The concept of environmental monitoring Monitoring is a system of repeated observations of one or more elements of the natural environment in space and time with specific goals and in accordance with a pre-prepared program Menn 1972. The concept of environmental monitoring was first introduced by R. Clarifying the definition of environmental monitoring by Yu.
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Lecture No. 14
Environmental monitoring
- Concept of environmental monitoring
- Objectives of environmental monitoring
- Monitoring classification
- Assessment of the actual state of the environment (sanitary and hygienic monitoring, environmental)
- Forecast and assessment of the predicted state
1. Concept of environmental monitoring
Monitoring is a system of repeated observations of one or more elements of the natural environment in space and time with specific goals and in accordance with a pre-prepared program (Menn, 1972). The need for detailed information about the state of the biosphere has become even more obvious in recent decades due to the serious negative consequences caused by uncontrolled human exploitation of natural resources.
To identify changes in the state of the biosphere under the influence of human activity, an observation system is needed. Such a system is now commonly called monitoring.
The word “monitoring” entered scientific circulation from English-language literature and comes from the English word “ monitoring " comes from the word " monitor ", which in English has the following meaning: monitor, instrument or device for monitoring and constant control over something.
The concept of environmental monitoring was first introduced by R. Menn in 1972. at the UN Stockholm Conference.
In our country, Yu.A. was one of the first to develop monitoring theory. Israel. Clarifying the definition of environmental monitoring, Yu.A. Israel back in 1974 focused not only on observation, but also on forecasting, introducing the anthropogenic factor into the definition of the term “environmental monitoring” as the main cause of these changes. Monitoring environmentit calls a system of observation, assessment and forecast of anthropogenic changes in the state of the natural environment. (Fig.1) . The Stockholm Conference on the Environment (1972) marked the beginning of the creation of global environmental monitoring systems (GEMS/ GEMS).
Monitoring includes the followingmain directions activities:
- Observations of factors affecting the natural environment and the state of the environment;
- Assessment of the actual state of the natural environment;
- Forecast of the state of the natural environment. And an assessment of this condition.
Thus, monitoring is a multi-purpose information system of observation, analysis, diagnosis and forecast of the state of the natural environment, which does not include environmental quality management, but provides the necessary information for such management (Fig. 2).
Information system/monitoring/Management
Rice. 2. Block diagram of the monitoring system.
2. Objectives of environmental monitoring
- Scientific and technical support for monitoring, assessing the forecast of the state of the environment;
- Monitoring the sources of pollutants and the level of environmental pollution;
- Identification of sources and factors of pollution and assessment of the degree of their impact on the environment;
- Assessment of the actual state of the environment;
- Forecast of changes in the state of the environment and ways to improve the situation. (Fig.3.)
The essence and content of environmental monitoring consists of an ordered set of procedures, organized into cycles: N 1 observations, O 1 assessment, P 1 forecast and U 1 management. Then the observations are supplemented with new data, on a new cycle, and then the cycles are repeated on a new time interval H 2, O 2, P 2, U 2, etc. (Fig. 4.)
Thus, monitoring is a complex, cyclically functioning, constantly operating system that develops in a spiral over time.
Rice. 4. Scheme of monitoring functioning over time.
3. Classification of monitoring.
- According to the scale of observation;
- By objects of observation;
- According to the level of contamination of observation objects;
- By factors and sources of pollution;
- According to observation methods.
By scale of observation
|
Level name monitoring |
Monitoring organizations |
|
Global |
Interstate monitoring system environment |
|
National |
State environmental monitoring system for the territory of Russia |
|
Regional |
Regional and regional environmental monitoring systems |
|
Local |
City, district environmental monitoring systems |
|
Detailed |
Environmental monitoring systems for enterprises, fields, factories, etc. |
Detailed monitoring
The lowest hierarchical level is the detailed levelenvironmental monitoring implemented within territories and on the scale of individual enterprises, factories, individual engineering structures, economic complexes, fields, etc. Detailed environmental monitoring systems are the most important link in a higher-ranking system. Their integration into a larger network forms a local level monitoring system.
