k, ] [x, ]
3. by method of education – due to the nature of the obstacle that occurs in the path of the air stream (a complete closure of the organs of speech or a gap)
· stop (explosive) [b] [p] [d] [t] [g] [j]
[b, ] [p, ] [d, ] [t, ] [g, ] [k, ]
When forming stop consonants, the organs of pronunciation are first completely closed, and then the air stream sharply opens them.
· affricates [ts] [h]
Consonant sounds that are formed by closing the organs of speech, between which there is a gap and the air, passing through this gap, seems to explode.
· trembling (vibrants)[R]
They are formed by the trembling tip of the tongue, which vibrates when an air stream exits.
· occlusive passages
Ø side [l]
Ø nasals [m] [n]
[m, ] [n, ]
They are formed as a result of the fact that the air stream finds another outlet due to the junction of the organs.
· fricatives (fricatives) [f] [h] [h] [s] [g] [w] [x] [j]
[f, ] [v, ] [h, ] [s, ] [g, ] [w, ] [x, ]
When fricative consonants are formed, the active organ moves closer to the passive organ, forming a gap through which an air stream passes; the gap is formed as a result of friction.
4. in relation to palatalization
One of the characteristic features of Russian consonants is the sign of hardness/softness. When pronouncing soft consonants, in addition to the main articulation, an additional articulation of palatalization (j-th pal.) is used. Hard consonants are characterized by a special articulation of hardness (velarization).
Consonants form pairs based on hardness/softness.
[b] [c] [d] [e] [h] [j] [l] [m] [n] [p] [r] [s] [t] [x]
[b, ] [c, ] [g, ] [d, ] [z, ] [k, ] [l, ] [m, ] [n, ] [p, ] [r, ] [s, ] [t , ] [X, ]
Unpaired soft: [j] [h, ] [w, ]
Unpaired solids: [f] [w] [c]
Speech sounds are formed as a result of a certain operation of the speech apparatus. The movements and positions of the speech organs necessary to pronounce a sound are called the articulation of this sound (from lat.
Articulare - ‘to pronounce articulately’). Articulation of sound is based on the coordinated work of various parts of the speech apparatus.
The speech apparatus is a set of human organs necessary for the production of speech.
The lower floor of the speech apparatus consists of the respiratory organs: lungs, bronchi and trachea (windpipe). Here an air stream appears, which participates in the formation of vibrations that create sound, and transmits these vibrations to the external environment.
The middle floor of the speech apparatus is the larynx. It consists of cartilage, between which two muscular films are stretched - the vocal cords. During normal breathing, the vocal cords are relaxed and air flows freely through the larynx. The position of the vocal cords is the same when pronouncing voiceless consonants. If the vocal cords are close and tense, then when a stream of air passes through the narrow gap between them, they tremble. This is how a voice arises, participating in the formation of vowels and voiced consonants.
The upper floor of the speech apparatus is the organs located above the larynx. The pharynx is directly adjacent to the larynx. Its upper part is called the nasopharynx. The pharyngeal cavity passes into two cavities - the oral and nasal, which are separated
Pronunciation apparatus:
1 - hard palate; 2 - alveoli; 3 - upper lip; 4 - upper teeth; 5 - lower lipD"K 6 - lower teeth; 7 - anterior part of the tongue; 8 - middle part of the tongue; 9 - posterior part of the tongue; 10 - root of the tongue; 11 - epiglottis; 12 - glottis; 13 - thyroid cartilage; 14- cricoid cartilage; 15- nasopharynx; 16- soft palate; 17- uvula; 18- larynx; 19- arytenoid cartilage; 20- esophagus; 21- trachea
The anterior, bony part is called the hard palate, the posterior, muscular part is called the soft palate. Together with the small uvula, the soft palate is called the velum palatine. If the velum is raised, air flows through the mouth. This is how oral sounds are formed. If the velum is lowered, air flows through the nose. This is how nasal sounds are formed.
The nasal cavity is a resonator that does not change in volume and shape. The oral cavity can change its shape and volume due to movements of the lips, lower jaw, and tongue. The pharynx changes shape and volume due to the movement of the body of the tongue back and forth.
