During the Great Patriotic War, the national economy was destroyed, and all industry was reoriented to military needs. Therefore, the main task of the post-war development of the country was the restoration of the national economy and its transfer to a peaceful path. The process of industrial restoration was accompanied by difficulties. The preservation of part of the military-industrial complex (MIC) and the development of light industries made it possible to provide employment for the population and increase the volume of civil engineering. In 1946-1950 Most of the industrial enterprises were restored. Compared to the pre-war period, labor productivity in industry increased by 25%. The pre-war level of industrial production was achieved in 1948. New large-scale industrial construction began, especially in the east of the country, in the Volga region and Transcaucasia. At the same time, technical re-equipment of enterprises reconstructed after the war took place, mainly using captured equipment. The country's metallurgical and fuel and energy base is being restored. By 1950, railway transport had been largely restored. In agriculture, with the help of the introduction of high agricultural taxes and lowering the cost of production in government procurement, by 1950 the most important branches of agriculture were restored. In many ways, such successes were achieved thanks to the labor of peasants who did not receive payment and worked for something called “workdays,” which were taken into account when distributing potential surpluses of collective farm products. The card system was abolished, and in 1947 a monetary reform was carried out, replacing the old money with new ones. In the first half of the 50s. The material well-being of the population of cities and villages increased somewhat, which contributed to the stabilization of the demographic situation.
The end of World War II, the absence of a common enemy, and the redistribution of spheres of influence had a major influence on the beginning of a new stage of confrontation between the USSR and the Western powers. The situation of confrontation, buildup of weapons and expansion of the military-industrial complex (MIC) without military action was called the “Cold War”. Support for the communist movements of the East and Asia, the Soviet presence in the liberated Eastern European states could not but cause protest from the leading European powers. In 1946, W. Churchill gave a speech talking about the danger of the communist threat, and in February 1947, the American Congress heard President G. Truman’s report on saving the world and Europe from Soviet expansion. For this purpose, it was planned to create a military-political union, locate military bases in Eastern Europe, and in April 1948, the creation of the North Atlantic Alliance (NATO) began, which included the USA, England, France, Belgium, Holland, Luxembourg, Italy, Canada, Norway , Denmark, Iceland, Portugal, Turkey, Greece and Germany. In response to this, the USSR created the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) in 1949, which included Albania, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, etc. In 1955, the Warsaw Pact Organization was created, which included the socialist countries of Eastern Europe. Europe split into two opposing camps. The advent of atomic weapons and the nuclear arms race radically changed the strategic situation, putting; The world is on the brink of nuclear war, in 1953.
Exam questions on the history of the fatherland.
History as a science and its role in the system of human knowledge.
Main types of civilizations, their characteristics.
The starting period of human development is the primitive communal system. He is characterized by the similarity of all spheres of a person’s life. Currently Time's picture of the world is very colorful. Social, political, cultural, economic. Structures decomp. Countries are very diverse => the world, peoples and countries have developed unevenly. To understand all this diversity, historians introduced the concept of C as the main. typological units of history. Defining factors C: *natural. Wednesday, *syst. management - households, * social. Organization, *religion, *spiritual. Values, *political. Individuality. C - a community of people united in common. Spiritual Values, having a definition. Features of social and political Organizations, cultures, ek-ki and psychological. A sense of belonging to this community. Mentality is a feature of the social consciousness and behavior of a particular people, a set of def. Values, a special worldview. Type of civilization = type of development Existence of many civilizations (main division - East and West) Signs of type C: *community of historical and political. Fates and economics Development, *interweaving of cultures, *general. Goals and objectives from the point of view of development prospects. 3 main type C: *natural community, *cyclic type, *progressive type (West) Main. adherents - Toynbee, Spengler, journal. "Annals"
Features of Russian civilization.
Russian historical school.
Slavs in ancient times, their origin, life, customs, etc.