Local monitoring (impact)
It is carried out in heavily polluted places (cities, settlements, water bodies, etc.) and is focused on the source of pollution. IN
Due to the proximity to sources of pollution, all the main substances included in emissions into the atmosphere and discharge into water bodies are usually present in significant quantities here. Local systems, in turn, are combined into even larger regional monitoring systems.
Regional monitoring
It is carried out within a certain region, taking into account the natural nature, type and intensity of man-made impact. Regional environmental monitoring systems are united within one state into a single national monitoring network.
National monitoring
Monitoring system within one state. Such a system differs from global monitoring not only in scale, but also in the fact that the main task of national monitoring is to obtain information and assess the state of the environment in national interests. In Russia it is carried out under the leadership of the Ministry of Natural Resources. Within the framework of the UN environmental program, the task has been set to unite national monitoring systems into a single interstate network “Global Environmental Monitoring Network” (GEMN)
Global monitoring
The purpose of GSMS is to monitor changes in the environment on Earth as a whole, on a global scale. Global monitoring is a system for monitoring the state and forecasting possible changes in global processes and phenomena, including anthropogenic impact on the biosphere as a whole. GSMOS deals with global warming, problems of the ozone layer, forest conservation, drought, etc. .
By objects of observation
- Atmospheric air
- in populated areas;
- different layers of the atmosphere;
- stationary and mobile sources of pollution.
- Groundwater and surface water bodies
- fresh and salt waters;
- mixing zones;
- regulated water bodies;
- natural reservoirs and watercourses.
- Geological environment
- soil layer;
- soils.
- Biological monitoring
- plants;
- animals;
- ecosystems;
- Human.
- Snow cover monitoring
- Background radiation monitoring.
Pollution level of observation objects
- Background (basic monitoring)
These are observations of environmental objects in relatively clean natural areas.
2. Impact
Focuses on the source of pollution or individual polluting impact.
By factors and sources of pollution
1. Ingradient monitoring
This is a physical impact on the environment. These are radiation, thermal effects, infrared, noise, vibration, etc.
2. Ingredient monitoring
This is monitoring of a single pollutant.
By observation methods
1. Contact methods
2. Remote methods.
4. Assessment of the actual state of the environment
Assessment of the actual state is a key area within the framework of environmental monitoring. It allows you to determine trends in changes in the state of the environment; the degree of trouble and its causes; helps make decisions to normalize the situation. Favorable situations can also be identified, indicating the presence of ecological reserves of nature.
The ecological reserve of a natural ecosystem is the difference between the maximum permissible and actual state of the ecosystem.
The method for analyzing observation results and assessing the state of the ecosystem depends on the type of monitoring. Typically, the assessment is carried out using a set of indicators or conditional indices developed for the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere. Unfortunately, there are no unified criteria even for identical elements of the natural environment. As an example, we will consider only individual criteria.
In sanitary and hygienic monitoring they usually use:
1) comprehensive assessments of the sanitary condition of natural objects based on a set of measured indicators (Table 1) or 2) pollution indices.
Table 1.
Comprehensive assessment of the sanitary condition of water bodies based on a combination of physical, chemical and hydrobiological indicators
The general principle for calculating pollution indices is as follows: first, the degree of deviation of the concentration of each pollutant from its MPC is determined, and then the resulting values are combined into a total indicator that takes into account the impact of several substances.
Let us give examples of calculating pollution indices used to assess atmospheric air pollution (AP) and surface water quality (WQ).
Calculation of the air pollution index (API).
In practical work, a large number of different ISAs are used. Some of them are based on indirect indicators of air pollution, for example, atmospheric visibility, transparency coefficient.
Various ISAs, which can be divided into 2 main groups:
1. Unit indices of air pollution by one impurity.
2.Comprehensive indicators of air pollution by several substances.
TO unit indices relate:
Coefficient for expressing the concentration of an impurity in MPC units ( A ), i.e. the value of the maximum or average concentration, reduced to the maximum permissible concentration:
a = Cί / MPCί
This API is used as a criterion for the quality of atmospheric air by individual impurities.