The lower lip has greater mobility. It can close with the upper lip (as in the formation of [p], [b], [m]),
get closer to it (as in the formation of English [w], also known to Russian dialects), get closer to the upper teeth (as in the formation of [v], [f]). The lips can be rounded and stretched into a tube (as in the formation of [y], [o]).
The most mobile organ of speech is the tongue. There is the tip of the tongue, the back, which faces the palate and is divided into the front, middle and back parts, and the root of the tongue, facing the back wall of the pharynx. I
During the formation of sounds, some organs of the oral cavity play an active role - they perform the basic movements necessary to pronounce a given sound. Other organs are passive - they are motionless when a given sound is produced and are the place where the active organ creates a bow or gap. Thus, the tongue is always active, and the teeth and hard palate are always passive. The lips and velum palatine can play an active or passive role in the formation of sounds. So, with articulation [n], the lower lip is active and the upper lip is passive, with articulation [y], both lips are active, and with articulation [a], both are passive.
Sounds are classified according to different criteria. Sounds are divided into vowels and consonants. At the same time, complexes are formed - vowels form syllables, but consonants do not. SIGNS DISTINGUISHING VOWEL SOUNDS FROM CONSONANTS1. The main difference between vowels and consonants is their role in syllable formation. A vowel sound always forms the top of a syllable and is a sonant; a consonant accompanies a sonant and is a consonant. 2. The articulatory difference between vowels and consonants consists of different tensions of the pronunciation apparatus and the absence or presence of a focus of formation. 3. When vowels are formed, the voice dominates over noise, while when most consonants are formed, the relationship is the opposite: noise dominates over voice. The presence of two types of speech sounds, differing in articulation, forces a classification of vowels to be made separately from the classification of consonants.
All vowels are sonorant and fricative, therefore the work of the vocal cords and the method of articulation cannot be the basis for the division of vowels. The classification is based on the row and rise of the tongue, and the work of the lips.
The row is determined by the part of the tongue that rises when a given vowel is formed. There are 3 rows of chapters. - front, back, middle The rise is determined by the degree of elevation of the tongue during the formation of the tongue. Diff. 3 lifts - top, middle, bottom. Ch. top the rise is narrow, the middle is medium, the bottom is wide. According to the participation of the lips - labialis and non-labialis.
Vacalism Russian. The language, consisting of 6 phonemes, is very simple and contrasts, for example, with the vocalism of French and English. languages that have tense and labial front vowels, long vowels and diphthongs.
Vowels are divided into nasal and pure. In modern Russian language There are no nasal vowels. Nasals differ from non-nasals in that when they are pronounced, the air flow coming from the larynx enters the nasal cavity, where additional vibrations are created, giving the sound a “nasal” sound. Articulation of nasal vowels occurs when the velum is raised and the back of the tongue is lowered, so that the air stream simultaneously enters the oral and nasal cavity. In some languages, vowels are divided depending on the duration of their sound. Long and short vowels are found in Russian speech in different phonetic conditions. The vowel system of many languages differentiates vowel length, forming pairs of vowels based on duration. In addition, in the languages of the world there are diphthongs - vowels with complex articulation, pronounced in one syllable and acting as one phoneme. Diphthongs are divided into descending and ascending.
Classification acc. more complex than vowels, because there are more consonants in the languages of the world. The basis of the classification acc. There are 4 main articles. characteristics: 1) method of articulation; 2) active organ; 3) place of articulation; 4) work of the voice. ligaments I agree with the method of articulation. called the nature of overcoming an obstacle and passing an air stream while creating the noise necessary for the formation of a consonant. Diff. There are 2 main methods of articulation of accords - bow and gap (bow and fricative according to the method of articulation). Stops acc. formed by exploding an obstacle with an air stream ([p], [b], etc.). Slot acc. formed by the friction of the air stream against the walls of the passage created by the convergence of the organs of speech (fricatives acc.). Along with pure stops and fricatives acc. there are complex consonants: sonorous; affricates; aspirates. Sonorants are nasal [m], [n], also [l] and tremulous [r]. When pronouncing the nasal consonant, the stop is not broken.