Schematically, the origin of the BC can be represented as follows: in ancient times, people who spoke an Indo-European language lived on the territory of Europe, Asia, all the way to India. Gradually, the tribes settled and differences in language and culture appeared. Several language families were distinguished: Germanic, Romance, Slavic, etc. Territory. By the 6th century, the Armed Forces had mastered the territory from Lake Ladoga in the north to the Black Sea in the south. From the Carpathians in the west to the upper reaches of the Oka in the east. Before the Slavs, Finno-Ugric tribes lived here. There was no enmity between them and the Slavs. The process was underway assimilation peoples The territory occupied by the Slavs had a number of features: - there were no natural boundaries here - the Slavs were surrounded by aggressive nomadic tribes (Obras, Khazars, Pechenegs). They constantly attacked the Slavs and hindered their development. – this territory was located between Europe and Asia, so migration flows passed through it (at the beginning of the 4th century, the Goths passed from west to east and the Huns from east to west). – there was a harsh climate and infertile soils. In order to survive, the Slavs were forced to unite in 8 neighboring communities.Social systems. From the 6th to the 9th centuries, the Slavs were in the process of decomposing tribal relations and the formation of feudal relations. The OS of this time was called military democracy. Democracy because all the most important issues were resolved at the people's assembly: veche. Only men participated in it, who in case of danger became warriors. At the meeting, the prince and the squad were chosen. They lived by collecting tribute polyudya. Gradually, the prince and the warriors seized ownership of the land. Land is the main wealth of the Slavs, so those who owned land became a privileged layer of society. Such people began to be called feudal lords or boyars. Classes. The main occupation was agriculture. Species: In the north, in the taiga forest region, the dominant farming system was slash-and-burn. In the first year, trees were cut down. In the second year, the dried trees were set on fire and, using the ash as fertilizer, grain was sown. For two or three years, the plot produced a high harvest for that time, then the land was depleted, and it was necessary to move to a new plot. The main tools of labor were an axe, a hoe, a plow, a harrow and a spade. Harvesting was done with sickles. They threshed with flails. The grain was ground with stone grain grinders and hand millstones. In the southern regions the leading farming system was fallback. There was a lot of fertile land there, and plots of land were sown for 2 or more years. As the soil became depleted, they moved to new areas. Main tools: plow, ralo, plow with iron. ploughshare. Difficult farming conditions led to the creation neighboring community. Livestock breeding was closely related to agriculture. The Slavs raised pigs, cows and small cattle. In the south, oxen were used as draft animals, and horses were used in the forest belt. Other activities include fishing, hunting, beekeeping (honey from wild bees). Industrial crops (flax, hemp) were also grown. Beliefs. The Slavs were pagans. Stages of development: - deification of the surrounding world (water goblin). – deities of the tribe and clan (clan and woman in labor). – deification of the distant world (Perun, Yarilo, Volos). Thus, from 6 to 9, the Armed Forces developed new territory. It had a number of features and by the 9th century they were ready to create a state. A neighboring community is several villages or families, whose residents cultivate the land with their tools and are bound by a circular vice. Boyar is a person who owns an estate. Patrimony is land that is passed on by inheritance. Paganism is a belief in gods and supernatural forces of nature. Polyudye – tribute collection every year.
Formation of the Old Russian stateIX- XIcenturies
980 - 1015 - reign of Vladimir. 988 - introduced Christianity in Rus', which corresponded to new social relations. * 9th century - formation of the Old Russian state with its center in Kyiv. 9 - 10 - the formation of the Old Russian nationality, the unification of lands into a single state; creation of the power apparatus. Prince, veche, squad. The prince is the head of the tribe (legislator, military leader, judge, recipient of tribute). Princely administration - posadniks and thousand - officials of government bodies and personal servants of the prince: tiuns (butlers), stolniks (diplomats), hunters (we in the future) (due to closeness to the prince they became prominent officials. * Veche - people's assembly, the decisions of which were carried out princes. Druzhina - supported the power of the prince, but were far from subject relationships. “Senior squad” - the richest and most influential landowners. They constituted the “Duma” of the prince and were called boyars. “Younger” warriors, “youths”, “children” - servants (wartime warriors). The main population were free community members (“people”). Smerds (a broad social group) were apparently unfree or semi-free princely tributaries. Slaves: servants, serfs. The main source was captivity. They were completely powerless. In 12th century servitude: “whitewashed” and incomplete. Captivity, self-sale, married to a slave. End of 12th century “purchases” - those who fell into debt bondage to the prince or his warrior. Personal ownership + right to ransom. “Ryadovichi” - life is protected by only a min 5 hryvnia fine. “Outcasts” - those who have lost their social services. status (those who broke with the community, slaves, who were set free). The class system is emerging. Features: large number and diversity of class groups; instability and the presence of intermediate layers; identification of class groups by origin or position in the state.
Beliefs of the Slavs. The adoption of Christianity: historical significance and consequences.
In 988, under Vladimir 1, Christianity was adopted as the state religion in Rus'. The baptism of Vladimir and his entourage took place in the city of Korsun (Chersonese) - the center of the Byzantine possessions in Crimea. Vladimir, having been baptized himself, baptized his boyars, and then the whole people. The spread of Christianity often met resistance from the population, who revered their pagan gods. Christianity took hold slowly. The adoption of Christianity was of great importance for the further development of Rus'. Christianity affirmed the equality of people before God. According to the new religion, the path to heaven is open to both rich nobles and commoners, depending on their honest performance of their duties on earth. The adoption of Christianity strengthened state power and territorial unity of Kievan Rus. It had great international significance, in that Rus', having rejected “primitive” paganism, was now becoming equal to other Christian countries, ties with which had expanded significantly. Finally, the adoption of Christianity played a big role in the development of Russian culture, which was influenced by Byzantine and ancient culture. A metropolitan, appointed by the Patriarch of Constantinople, was placed at the head of the Russian Orthodox Church; individual regions of Rus' were headed by bishops, to whom priests in cities and villages were subordinate. The adoption of Christianity in the Orthodox tradition has become one of the determining factors in our further historical development.
Historical significance of the baptism of Rus'. Rus' became a country where an extraordinary and quite strong combination of Christian dogmas, rules, traditions and old pagan ideas was realized. The so-called dual faith arose. Christians prayed in churches, bowed before home icons, but at the same time celebrated old pagan holidays. Thus, the holiday of Kolyada merged with Christmas and Epiphany. The holiday of Maslenitsa has also been preserved, which is still celebrated before Lent. The people's consciousness persistently wove old pagan beliefs into their everyday life, adapting Christian rituals to the centuries-old natural phenomena that were so carefully and precisely defined by paganism. Dual faith has become an amazing distinctive feature of the history of the Russian and other Christian peoples who inhabited Russia. When we talk about the historical significance of Christianity, we first of all mean the subsequent development of the church, its gradual rooting on Russian soil and the comprehensive influence on Russian life - economic, political, spiritual and cultural - that the church began to exert over time. Subsequently, the church received vast lands, on which it began to organize its own. Schools were created in churches and monasteries, and the first ancient Russian literati were trained in monastery cells. The first Russian artists also worked here, who over time created an excellent school of icon painting. Monks and church leaders were mainly the creators of wonderful chronicles, various kinds of secular and church works, instructive conversations, and philosophical treatises. In this sense, the church and clergy actively worked to strengthen the family, society, and state, and contributed to the humiliation of the level of exploitation. However, while promoting the development of culture and literacy, the church at the same time suppressed with all its might a culture based on pagan traditions and rituals.