Repeatability (g ) concentrations of impurities in the air above a given level by post or by K posts of the city for the year. This is the percentage (%) of cases where single values of impurity concentration exceed a given level:
g = (m/n) ּ100%
where n - number of observations for the period under consideration, m - number of cases of exceeding one-time concentrations at the post.
IZA (I ) by an individual impurity - a quantitative characteristic of the level of atmospheric pollution by an individual impurity, taking into account the hazard class of the substance through standardization for the danger SO 2 :
I = (C g /PDKss) Ki
where I is an impurity, Ki - constant for various hazard classes in reducing the degree of harmfulness of sulfur dioxide, C g - average annual concentration of impurities.
For substances of different hazard classes Ki is accepted:
|
Hazard Class |
||||
|
Ki value |
The calculation of the API is based on the assumption that at the MPC level, all harmful substances are characterized by the same effect on humans, and with a further increase in concentration, the degree of their harmfulness increases at different rates, which depends on the hazard class of the substance.
This API is used to characterize the contribution of individual impurities to the overall level of air pollution over a given period of time in a given area and to compare the degree of air pollution by various substances.
TO complex indexes relate:
The comprehensive city air pollution index (CIPA) is a quantitative characteristic of the level of air pollution created by n substances present in the city atmosphere:
KIZA=
where Ii - unit index of atmospheric pollution by the i-th substance.
The comprehensive index of air pollution by priority substances is a quantitative characteristic of the level of air pollution by priority substances that determine air pollution in cities, calculated similarly to KIZA.
Calculations of the natural water pollution index (WPI)can also be performed using several methods.
Let us give as an example the calculation method recommended by the regulatory document, which is an integral part of the Rules for the Protection of Surface Waters (1991) - SanPiN 4630-88.
First, the measured concentrations of pollutants are grouped according to limiting signs of harmfulness - LPV (organoleptic, toxicological and general sanitary). Then, for the first and second (organoleptic and toxicological DP) groups, the degree of deviation (A i ) actual concentrations of substances ( C i ) from their maximum permissible concentration i , the same as for atmospheric air ( A i = C i /MPC i ). Next, find the sums of indicators A i , for the first and second groups of substances:
where S is the sum of A i for substances regulated by organoleptic ( S org ) and toxicological ( S tox ) LPV; n - number of summarized water quality indicators.
In addition, to determine WPI, the amount of oxygen dissolved in water and BOD are used 20 (general sanitary LPV), bacteriological indicator - the number of lactose-positive Escherichia coli (LPKP) in 1 liter of water, smell and taste. The water pollution index is determined in accordance with the hygienic classification of water bodies according to the degree of pollution (Table 2).
Comparing the corresponding indicators ( Sorg, Stox, BOD 20 etc.) with the estimated ones (see Table 2), determine the pollution index, the degree of pollution of the water body and the water quality class. The pollution index is determined by the most stringent value of the assessment indicator. So, if according to all indicators water belongs to quality class I, but the oxygen content in it is less than 4.0 mg/l (but more than 3.0 mg/l), then the WPI of such water should be taken as 1 and classified as class II quality (moderate degree of contamination).
The types of water use depend on the degree of water pollution of a water body (Table 3).
Table 2.
Hygienic classification of water bodies by degree of pollution (according to SanPiN 4630-88)
Table 3
Possible types of water use depending on the degree of pollution of the water body (according to SanPiN4630-88)
|
Degree of pollution |
Possible uses of the same object |
|
Acceptable |
Suitable for all types of water use by the population with virtually no restrictions |
|
Moderate |
Indicates the danger of using a water body for cultural and household chains. Use as a source of domestic drinking water supply without reducing the level of: chemical pollution at water treatment plants can lead to initial symptoms of intoxication in part of the population, especially in the presence of substances of the 1st and 2nd hazard classes |
|
High |
There is an absolute danger of cultural and domestic water use on a water body. It is unacceptable to use it as a source of domestic drinking water supply due to the difficulty of removing toxic substances during the water treatment process. Drinking water can lead to symptoms of intoxication and the development of isolated effects, especially in the presence of substances of hazard classes 1 and 2 |
|
Extremely high |
Absolutely unsuitable for all types of water use. Even short-term use of water from a water body is dangerous to public health |
To assess water quality, the services of the Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation use the methodology for calculating WPI only based on chemical indicators, but taking into account more stringent fishery MPCs. At the same time, there are not 4, but 7 quality classes:
I - very clean water (WPI = 0.3);
II - pure (WPI = 0.3 - 1.0);
III - moderately polluted (WPI = 1.0 - 2.5);
IV - polluted (WPI = 2.5 - 4.0);
V - dirty (WPI = 4.0 - 6.0);
VI - very dirty (WPI = 6.0 - 10.0);
VII - extremely dirty (WPI more than 10.0).