The formation of affricates and aspirates associated with the duration of the consonant and its complement. articulation. Double cong. arise at the junction of morphemes and in the roots of borrowings. words The duration of the consonant is associated with the formation of affricates; the articulation of the cat begins with the stop, and then the fricative overcoming of the stop occurs. Aspirates have complex articulation starting from the bow. But the 2nd component is formed by the friction of air against the ligament when passing through the gap. This friction creates a gap. According to the active organ acc. are divided into labial, lingual and lingual. Labial acc. There are labial-labial, labial-dental, and fricative (f, v). Linguistic acc. There are anterior, middle, and posterior lingual. Front tongue acc. according to the location of the article. There are dental and anterior palatal. The dental ones are called whistling, and the palatal ones are called hissing. Protongue. acc. I will create the article by all means. Depending on the position of the tip of the tongue, the anterior tongue. are divided into dorosal, apical and cacuminal. Middle language acc. arranging the convergence of the average. parts of the tongue with the palatum (j). Posterior tongue acc. divided into uvular, pharyngeal and laryngeal.
The work of the vocal cords is a mandatory sign according to On this basis, acc. divided into noisy and sonorous. Method art., active organ, place art., work goal. ligaments are the main article. signs. There are additional options: labialization, palatalization, velarization.
Question No. 23
Phonetic division of speech
Speech is a stream of sounds and it seems to be continuous. The flow can be divided into separate parts. Division may be different. If this division is based on grammatical design, then we are talking about division into sentences, words and morphemes. With phonetic division, units are distinguished: text, phrase, speech tact or syntagm, phonetic word, syllable and sound.
Text is only the initial value of the phonetic division of speech, because speech is not phonetic, but communicative in nature. The text also has phonetic characteristics: limited by pauses. Pause at the beginning and end of the text. Phrases stand out from the text by intonation. A phrase is a piece of text that has logical stress. (ll – pause). A phrase is a phonetic unit, a sentence is a grammatical unit. There is one phonetic phrase in a complex sentence.
Phrases are divided into speech beats or syntagms. Syntagms are distinguished by intonation, but at the border of the syntagma an unfinished intonation is heard.
The division of a speech stream into syntagms is always determined by meaning, so options are possible.
We must learn to work and rest.
A phonetic word is characterized by stress. Phonetic stress is a complex of sounds or a segment of a sound chain. There may be no pauses between words. In this case, a phonetic word can correspond to the first lexical word or several words.
A syllable is a push of speech exhalation. Sound is the minimal element of speech flow.
Question #24
Phonetic processes
The most typical cases of interaction of sounds in the speech stream are accommodation, assimilation and dissimilation. These are basic phonetic processes.
Accommodations (adaptations) occur between consonants and vowels, usually next to each other. In this case, so-called glides may occur, for example, if you listen carefully to the pronunciation of the word will, you can hear a very short u between v and o.
Assimilation is the articulatory and acoustic rapprochement (similarity) of sounds (consonants with consonants, vowels with vowels). When we write give, but pronounce addat, the subsequent sound d, likening the previous t, creates assimilation. Assimilation can be complete, when one of the sounds completely resembles another (addat), or partial, when one of the sounds only partially brings the other closer to itself, but does not completely merge with it. In Russian, the word lozhka is pronounced like loshka, since the voiceless consonant k, acting on the preceding voiced z, turns this latter into a voiceless sh. Here, not complete, but only partial assimilation of sounds is formed, that is, not their complete assimilation to each other, but only partial rapprochement (the sounds k and w are different, but at the same time connected with each other by the common sign of deafness). Consequently, according to the degree of similarity, assimilation can be complete or partial.
Assimilation can be progressive or regressive. Progressive assimilation occurs when a preceding sound influences a subsequent one. Regressive assimilation occurs when a subsequent sound affects a previous sound. In the given examples of “addat” and “loshka” we are dealing with regressive assimilation. Progressive assimilation is much less common than regressive assimilation. Thus, the German noun Zimmer was formed from the old word Zimber: the preceding m resembled the subsequent b, forming two identical sounds.
A peculiar type of progressive assimilation is presented in the Turkic languages. This is the so-called vowel harmony (synharmonism). Synharmonism leads to the assimilation of vowels throughout the word. Here are some examples from the Oirot language: karagai (pine), where the first vowel a determines the presence of all other vowels a, egemen (woman) - the first vowel e determines the appearance of subsequent e. As we see, not only neighboring sounds are assimilated, but also those which are separated from each other in a word by other sounds. That is, we are dealing with non-contiguous assimilation.
The reasons for the occurrence of assimilation are explained by the interaction of sounds in the speech stream.