Causes and consequences of feudal fragmentation of Russian lands. Types of development of Russian lands after the collapse, their features.
In 1097, princes from different lands of Kievan Rus came to the city of Lyubech and proclaimed a new principle of relations among themselves: “Let everyone keep his own patrimony.” His acceptance meant that the throne no longer went to the eldest in the entire grand ducal family, but the succession to the throne was now from father to eldest son within individual lands. It is believed that the implementation of the principle adopted in Lyubech was a factor in the collapse of Kievan Rus. However, not the only one and not the most important one. Political fragmentation was an inevitable phenomenon.
Causes: Throughout the 11th century. The population of the Russian lands grew, the economy grew stronger, large princely and boyar land ownership strengthened, and the cities became richer. They became less and less dependent on Kyiv and were burdened by its tutelage. To maintain order within his “patrimony” the prince had enough strength and power. Local boyars and cities supported their princes in their quest for independence and were better able to protect their interests.
Internal reasons were added external: The population left the troubled lands to the northeastern (Vladimir, Suzdal) and southwestern (Galich, Volyn) outskirts. The Kyiv princes weakened in a military and economic sense, their authority and influence in solving all-Russian affairs fell. The negative consequences of the political fragmentation of Rus' are concentrated in the military-strategic area: the defense capability in the face of external threats has weakened, and inter-princely feuds have intensified.
But fragmentation also had positive aspects. The separation of lands contributed to their economic and cultural development. The seniority of the Grand Duke of Kyiv was formally recognized; Church and linguistic unity was preserved; The legislation of the appanages was based on the norms of Russian Pravda. In the popular consciousness until the XIII-XIV centuries. there were ideas about the unity of the lands that were part of Kievan Rus. At the end of the 12th century. 15 independent lands, essentially independent states, emerged. The largest were: in the southwest - the Galician-Volyn principality; in the northeast - the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality; in the north-west - the Novgorod Republic.
Features of the development of the southwestern, northern and northeastern lands of Rus' inXII – XIVcenturies
Southwest lands
The southwestern lands of Kievan Rus became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. This was done mainly to protect against the Tatars.
The Principality of Lithuania appeared in the 40s of the 13th century. The heyday dates back to the 14th and 15th centuries. The territory of this principality is from the Baltic to the Black Sea, and from Poland to Mozhaisk, while 9/10 of these lands are Russian.
In the 15th-16th centuries, a new nationality began to form on the territory of the western lands - Ukrainians and Belarusians. Their identity was formed under pressure from Lithuania.
Olgierd's son Jagiello married the Polish queen Jadwiga, automatically becoming the Polish king. The new state was named the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
After this unification, the oppression of Ukrainians and Belarusians began in their own country.
Northern lands.
The basis of the northern lands was Novgorod. It was not just a city, an entire state. The area was unsuitable for agriculture, so Novgorod was engaged in trade, industry and colonization.
As a result of fur mining, it moved further and further to the east. The proximity to rivers allowed trade to develop.
The veche had great power; it expelled the prince, summoned the prince, and elected the head of the church.
The posadnik is a mediator between the prince, the people and the veche, and is the head of the executive branch.
That. we can say that Novgorod is a democratic republic.
Northeastern lands.
The city life of the South gave way to the country life of the Northeast. The settlers meet the Merya and Mur tribes. The beginning of the formation of the Russian nationality.
The largest principality on this land was Vladimir-Suzdal, one might say the only one. The first independent prince was Yuri "Dolgoruky" son of "Monomakh".
A new political system appears, the prince has both political rights and property rights. The prince becomes a fief.
Patrimony is a family estate that is inherited, where the owner has administrative, judicial power and tax collection.
From this moment a specific period in Russian history begins. Princes do not move from inheritance to inheritance, but pass it on as an inheritance to their son. All unity is lost. The Vladimir-Suzdal principality splits into several. Gradually, the stronger principalities crush the weaker ones. The situation of the people is aggravated by the Mongol invasion.
Novgorod land inX - XIVcenturies
The struggle of the Russian people against foreign invasions inXIII – XIVcenturies
Rus' and the Horde: problems of influence (main points of view).