Assessment of the level of chemical contamination of soilcarried out according to indicators developed in geochemical and geohygienic studies. These indicators are:
- chemical concentration factor (K i),
K i = C i / C fi
where C i actual content of the analyte in the soil, mg/kg;
With fi regional background content of the substance in soil, mg/kg.
In the presence of maximum permissible concentration i for the soil type under consideration, K i determined by the multiple of exceeding the hygienic standard, i.e. according to the formula
K i = C i / MPC i
- total pollution index Z c , which is determined by the sum of the concentration coefficients of chemical substances:
Zc = ∑ K i (n -1)
Where n number of pollutants in the soil, K i - concentration coefficient.
The approximate rating scale of the danger of soil pollution based on the total indicator is presented in table. 3.
Table 3
|
Danger |
Change in health |
|
|
acceptable |
16 |
low level of morbidity in children, minimum functional deviations |
|
moderately dangerous |
16-32 |
increase in overall morbidity rate |
|
dangerous |
32-128 |
an increase in the overall morbidity rate; increase in the number of sick children, children with chronic diseases, disorders of the cardiovascular system |
|
extremely dangerous |
128 |
an increase in the overall morbidity rate; increase in the number of sick children, reproductive dysfunction |
Environmental monitoring is of particular importance in the global systemenvironmental monitoring and, first of all, in monitoring renewable resources of the biosphere. It includes observations of the ecological state of terrestrial, aquatic and marine ecosystems.
The following criteria can be used to characterize changes in the state of natural systems: balance of production and destruction; the amount of primary production, the structure of the biocenosis; rate of circulation of nutrients, etc. All these criteria are numerically expressed by various chemical and biological indicators. Thus, changes in the Earth's vegetation cover are determined by changes in the area of forests.
The main result of environmental monitoring should be an assessment of the responses of ecosystems as a whole to anthropogenic disturbances.
A response or reaction of an ecosystem is a change in its ecological state in response to external influences. It is best to evaluate the system's response by integral indicators of its state, which can be used as various indices and other functional characteristics. Let's look at some of them:
1. One of the most common responses of aquatic ecosystems to anthropogenic impacts is eutrophication. Consequently, monitoring changes in indicators that integrally reflect the degree of eutrophication of a reservoir, for example pH 100% , is the most important element of environmental monitoring.
2. The response to “acid rain” and other anthropogenic impacts may be a change in the structure of biocenoses of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. To assess such a reaction, various indices of species diversity are widely used, reflecting the fact that under any unfavorable conditions the diversity of species in the biocenosis decreases, and the number of resistant species increases.
Dozens of such indices have been proposed by different authors. The most widely used indices are those based on information theory, for example, the Shannon index:
where N - total number of individuals; S - number of species; N i is the number of individuals of the i-th species.
In practice, they deal not with the number of a species in the entire population (in a sample), but with the number of a species in a sample; replacing N i / N by n i / n , we get:
Maximum diversity is observed when the numbers of all species are equal, and minimum diversity is observed when all species except one are represented by one specimen. Diversity indices ( d ) reflect the structure of the community, weakly depend on the sample size and are dimensionless.
Y. L. Vilm (1970) calculated Shannon diversity indices ( d ) in 22 unpolluted and 21 polluted sections of different US rivers. In uncontaminated areas the index ranged from 2.6 to 4.6, and in polluted areas - from 0.4 to 1.6.