Dissimilation is cases of dissimilarity of sounds. Again, as in the case of assimilation, we are talking about the interaction of consonant sounds with consonants, and vowels with vowels. When in some Russian dialects they say lessora instead of springor, then two identical non-adjacent sounds r are dissimilar here, forming l and r. The subsequent p, as it were, pushes away the previous one, the result is non-adjacent regressive dissimilation. When in colloquial speech you can sometimes hear tranvai instead of tram, dissimilation occurs here, but adjacent: two labiolabial sounds (m v) are dissimilar, forming the anterior lingual n and the labiolabial v. Consequently, both completely identical sounds (for example, р and р in the example spring) and sounds that are close in articulation, but still unequal (for example, m in the word tram) can be dissimilated.
Like assimilation, dissimilation is distinguished between progressive and regressive, contiguous and non-contiguous. Dissimilation is sometimes reflected in literary language, in the written form of speech.
The modification of sounds in the speech chain (speech flow) is called phonetic (sound) processes. Changes in sounds can be combinatory (the interaction of the beginning and end of the articulation of adjacent sounds) and positional (the position of the sound in a word). Combinatorial phonetic processes involve mainly consonants. The main combinatorial processes are: 1) ASSIMILATION - arises as a result of the interaction of recursion and excursion of neighboring consonants, the overlap of excursion and recursion neighbor acc. Assimilation is the assimilation of neighboring sounds in some component of articulation; most often, the likening of consonants in terms of voicedness-voicelessness and hardness-softness and in place of formation. Ass-I can be complete (both sounds become exactly the same. Note: “silent”) or partial (similarity in only one component of articulation. Note: “shop”). In the direction of assimilation, the assemblage is: progressive (direct. The recursion of the previous consonant is superimposed on the excursion of the subsequent one. Note: hands) and regressive (reverse. The recursion of the previous consonant is superimposed on the excursion of the previous one.) The assemblage of vowels often appears in non-standard speech and dialects ( hooligan-hooligan) 2) DISSIMILIATION is the opposite of assimilation (it occurs much less frequently): it consists in dissimilarity of articulation of neighboring consonants. Note: “to lead/lead” - [s] arose as a result of dissimilation [d]. Note: "doctor-doctor" 3) ACCOMMODATION is the interaction of neighboring vowels and consonants. (in Russian, for example, after soft consonants, vowels become more forward. Note: hatch, row). 4). .
Question No. 25.
Syllable and syllable division
A syllable is a part of a beat consisting of one or more sounds, and not all sounds can form a syllable, i.e. be syllabic. For this purpose, instantaneous sounds, i.e., are not suitable as part of words. plosives and affricates. When studying syllables and syllable division, the concepts of (1) open/closed and (2) long/short syllables are important.1. Open A syllable is one that ends with a syllabic sound. for example all syllables Mother closed- one that ends with a non-syllabic sound, for example mother, give it. There are languages (English) that make extensive use of open and closed syllables, and, on the other hand, there are languages in which only open syllables are possible. 2. For some languages, for example, for ancient Greek and Latin, for Arabic, the distinction between long and short syllables is essential. TO long syllables include open syllables with a long vowel at the top, as well as all closed syllables. Brief are only those open syllables whose apex is a short vowel. Thus, a stressed syllable can be pronounced with greater intensity - the so-called dynamic, or power, stress. It can be lengthened - quantitative, or quantitative, stress. It can be distinguished by raising or lowering the tone - musical, or tonic, stress. In a number of languages, qualitative stress is also observed - a special quality of sounds that make up a stressed syllable. Word stress can be free or related .1. Free stress is called stress in those languages in which it can stand on any (initial, middle, final) syllables of an accented word, as we see in Russian. Free stress can be motionless in the formation of word forms and derivative words or mobile. We have a fixed stress, for example, in the word peas: Wed peas, peas, peas etc. Fixed stress in a certain way characterizes not only a given word form, but also a given root morpheme. We have movable stress in the word beard: Wed beard, beard. But beard, beards... Stress mobility is observed in languages with free stress where stress in one way or another characterizes certain non-root morphemes, certain grammatical forms and word-formation types. Sometimes there is more than one stress in one word. Usually in these cases the stresses are unequal. There is a certain gradation between them: The main thing stress opposes one or more secondary, weaker. Thus, the unity of the accented word created by the main stress is not violated. The concept of “phrase intonation” (or simply “intonation”) covers all phenomena observed within the framework of syntactic units - phrases and sentences (including one-word sentences). The most important component of intonation is melody, i.e. movement of the fundamental tone of the voice (raising and “lowering”), creating a tonal contour of the utterance and its parts and thus connecting and dividing our speech. Melodics and especially the second important component of intonation - intensity are used to emphasize certain parts of a statement. Thus, the concept of intonation includes phrasal stress The third component of intonation is rate of speech, its deceleration and acceleration.