At the turn of the 12th-13th centuries, a number of Mongolian tribes united under the leadership of a skilled leader who took the title of Genghis Khan. The basis of the empire was the army, peculiarities:= the most severe discipline = thorough reconnaissance = setting up ambushes = luring the enemy = using the technical achievements of other countries. TO The global empire included China, Korea, Central Asia, Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, Transcaucasia, Syria, the steppes of Eastern Europe and Kazakhstan. The first meeting of the Tatars and Russian-Polovtsian troops took place in 1223 on the Kalka Tatra River, 4 times more than the complete victory of the Tatars. The campaign against Rus' is undertaken by the grandson of Genghis Khan Batu. Progress of the invasion: In 1236, Batu's troops began a campaign against the Russian lands. Having defeated Volga Bulgaria, they set out to conquer the Ryazan principality. The Ryazan princes, their squads and townspeople had to fight the invaders alone. The city was burned and plundered. After the capture of Ryazan, Mongol troops moved to Kolomna. Here they were met by the Vladimir-Suzdal army. In the battle near Kolomna, the entire Vladimir army died, which predetermined the fate of North-Eastern Rus'. On February 4, 1238, the Mongols approached Vladimir. The four-day siege ended with the capture of the city. The invaders set it on fire. The princely family and the remnants of the troops locked themselves in the Assumption Cathedral. The Mongol-Tatars surrounded the cathedral with trees and set it on fire. The surviving Vladimirov residents were driven into slavery. After the capture of Vladimir, the Mongol-Tatars split into separate detachments and devastated the entire Vladimir-Suzdal land from Rostov to Tver. On March 4, 1238, the Battle of the City River took place, which ended in the defeat of the Russian squad led by Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich. Meanwhile, a Mongol detachment besieged Torzhok, and on March 5 the city was taken. From here the Mongols moved north to Novgorod. However, before reaching a hundred miles, the Mongol troops were forced to turn back. The reason for the retreat of the enemy troops and the salvation of Novgorod from the pogrom was not only the mud, but also fatigue and heavy losses of the Mongol troops in previous battles. In 1241 Batu returned to Rus'. In 1242, Batu was in the lower reaches of the Volga, where he set up his new capital - Sarai-batu. Having been defeated by the Mongol-Tatars, Rus' was able to successfully resist aggression from the north-west. By the 30s. XIII century The Baltic states, inhabited by the tribes of the Livs, Yatvingians, Estovians, etc., found themselves in the power of the German crusading knights.. On the borders with the Novgorod land, a powerful and aggressive military-political formation was established, ready to take advantage of the weakening of Rus' to include its northwestern lands in the imperial zone influence. In July 1240, the nineteen-year-old Novgorod prince Alexander defeated Birger's Swedish detachment at the mouth of the Neva in a fleeting battle. For his victory in the Battle of Neva, Alexander received the honorary nickname Nevsky. That same summer, the Livonian knights became more active: Izborsk and Pskov were captured, and the border fortress of Koporye was erected. Prince Alexander Nevsky managed to return Pskov in 1241, but the decisive battle took place on April 5, 1242 on the melted ice of Lake Peipsi (hence the name - Battle of the Ice). Knowing about the favorite tactics of the knights - formation in the shape of a tapering wedge, the commander used flanking and defeated the enemy. Many knights died after falling through the ice, unable to withstand the weight of the infantry. Reasons for the defeat of Rus':= military-technical superiority = fragmentation of Rus', lack of a unified military leadership. Consequences of the invasion for Rus':= sharp reduction in population = economic ruin: == devastation of cities (74 14-no more) == reduction of cultivated areas == disappearance of crafts (glass, stone construction) = decline in trade = destruction of many cultural values = attack of the Swedes and Germans = general bitterness of morals. Rus' and the Golden Horde. The Horde yoke was established in Rus' by the end of the 13th century, after the creation of the state of Batu - the Golden Horde, which stretched from the Danube to the Irtysh. From 1243 to 1480, Rus' was dependent on the Horde. Russian principalities made attempts to disobey the horde. However, the forces to overthrow the Tatar-Mongol yoke were still not enough. Realizing this, the most far-sighted Russian princes - Alexander Nevsky and Daniil Galitsky - took a more flexible policy towards the Horde and the khan. Realizing that an economically weak state would never be able to resist the Horde, Alexander Nevsky set a course for restoring and boosting the economy of the Russian lands. In 1263, Alexander went to the horde to the khan in order to ward off a further attack of the Horde troops on the Russians - to ask the khan to abolish conscription for Russian people in the khan's army. There is an assumption that Alexander’s death on the way back from the Horde was caused by poisoning at the Khan’s headquarters. In the summer of 1250, the Khan of the Mighty sent his envoys to Daniil of Galicia with a demand to give up the Galician lands. Realizing that the forces are unequal, and fighting the khan’s army, he dooms his lands to complete plunder, Daniil goes to the Horde to bow to Batu and recognize his strength. As a result, the Galician lands are included in the Horde with the rights of autonomy. They retained their land, but were dependent on the khan. Thanks to such a soft policy, the Russian land was saved from complete plunder and destruction. As a result of this, a slow restoration and economic recovery of the Russian lands began, which ultimately led to the Battle of Kulikovo and the overthrow of the Tatar-Mongol yoke. In 1492, Ivan III began to officially be styled “the sovereign of all Rus'.” Standing on the Ugra River:: On November 11, Khan Akhmat, despite the fact that all crossings across the Ugra were open, turned away. He ran through the Lithuanian volosts of his ally Casimir. November 11, 1480, the day of Khan Akhmat’s departure from the banks of the Ugra, is considered to be the day of the complete liberation of the Russian land and the Russian people from the Horde yoke, from any dependence on the khans of the Golden Horde. The end came 250 -year-old yoke of the Tatar-Mongols on Russian soil. These years had a huge impact on the development of Russian lands. Points of view: The first point of view goes back to historians of the 19th century. Solovyov and Klyuchevsky, they believed that the Mongol-Tatar invasion devastated the country, but did not have a significant impact on development. The second point of view is that Rybakov and most scientists believe that it was a yoke (enslavement, oppression). It was expressed as follows: = watered. dependence (the prince had to receive a label for reign). Khan interfered in political life in Rus'. To control the activities of the princes and collect tribute, the Baskaks went to Rus'. = economic: Rus' paid tribute to the horde = military: Rus' was obliged to supply warriors to the horde = there was practically no cultural dependence. Rus' preserved its language and faith. The third point of view is that Gumilyov argued that there was no invasion, but a brilliant raid by Batu’s cavalry. Since there was no invasion, then there was no yoke, but there was an alliance of Rus' and the Horde against the Catholic aggression of the West, a symbiosis
The policy of gathering Russian lands around Moscow to create a single state.