Assessment of the state of ecosystems based on species diversity is applicable to any type of impact and any ecosystem.
3. The system’s response may manifest itself in a decrease in its resistance to anthropogenic stress. As a universal integral criterion for assessing the stability of ecosystems, V.D. Fedorov (1975) proposed a function called the measure of homeostasis and equal to the ratio of functional indicators (for example, pH 100% or photosynthesis rate) to structural (diversity indices).
A feature of environmental monitoring is that the effects of impacts, subtle when studying an individual organism or species, are revealed when considering the system as a whole.
5. Forecast and assessment of the predicted state
Forecasting and assessing the predicted state of ecosystems and the biosphere are based on the results of monitoring the natural environment in the past and present, studying information series of observations and analyzing trends of changes.
At the initial stage, it is necessary to predict changes in the intensity of sources of impacts and pollution, to predict the degree of their influence: to predict, for example, the amount of pollutants in various environments, their distribution in space, changes in their properties and concentrations over time. To make such forecasts, data on human activity plans is needed.
The next stage is the forecast of possible changes in the biosphere under the influence of existing pollution and other factors, since changes that have already occurred (especially genetic ones) can last for many years. Analysis of the predicted state allows you to select priority environmental measures and make adjustments to economic activities at the regional level.
Forecasting the state of ecosystems is essential for managing the quality of the natural environment.
In assessing the ecological state of the biosphere on a global scale based on integral characteristics (averaged in space and time), remote observation methods play an exceptional role. The leading methods among them are those based on the use of space assets. For these purposes, special satellite systems are being created (Meteor in Russia, Landsat in the USA, etc.). Synchronous three-level observations using satellite systems, aircraft and ground services are especially effective. They make it possible to obtain information about the state of forests, agricultural lands, marine phytoplankton, soil erosion, urbanized areas, redistribution of water resources, atmospheric pollution, etc. For example, a correlation is observed between the spectral brightness of the planet’s surface and the humus content in soils and their salinity.
Satellite imaging provides ample opportunities for geobotanical zoning; allows us to judge population growth based on the area of settlements; energy consumption based on the brightness of night lights; clearly identify dust layers and temperature anomalies associated with radioactive decay; record increased concentrations of chlorophyll in water bodies; detect forest fires and much more.
In Russia since the late 60s. There is a unified national system of observation and control of environmental pollution. It is based on the principle of comprehensive observations of natural environments according to hydrometeorological, physicochemical, biochemical and biological parameters. Observations are organized according to a hierarchical principle.
The first stage is local observation points serving the city, region and consisting of control and measuring stations and a computer center for collecting and processing information (CIS). Then the data enters the second level - regional (territorial), from where the information is transferred to local interested organizations. The third level is the Main Data Center, which collects and summarizes information across the country. For this purpose, PCs are now widely used and digital raster maps are created.
Currently, the Unified State Environmental Monitoring System (USESM) is being created, the purpose of which is to provide objective, comprehensive information about the state of the natural environment. The Unified State Environmental Monitoring System includes monitoring of: sources of anthropogenic impact on the environment; pollution of the abiotic component of the natural environment; biotic components of the natural environment.
Within the framework of the Unified State Environmental Monitoring System, the creation of environmental information services is provided. Monitoring is carried out by the State Observation Service (SOS).
Observations of atmospheric air in 1996 were carried out in 284 cities at 664 posts. The observation network for surface water pollution in the Russian Federation as of January 1, 1996 consisted of 1928 points, 2617 sections, 2958 verticals, 3407 horizons located on 1363 water bodies (1979 - 1200 water bodies); of which - 1204 watercourses and 159 reservoirs. As part of the State Monitoring of the Geological Environment (SMGE), the observation network included 15,000 groundwater observation points, 700 observation sites for hazardous exogenous processes, 5 test sites and 30 wells for studying earthquake precursors.
Among all the blocks of the USEM, the most complex and least developed not only in Russia, but also in the world is the monitoring of the biotic component. There is no uniform methodology for the use of living objects either for assessing or regulating environmental quality. Consequently, the primary task is to determine biotic indicators for each of the monitoring blocks at the federal and territorial levels, differentiated for terrestrial, aquatic and soil ecosystems.