Question No. 26
Stress and intonation
STRESS is the emphasis by voice, length and strength of any sound. This is achieved in different languages by different means: 1. By force or intensity of articulation - this is dynamic stress (forceful or expiratory): in Chinese, Dungan, Korean, Japanese. 2. Longitude of pronunciation is a quantitative beat. (quantitative, longitudinal): rare: modern modern Greek. There is a language in which these phenomena are combined together. Such is the Russian Literary language, where the ud. syllable is always the strongest and the longest, and in addition, only on ud. syllables can tone movement occur. 3. The movement of the vocal tone (ascending, descending or combinatorial) against the background of the neutral tone of other syllables is a tone ud, (melodic, musical): in the Czech language, where the strength of the ud. syllable is always the first, but it is usually short, and the next .behind it an unwed syllable may have longitude. If a vowel in a syllable stands out, it is a syllabic beat. (in Serbian, Swedish, Chinese, Vietnamese, Japanese). If a syllable in a word is highlighted, it is a verbal oud. (in Russian). verbal beat can be constant if in all words of the language it falls on the same syllable (in Czech - on the first syllable, in French - on the last, in Polish - on the penultimate). In Russian variable (free) beat. it is not fixed and can fall on any syllable of a word and on any morpheme: prefix, root, suffix, ending. Ud.can perform a semantic-distinguishing function. So, according to the place of stress, they differ: 1. different words in all their forms: castle, castle and castle. 2. some forms of different words: food-food, protein-protein, burden-burden. 3. different forms of one word: legs-legs, hair-hair. The place of stress differs between the variants of words: 1.commonly used. and prof: extraction-extraction. 2. Literary and dialectal: cold-cold, wild-wild. 3. Literary and colloquial: quarter-quarter, kilometer-kilometer. 4.neutral and colloquial: verdict-verdict, busy-busy. 5. Literary and folk poetic: maiden-maiden, honest-honest. 6. Modern and obsolete: CEMETERY-CEMETERY, MUSIC-MUSIC. There are doublets when the difference in the location of the beat is not significant: barge-barge, circling-circling, flooded-flooded. When forming grammatical forms of the word, ud.can remain in the same place. Such a beat is called motionless. In Russian, 96% of words have a fixed clause (book, do). In words with movable stress, the stress is transferred from one syllable to another, from one morpheme to another (tree-trees, ears-of-ears, lake, take off-taken off). Unstressed words are possible in the speech stream. If such a word is adjacent to the subsequent stress, it is called proclitic (for-through); if it is adjacent to the previous stress, it is called enclitic (would have done). Phonetic words are combined within a phase, which gives a common intonation. Intonation is understood as a set of means of organizing sound speech. I. consists of: vocal technique, stress, pauses, tempo of speech, timbre of voice, rhythm of speech. Rhythm is determined by the alternation of stresses. Rhythm is organized in a certain way (usually in poetic speech). Functions of intonation: 1.with its help, speech is divided into intonation-semantic segments. 2. I. forms various syntactic structures and types of sentences. Int involves the expression of a person’s thoughts, will and feelings. Types and: exclaim, surprise, vocative, affirmative, convince (instruct), positive, pleading, inviting, exhorting, command, compare, intonation of interruptions or connections, list, indifferent (indifferent).