The struggle to overthrow the Golden Horde yoke began in the 13th-14th centuries. main national task. The Russian lands had to unite to restore the country's economy and its further development. But it was not decided around which center the Russian lands would unite. First of all, Tver and Moscow laid claim to leadership. The Tver principality was then the strongest in Rus'. But he was destined to lead the unification process. The Moscow principality is rapidly rising. What was the reason for the rise of Moscow? /= Moscow, which before the invasion was a small border point of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, turns into an important political center of that time. = Moscow occupied a geographically advantageous position among the Russian lands. From the south and east it was covered by the Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod and Ryazan principalities, from the north-west by the Tver principality and Veliky Novgorod. The forests surrounding Moscow were impassable for the Mongol-Tatar cavalry. This caused an influx of population = Moscow was a center of developed crafts, agriculture and trade. = It turned out to be an important junction of land and water routes that served both for trade and military operations. The principality had access to the Volga through the Moscow River. / Found The ruler of the dynasty of Moscow princes was the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky, Daniil Alexandrovich (1276-1303). Under him, the territory of the Moscow principality grew rapidly. In three years it doubled in size and became one of the largest in northeastern Rus'. The struggle of Moscow and Tver for the grand-ducal throne. Tver Prince Mikhail Yaroslavich (1304-1317) received a label from the horde for a great reign. Yuri Danilovich (1303-1325) ruled in Moscow at this time. Yuri Danilovich was married to the sister of the Uzbek Khan. Yuri promised to increase the tribute. The Khan gave him the label to the Grand Duke's throne. In 1315, Mikhail began a war with Yuri and captured the khan’s sister, who soon died in Tver. Yuri blamed Mikhail for her death. Mikhail, summoned to the horde, was executed. For the first time in 1319, the Moscow prince received the label for the great reign. In 1325, Yuri was killed by the eldest son of Mikhail Tverskoy, Dmitry Groznye Ochi. The Uzbek Khan executed Dmitry, and transferred the great reign to the brother of the executed man - Alexander Mikhailovich (1326 - 1327). In 1327, the population of Tver rebelled against the tax collector Baskak Cholkhan. The rebels of Tver killed the Tatars. Moscow Prince Ivan Danilovich came to Tver with the Mongol-Tatar army and suppressed the uprising. At the cost of the lives of the population of another Russian land, he contributed to the rise of his own principality. At the same time, the defeat of Tver deflected the blow from the rest of the Russian lands. And today the dispute continues about who was right in the rivalry between the two principalities: Moscow, which was accumulating strength to fight the enemy, or Tver, which opposed the invaders,
rise of Moscow:/ Associated with an increase in territory. = Use of trade routes. Especially the bread trade. = The Principality of Moscow was located at the intersection of trade routes. = There was sympathy and support for the clergy (Klyuchevsky). = Activities of the Moscow princes (they are establishing new relations with the Golden Horde). = / Along with the strengthening of the Moscow Principality, there existed the Lithuanian Principality. Despite the alternative, the Moscow Principality is strengthening its position as the center of the future state.
The role of IvanIIIin creating a centralized state.
Under Ivan 3, the collection of Russian lands was completed. Tver, Ryazan, Yaroslavl, Rostov were annexed. In 1500-03 he returned part of the Western lands. Legal registration of state institutions is taking place. Authorities. In 1480 the appanage orders were abolished. Appanage princes now had no right to go to serve other princes and were considered subjects of the Moscow prince and had to obey and serve. They were the prince's governors. Ivan 3 finally approved the institution of succession to the throne “from father to son.” Judicial, financial, foreign policy issues, coinage - this is exclusively a Muscovite matter. the prince - the eldest son, all the rest obeyed him. External attributes appeared: coat of arms, orb, scepter, coronation. The first set of laws appeared in 1497. The palace, treasury, central executive bodies - orders and lips appeared. Administratively, the land is divided into counties, camps and volosts. They were headed by governors. The legal code weakened the positions of the boyars and strengthened the positions of the nobility. Boyars are forbidden to move to the service of other masters. The nobility has strengthened: its numbers are growing, land is being distributed, in the interests of the nobility, St. George's Day was introduced, which limited the departure of peasants from their masters. Completion of unification around Moscow. By the end of the 13th century, in conditions of fragmentation and dependence on the Golden Horde, problem No. 1 became the unification of the Russian principalities. The principalities begin to stand out: Tver, Ryazan and Moscow. By the 14th century, the Moscow principality declared itself very widely. Reasons for the rise of Moscow:/ Associated with an increase in territory. = Use of trade routes. Especially the bread trade. = The Principality of Moscow was located at the intersection of trade routes. = There was sympathy and support for the clergy (Klyuchevsky). = Activities of the Moscow princes (they are establishing new relations with the Golden Horde). = / Along with the strengthening of the Moscow Principality, there existed the Lithuanian Principality. Despite the alternative, the Moscow Principality is strengthening its position as the center of the future state. In 1340, Ivan Kalita dies and leaves the Moscow principality economically developed. His grandchildren, Prince Dmitry of Moscow, begins to pursue an energetic policy in the fight against the Russian princes. In the struggle, he uses the Golden Horde for his own purposes. Dmitry finds spiritual and moral support in the Orthodox Church. On September 8, 1380, the troops of Prince Dima defeat the Mongol-Tatar yoke on the Kulikovo field and Khan Mamai is defeated. Prince Takhtama invades the Moscow principality and burns Moscow. But the Battle of Kulikovo had very great political and national significance. Dima Donskoy's grandson Ivan 3 (1462) not only pursued a policy of expanding the territory of the Moscow Principality, but also pursued a policy of independence from the Golden Horde. Ivan 3 reveals himself to be the creator of the Moscow state. He strengthens the southern borders and resolves state issues. Liberation from the Tatar yoke occurs (1480). Ivan 3 marries Sophia, the heir to the Byzantine throne. The status of Ivan 3 changes. He calls himself sovereign. The coat of arms (double-headed eagle) is changing. The strengthening of the centralized state provided the basis for the formation of the unlimited power of the Moscow prince - the sovereign.