To manage the quality of the natural environment, it is important not only to have information about its condition, but also to determine damage from anthropogenic impacts, economic efficiency, environmental measures, and to master economic mechanisms for protecting the natural environment.
Actual condition
environment
Environmental conditions
environment
For the state
environment
And the factors on
influencing it
Forecast
price
Observations
Monitoring
observations
State forecast
Assessment of actual condition
Assessment of the predicted state
Regulation of environmental quality
ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING
TASK
TARGET
OBSERVATION
GRADE
FORECAST
DECISION-MAKING
STRATEGY DEVELOPMENT
IDENTIFICATION
for changes in the state of the environment
proposed environmental changes
observed changes and identifying the effect of human activities
causes of environmental change associated with human activities
to prevent
negative consequences of human activity
optimal relations between society and the environment
Fig.3. Main tasks and purpose of monitoring
H 1
O 2
H 2
P 1
O 1
Decisions of state and municipal authorities aimed at normalizing the environmental situation, ensuring environmental safety and environmental well-being of the population must be adequate to this situation. The validity and efficiency of these decisions is determined by the availability of objective and timely information about the current and predicted environmental situation.
Under the environmental safety understand a state in which the interests of the individual, society, nature and the state are protected from any threats created by anthropogenic or natural impacts on the environment.
The mechanism that ensures the discovery of real relationships between sources of deformation of the natural environment, living conditions and health status of the population is a monitoring system.
Environmental monitoring (environmental monitoring)- This complex system carried out according to scientifically based programs interrelated work on regular monitoring on the state of the environment, assessment and forecast its changes under the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors.
The main task of environmental monitoring is to provide state authorities and local governments, organizations and citizens with timely, regular and reliable information about the state of the environment and its impact on public health, as well as forecasts of changes in the environmental situation, for the development and implementation of measures to improve the natural environment and ensuring environmental safety. Monitoring data is the basis for information support for decision-making, prioritization in the field of environmental activities in order to develop economic policies that adequately take environmental factors into account.
Environmental monitoring system is a set of mutually linked legal acts, management structures, scientific organizations and enterprises, technical and information means.
Objects of environmental monitoring are:
- components of the natural environment - lands, subsoil, soils, surface and underground waters, atmospheric air, levels of radiation and energy pollution, as well as the ozone layer of the atmosphere and near-Earth space, which together provide favorable conditions for the existence of life on Earth;
- natural objects - natural ecological systems, natural landscapes and their constituent elements;
- natural-anthropogenic objects - natural objects transformed in the process of economic activity or objects created by man and having recreational and protective significance;
- sources of anthropogenic impact on the natural environment, including potentially hazardous objects.
Since information about the state of the natural environment is primarily used to assess the impact of the habitat on the health of the population, monitoring objects often also include population groups exposed to environmental factors.
Monitoring of natural environments and objects is carried out at various levels:
Global (according to international programs and projects);
Federal (for the territory of Russia as a whole);
Territorial (within the territory of the relevant constituent entities of the Russian Federation);
Local (within the limits of a natural-technogenic system used by a resource user who has received a license for a particular type of activity).
The task global monitoring is to ensure observation, control and forecast of changes in the biosphere as a whole. Therefore, it is also called biosphere or background monitoring.
The development and coordination of the global environmental monitoring system (GEMS) is carried out by UNEP and the World Meteorological Organization within the framework of various international programs and projects. The main goals of these programs are:
Assessment of the impact of global air pollution on climate;
Assessment of pollution of the World Ocean and the impact of pollution on marine ecosystems and the biosphere;
Assess critical issues arising from agricultural activities and land use;
Creation of an international disaster warning system.
RF complex background monitoring stations are located in 6 biosphere reserves and are part of global international observation networks.
When implementing global monitoring programs, a special place is occupied by monitoring the state of the environment from space. Earth space remote sensing (ERS) systems make it possible to obtain unique information about the functioning of various ecosystems at the regional and global levels, and about the consequences of natural and environmental disasters. An example of a global monitoring program is the Environmental Observation System (EOS), implemented in the United States. It is based on the processing of data received from three satellites equipped with video spectrometers, radiometers, lidars, radio altimeters and other equipment.