Question No. 27
The concept of phoneme
Phoneme- a separate sound of speech of a k.-l. language or dialect, considered in its function, i.e. as a means for differentiation and material for constructing significant units of language - words and morphemes, in abstraction from those features of its pronunciation and sound that do not cause semantic differences in words and morphemes ; basic phonetic unit of language. The term "F." originated in French linguistic literature in 1874 to designate the sound of speech. Russian linguist I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay back in 1870 expressed the idea of “a discrepancy between the physical nature of sounds and their meaning in the mechanism of language.” At the suggestion of his student N.V. Krushevsky, he designated the new term “F.” linguistic "equivalent" physical sound, that is, sound considered from the point of view of its properties essential for language; He contrasted f. as a “phonetic” element of language with material sound as an “anthropophonic” element. Initially, Baudouin de Courtenay and Krushevsky considered f. as phonetically indivisible parts of morphemes, which are members of traditional (historical) alternations and consist of one sound or a combination of sounds. Subsequently, Baudouin de Courtenay changed the content of F., denoting the term “F.” the unity of the members of “divergence” (otherwise known as “variation”), i.e., a living combinatorial (positional) alternation of pronunciation variants of sound that are not directly related to semantic differences between morphemes or words. In 1911, Baudouin de Courtenay’s student, Russian linguist L. V. Shcherba, clarified his teacher’s thought, interpreting F. as the shortest sound distinguishers of words of a given language that can be distinguished from the flow of speech. At the same time, Shcherba distinguished in F., on the one hand, the main shade, the least dependent on combinatorial (positional) conditions and, in particular, pronounced in isolation, and on the other, its combinatorial (positional) replacements. In the "Course of General Linguistics" French. Linguist F. de Saussure, F. are considered as mutually opposed sound units forming in each language a system limited by a certain number of elements.
F. in itself does not express k.-l. meaning, but, differing from all other phrases (and thereby contrasting them), it is capable of serving as the only or main feature for distinguishing one significant unit of language (words or morphemes) from another, and, consequently, the primary element of the sound structure of these units. This is its linguistic function.
Divergences (variations) of f. as elements of the same morphemes in the composition of different words or word forms lead to the breakdown of f. into members of f. - divergents (variants), so that f. is a series of positionally alternating sounds - divergent (variational) row. Divergences are caused phonetically. position (position) of F. in each specific case . Therefore, divergences are not directly related to the difference in meaning: they only accompany other, directly significant differences in the sound structure of words and their forms (for example, replacing one ending or suffix with another, transferring stress from one syllable to another).
Question No. 28
The main stages of writing development
Writing itself, that is, descriptive writing, is writing associated with the use of graphic (from the Greek graphikos - “written”, “dramatic”) signs (pictures, letters, numbers) to record and convey sound language.
In the development of descriptive writing, several types have historically changed. Each of these types was determined by which elements of the sound language (whole messages, individual words, syllables or phonemes) served as a unit of written designation.
Usually four types of writing are consistently established: pictographic, ideographic, syllabic and alpha-sound (phonemographic). “This division is to a certain extent arbitrary, since none of the indicated types appears in a “pure” form. Each of them includes elements of another type, thereby forming mixed, transitional types of writing.” For example, pictography already contains the rudiments of ideography, and ideographic writing reveals numerous elements of syllabic and letter-sound writing. In turn, alphabetic writing often combines ideographic signs in texts - numbers, mathematical, physical and chemical formulas, etc. But such a division makes it possible to see the sequence of main stages in the history of writing, to identify the uniqueness of the formation of its main types and thereby imagine the overall picture of the formation and development of descriptive writing.
There are other classifications of writing types. According to one of them, five varieties are established:
“1) phraseography is the most ancient type of writing, conveying the content of entire messages with symbolic and descriptive signs (phrasograms) without graphically dividing them into individual words;
2) logography - a subsequent type of writing, the graphic signs of which (logograms) convey individual words;
3) morphemography - a type of writing that arose on the basis of logographic, for the transmission by graphic signs (morphemograms) of the smallest significant parts of a word - morphemes;
4) syllabography, or syllabic writing, the signs of which (syllabograms) indicate individual syllables;
5) phonography (phonemography), or sound writing, the graphic signs of which (phonemograms) usually designate phonemes as typical sounds."
In accordance with another classification, the evolution of writing is presented in the form of the following diagram:
1) pre-writing: semasiography, including the most ancient conventional signs, pictography and primitive ideography;
2) writing itself: phonography, which appears in the following varieties: a) verbal-syllabic writing, b) syllabic writing, c) alphabetic writing.
However, these classifications have not yet become widespread in educational literature, where the traditionally established classification is more often used.