The subject of history as a science: the purpose and objectives of its study.
Essence, forms and functions of historical consciousness.
Formational and civilizational approaches to historical knowledge.
The emergence and settlement of the main Slavic tribes.
Formation of the state among the Eastern Slavs.
Pagan and Orthodox Rus'. The political significance of the baptism of Kievan Rus.
Russian lands during the period of feudal fragmentation (XII-XV centuries).
Mongol "empire" in the XIII-XV centuries. Rus' under the rule of the Mongol-Tatars.
Formation and rise of the Moscow Principality. From Ivan Kalita to Ivan III.
Formation of the Moscow State in the XV-XVI centuries.
The role of the Russian Orthodox Church in the formation and strengthening of the Russian state.
Ivan the Terrible and his time.
The crisis of Russian statehood at the turn of the XVI-XVII centuries.
The origins and beginning of the revival of Russian statehood in the 17th century. Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov.
The reign of Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov.
The Russian state under Peter 1: political, socio-economic and cultural transformations.
Political and socio-economic situation in Russia in the 20-30s. XVIII century
The reign of Elizabeth Petrovna.
Domestic and foreign policy of Catherine II.
Characteristics of Paul's reign 1.
Russia in the first quarter of the nineteenth century.
Decembrists and their role in the development of the liberation movement in Russia.
Russia under Nicholas 1.
Foreign policy of Alexander II.
Russia during the period of reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century.
Revolutionary forces in Russia from the Decembrists to populism.
Reign of Alexander III. Counter-reforms of the 80-90s in Russia.
Industrial revolution and labor movement in Russia in the second half of the nineteenth century.
The emergence of Marxism in Europe and its spread in Russia.
The origin and development of the social democratic movement in Russia.
Political and socio-economic situation in Russia at the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
Revolution of 1905-1907: causes, main events, results, consequences.
Socio-political and economic development of the country in 1907-1917.
Reforms of P.A. Stolypin. The main directions of agrarian reform, its results and significance.
The state structure of Russia after 1905. Russian parliamentarism.
Russia in the conditions of the First World War.
February revolution 1917 and the establishment of dual power.
Social and political processes in Russia from February to October 1917.
October events of 1917: overthrow of the provisional government, II Congress of Soviets.
The establishment of Soviet power in Russia in 1917-1918: the first measures of the Soviet government. Peace of Brest-Litovsk.
The policy of “war communism” during the Civil War: reasons for implementation, features, results and consequences.
Civil war in Russia: causes, stages, results and significance for the fate of the country.
Economic and political crisis in the country in the early 20s.
The essence and content of the new economic policy (NEP).
Carrying out industrialization in the USSR: reasons, methods, results.
Collectivization in the USSR: causes, methods, pace, implementation, results, consequences.
National-state structure and features of the political system of Russia in the 20-30s of the twentieth century.
The Great Patriotic War of the Soviet people in 1941-45.
Foreign policy of the USSR in the first post-war decade. Cold War Politics.
Attempts at socio-political reforms in the USSR in the mid-50s - early 60s.
Economic reforms of the mid-60s: essence, purpose, results.
The main directions of the foreign policy of the USSR in 1950-1980.
The USSR is on the path to radically reforming society. "Perestroika". Collapse of the USSR.
The modern stage in the history of Russia. Searching for ways to develop the Russian Federation.
The manual covers the period from the settlement of the ancient Slavs in the lands of the East European Valley to the present day. The main milestones are the formation of the Old Russian state, the flourishing of Kievan Rus, the period of feudal fragmentation, the consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, the creation of the Russian Empire and the formation of the Soviet state after the October Revolution, the collapse of the USSR.
For students and teachers of universities and everyone who is interested in the issues of their Fatherland.
1. Eastern Slavs in ancient times. Problems of ethnogenesis of the Eastern Slavs. Ethnic and geopolitical factors in the formation of the Old Russian state.
2. The main stages of the formation of ancient Russian statehood. Features of the socio-political system of the Old Russian state.
3. The adoption of Christianity in Rus' and its historical consequences.
4. Prerequisites and historical consequences of the political fragmentation of Kievan Rus in the 12th-13th centuries, the main political centers and ways of their development.