State environmental monitoring in the Russian Federation it is carried out over the state of atmospheric air, water bodies, wildlife, forests, geological environment, land, specially protected natural areas, as well as sources of anthropogenic impact. Observation, assessment and forecast of the state of individual components of the natural environment and sources of anthropogenic impact are carried out within the framework of the relevant functional subsystem of environmental monitoring. The organization of monitoring within the framework of the functional subsystem is assigned to the relevant federal departments specially authorized by the Government of the Russian Federation.
Functional subsystems for monitoring the state of atmospheric air, soil pollution, surface waters on land and the marine environment (as part of monitoring surface water bodies) are combined into State Service for Monitoring Environmental Pollution (GSN), operating in Russia for more than a quarter of a century. Its organizational basis is the monitoring system of the Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Natural Environment Monitoring (Roshydromet), which includes territorial bodies (administrations) and an observation network consisting of fixed and mobile posts, stations, laboratories and information processing centers.
The Roshydromet monitoring system provides the bulk of information on the state and pollution of the natural environment on the territory of the Russian Federation. Summarized data obtained by the State Observation Service are published in the annual State Report on the state of the natural environment and the impact of environmental factors on the health of the population of the Russian Federation.
Currently, the Roshydromet monitoring system monitors:
The state of air pollution in cities and industrial centers;
The state of soil contamination with pesticides and heavy metals;
The state of surface waters of land and seas;
Over the transboundary transport of pollutants in the atmosphere;
For the chemical composition, acidity of precipitation and snow cover; for background air pollution;
For radioactive contamination of the natural environment.
The entire range of work in the GOS, starting from planning the location of the observation network and ending with information processing algorithms, is regulated by the relevant regulatory and methodological documents.
Should be described in more detail State air pollution monitoring system . Observations of the level of air pollution in cities and industrial centers of Russia are carried out by territorial departments for hydrometeorology and environmental monitoring. Together with Roshydromet organizations, observations are carried out by sanitary and epidemiological supervision bodies and other departments licensed by Roshydromet.
Observations are made at stationary, route and mobile posts according to a full program 4 times a day or a shortened program - 3 times a day. The list of pollutants subject to control is established taking into account the volume and composition of emissions for each area as a result of a preliminary survey. The concentrations of both the main pollutants for all territories (suspended substances, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide and dioxide, sulfur dioxide) and substances specific to individual territories (ammonia, formaldehyde, phenol, hydrogen sulfide, carbon disulfide, hydrogen fluoride, acrolein, benzene) are determined. )pyrene, heavy metals, aromatic hydrocarbons, etc.). Simultaneously with air sampling, meteorological parameters are determined: wind direction and speed, air temperature and humidity, weather conditions, and gamma background levels. The collection and processing of the results of most analyzes is carried out within 24 hours.
In the event of weather conditions unfavorable for the dispersion of pollutants, so-called “storm warnings” are transmitted to the largest enterprises in the region to carry out measures to temporarily reduce emissions.
E environmental monitoring at the territorial level includes the following types of observations:
- emissions monitoring - monitoring of a source (or type of activity) that has a negative impact on the environment (emission of pollutants, electromagnetic radiation, noise, etc.);
- impact monitoring – observations of the impact on the natural environment related to the control of a specific source or type of anthropogenic activity (in particular, monitoring of areas of direct impact);
- monitoring of the natural environment and ecosystems - monitoring the state of components of the natural environment, natural resources, natural-technical systems, natural complexes, biological objects and ecosystems, as well as the anthropogenic impacts on them of the entire set of existing sources and activities (anthropogenic background monitoring).
At the territorial level, it is of particular importance monitoring of pollution sources environment and zones of their direct influence . This type of monitoring, unlike all others, is directly related to managing sources of pollution and ensuring the environmental safety of the population. The objects of monitoring are sources of pollution entering the environment belonging to industrial, agricultural, transport and other enterprises, as well as places of disposal (storage, burial) of toxic waste.