5. The struggle of Russian lands and principalities with the conquerors in the 13th century. Rus' and the Horde: problems of mutual influence.
6. The unification of Russian lands around Moscow. Specifics of the formation of a unified Russian state in the XNUMXth-XVth centuries.
7. The role of the Russian Orthodox Church in the formation and strengthening of the Russian state / XIV-XVII centuries.
8. Russia in the 16th century. Formation of an estate-representative monarchy. Ivan groznyj. Reforms 50-60. XVI century Oprichnina.
9. “Time of Troubles” /beginning of the 17th century/: causes, course, results.
10. Socio-economic and political development of the country in the 17th century. Cathedral Code of 1649
11. The main trends in the development of the culture of pre-Petrine Rus' of the 1X-18th centuries.
12. Features of Russian absolutism in the 1st half. XVIII century Transformations of Peter I.
13. Palace coups of the 18th century, expansion of the privileges of the nobility.
14. Enlightened absolutism in Russia. Activities of the Legislative Commission. "Order" of Catherine 2 Reforms of Catherine 2.
15. The Russian Empire in the system of European relations in the 18th century (Russian foreign policy in the 18th century)
16. Culture of Russia in the second half of the 13th century, its contribution to world culture.
17. Western Europe and Russia at the beginning of the 19th century. Russian foreign policy. Patriotic War of 1812
18. Domestic policy of Russia at the beginning of the 19th century. Plan of government reforms M.M. Speransky.
19. Decembrist movement. Constitutional projects of the first half of the 19th century.
20. Power and society in the second quarter of the 19th century. Domestic and foreign policy of Nicholas 1.
21. Culture of Russia in the 2nd half of the 19th century.
22. Socio-political movements of the mid-19th century: composition and main ideological directions.
23. Reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century. Peasant reform.
24. The rise of the social movement in post-reform Russia. Populism and other political movements.
25. The reign of Alexander III and the policy of “conservative renewal” of society.
26. Socio-economic and political development of Russia at the end of the 19th century.
27. Culture of Russia in the second half of the 19th century, its contribution to world culture.
28. Political parties of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. (classification, programs).
29. The evolution of Russian statehood at the stage of the revolution of 1905-1907.
30. Reforms of P.A. Stolypin.
31. “Silver Age” of Russian culture.
32. Russia in the First World War. The crisis of the administrative-bureaucratic system of autocracy. Growing national crisis.
33. February 1917 The collapse of the Russian monarchy. Dual power.
34. Domestic and foreign policy of the Provisional Government.
35. The development of revolutionary events in Russia in the spring, summer and autumn of 1917.
36. Nationwide systemic crisis in the fall of 1917. October 1917 the Bolsheviks coming to power. The first decrees of the Soviet government.
37. Formation of Soviet statehood.
38. Civil war and foreign intervention. Results and lessons of the civil war. Russian emigration.
39. Political system in the early 20s. and NEP.
40. Education of the USSR.
41. Soviet Russia in the system of international relations (20-40s).
42. USSR during the Great Patriotic War (main stages of the war).
43. Main results and lessons of the Second World War.
44. USSR in the post-war years (domestic and foreign policy). Cold War.
45. Main trends in the development of Soviet society in the 60-80s.
46. The collapse of the USSR and the formation of a new Russian statehood in the 90s. Perestroika.
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3. The adoption of Christianity in Rus': reasons, course, consequences.
Under Vladimir, one of the greatest events in Russian history took place - Rus' adopted Christianity. There were Christians among the Kyiv warriors already in the mid-10th century. Byzantine sources report that the baptism of the Rus took place already in the 60-70s. 9th century. Olga was a Christian, but her son not only remained a pagan, but according to some sources, was an ardent opponent of Christianity. Before the adoption of Christianity, because The Slavs were farmers, they deified the earth, the sun, and rivers. In pagan belief there were 6 main gods. They prayed to the gods and made sacrifices (even human ones). Having come to power, Vladimir wanted to strengthen the pagan faith, but he failed. In addition, for political reasons, Vladimir understood the need to accept one of the world religions (in order to increase his authority within the state, increase the status of Rus' on the world stage, etc.) The Tale of Bygone Years tells that in 986 representatives of three religions came to Kiev : Christianity (Byzantium), Judaism (Khazaria), Islam (Volga Bulgaria). Each of them offered their own religion. Islam was not suitable for Vladimir, because... he was not satisfied with abstinence from wine, Judaism - because. Jews who professed it lost their state and were scattered throughout the earth. And the sermon of the representatives of the Byzantine Empire made an impression on Vladimir. However, to make sure of everything, he sends his ambassadors to see how to worship God in different countries. And when the messengers returned, they named the best Greek faith. Another reason for the adoption of Christianity was that in Christianity the head of the church was the head of secular power. Vladimir's decision to accept the Christian faith was also connected with his marriage to the Byzantine princess Anna (sister of Vasily II). Byzantium sought to Christianize Rus' in order to exert political influence on it and protect itself from Russian raids. At the negotiations between Rus' and Byzantium in 987, Vladimir demanded the sister of Emperor Vasily 2, Princess Anna, as his wife. This could greatly enhance the state prestige of Rus' in Europe and Asia and strengthen the authority of the dynasty within the country. It is no coincidence that many monarchs of Europe and Asia sought to become related to the Byzantine imperial house.
The baptism of Rus' happened very slowly, because There was great resistance from the population; only violence and intimidation helped to force the pagans to submit. Most of the inhabitants of Kievan Rus were baptized throughout Vladimir's reign, but there were still many pagans remaining. The Northeast, Rostov-Suzdal and Murmansk lands resisted especially for a long time. They adopted Christianity in the mid-11th century. In order to somehow make it easier for the Slavs to accept Christianity, the church sanctified some pagan holidays (such as Maslenitsa, Ivan Kupala...). Beliefs in mermaids, goblins, and brownies have also been preserved. The adoption of Christianity in Rus' was of great importance. Christianity forced people to eat a lot of vegetables, and consequently, gardening improved. Christianity influenced the development of crafts; techniques for laying walls, erecting domes, mosaics, etc. were also adopted. Stone architecture, frescoes, and icon painting also appeared in Rus' thanks to Christianity. Many temples were built (There were about 400 temples in Kyiv, and not one of them copied another). Rus' received two alphabets: Glagolitic and Cyrillic, which contributed to the spread of literacy. The first handwritten books began to appear. Morals in Rus' changed very noticeably, since the church categorically prohibited human sacrifices and the killing of slaves... Christianity also contributed to the strengthening of princely power. The prince was now perceived as a messenger of God. And finally, the adoption of Christianity radically changed the international position of Rus'. It organically fit into European culture and diplomatic relations with other countries.
Like other early feudal states, Rus' needed a national religion that would consolidate the newly created state unity. The pre-Christian religion - paganism - could not play such a role, being the ideology of the tribal system. It came into conflict with the new conditions of class society and the state and was not able to sanctify and strengthen the existing social order.
The main reasons for the adoption of Christianity were: the inadmissibility of isolation from Christian states; monotheism (monotheism); strengthening a single state headed by a monarch; introduction of new morality; the need to explain the increase in social inequality (under paganism, everyone is equal before God); Vladimir's rival in the struggle for power, Yaropolk, focused on an alliance with the papacy.
Immediately after Vladimir took possession of the Kyiv throne in 980, eliminating his older brother Yaropolk (972-980), he made an attempt to create an all-Russian pagan pantheon headed by Perun, the god of thunder, and establish a common ritual. However, the mechanical unification of the old tribal deities could not lead to the unity of the cult and continued to ideologically divide the country. In addition, the new cult retained ideas of tribal equality that were unacceptable for feudal society. Vladimir realized that it was necessary not to reform the old, but to adopt a fundamentally new religion that corresponded to the already formed state.
One of the reasons for the prince’s decision was the penetration of Christianity into Rus' even before Vladimir. Vladimir's grandmother, Princess Olga, was baptized in Constantinople and encouraged her son Svyatoslav to do so. Christianity had already penetrated into Rus': the Church of St. Elijah operated in Kyiv, and Christian literature came from Bulgaria and Byzantium.
Christianity was adopted in the difficult political situation of the struggle between Rus' and Byzantium. Uprisings in Bulgaria and Asia Minor forced the Byzantine Emperor Basil II to turn to Vladimir for military assistance. In response, Vladimir demanded that the emperor's sister Anna marry him. A Russian detachment of six thousand took part in the defeat of the rebel troops. But Vasily II violated the agreement by refusing to send his sister to Rus'. Then Vladimir marched on the center of the Crimean possessions of Byzantium - Chersonese (Korsun), took it and thereby forced the emperor to fulfill the agreement. Anna was sent to him in Chersonesos, Vladimir was baptized and married a Byzantine princess.
In 988, Christianity became the dominant, officially recognized religion. First, the Grand Duke's squad was baptized. The mass introduction of Kievites to the new faith took place in the waters of the Dnieper. Then the new religion began to spread, partly peacefully, and in some places (for example, in Novgorod) and as a result of bloody clashes throughout Rus'. In connection with the forced implantation of Christianity, the issue of syncretism - the combination of heterogeneous, contradictory faiths - acquired practical significance in the life of the peoples of Rus'. Rus' did not immediately become Orthodox.
With the introduction of Christianity in Rus', a church was organized headed by the Kyiv Metropolitan, who was appointed first from Constantinople, and then by the Prince of Kyiv. The first metropolitan in Rus' was Mikhail. In other cities, churches were headed by bishops. The metropolitan and bishops owned lands, had servants and even soldiers. The princes allocated tithes - a tenth of tributes and quitrents - for the maintenance of the church.
The adoption of Christianity by Russia was a progressive step and had important consequences. The ruling classes of Rus' received a powerful ideology to strengthen their dominance, and the Christian Church, being an extensive political organization, spiritually sanctified and in every possible way supported the new system. Christian morality (“thou shalt not kill,” “love your neighbor as yourself”) and Christian norms of behavior became widespread—the equality of all before God, helping the poor, etc. The adoption of Christianity ideologically consolidated the unity of the Old Russian state (the unification of the population into a single Russian nationality). Along with this, Rus' received Slavic writing and the opportunity to master the achievements of Byzantine culture. The international ties of the Old Russian state grew stronger and expanded, even to the point of dynastic marriages of Russian princes with representatives of powerful powers. The international authority of Rus' has grown immeasurably,
Consequences:
The church hierarchy came to Rus' and strengthened the state. Hierarchy; with the adoption of Christianity in Rus', slavery disappeared; monogamous marriage established; the emergence of writing, church organizations - centers of education; oblivion of the previous pagan culture; persecution of people for calling children Russian names; the emergence of Russian swearing.
Reasons: internal political; foreign policy; social.