Monitoring is carried out within the framework of the powers of environmental authorities to state environmental control and is carried out in the form of targeted inspections of individual enterprises, complex inspections (city, enterprise). The number of such inspections is limited (1-2 per year).
Instrumental control is carried out by the technological inspection for control of pollution sources with analysis of samples in stationary conditions and in mobile laboratories.
The bulk of observations of sources is carried out within the framework of industrial environmental control . The scheme for organizing monitoring of pollution sources is shown in Fig. 10.1.
Environmental quality management consists of influencing natural resources users in such a way that the characteristics of environmental quality approach the standard characterized by the relevant standards. Control actions in this system can be of the following types:
Fig. 10.1. Scheme of organization of monitoring of the source of exposure
Changes in payment standards for environmental use, MPE, PDS standards; forced change in the technological process;
Changing the geographical location of a man-made object (up to the removal of production from the city);
Changing connections between objects.
The frequency of control actions lies in a wide range - from several years (with the planned establishment of MPE and MPD standards) to several hours (in the event of emergency situations or unfavorable weather conditions).
Thus, the monitoring system is a tool for obtaining the necessary information. What its effectiveness will be depends on the legal framework and the consistency of executive authorities in its application.
Environmental control
In order to ensure compliance with environmental protection requirements, norms, rules and state standards in the field of environmental protection by economic and other activities that have a negative impact on the natural environment, an environmental control system is being implemented.
Environmental control is a system of measures to prevent, detect and suppress violations of legislation in the field of environmental protection. The functioning of the environmental control system is the most important condition for ensuring environmental safety.
In the Russian Federation, state, industrial and public control is carried out in the field of environmental protection. Organization state environmental control entrusted to the specially authorized federal executive body, as well as state authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. The legislation prohibits the combination of state control functions in the field of environmental protection and management functions in the field of economic use of natural resources. State environmental control is implemented through inspections of any organizations and enterprises, regardless of their form of ownership, by state inspectors in the field of environmental protection. Full inspections cover the entire range of issues related to environmental activities. During targeted inspections, certain issues of environmental protection activities are monitored (the operation of gas and water treatment facilities, the condition of landfills, sludge reservoirs, the implementation of the environmental action plan, the implementation of previously issued instructions). Targeted inspections also include supervision of the progress of construction and reconstruction of facilities, inspection of enterprises based on applications and appeals from citizens.
State inspectors in the field of environmental protection, in the performance of their official duties, have broad rights and powers - from issuing orders to legal entities to eliminate environmental violations to suspending the activities of enterprises if they violate environmental legislation.
Industrial environmental control carried out by business entities that have or are capable of having a negative impact on the environment.
Industrial environmental control is limited to the framework of the technological production cycle and is aimed at confirming compliance by the enterprise - the user of natural resources with established environmental standards, regulations and rules, as well as the implementation of measures for the protection and improvement of the environment, rational use and restoration of natural resources. This goal is achieved subject to the organization of effective continuous monitoring of established indicators for each source of direct impact on the environment, which is associated with an environmental risk to the environment (as a result of disruption of the technological process, deviation from the design operating mode of equipment, man-made accidents and disasters).
Due to the imperfection of existing methods for controlling pollutants, assessing their toxicity, and spreading in the environment, the possibility of negative changes in natural environments under the influence of this enterprise cannot be ruled out. Taking this into account, the legislation provides for the obligation of the enterprise-user of natural resources to organize quality control of natural environments in the zone of its direct influence (local environmental monitoring).
Industrial environmental control solves the following problems:
Monitoring emissions into the atmosphere, wastewater discharges, water consumption and water disposal directly at the boundaries of the technological process (sources of emissions, discharges) to assess compliance with the standards of maximum permissible limits, maximum permissible limits and the effectiveness of regulating emissions into the atmosphere in particularly unfavorable weather conditions (NMC);
Monitoring the operating mode of technological and auxiliary environmental equipment and facilities associated with the formation, release and capture of pollutants, generation and storage of waste; assessment of environmental safety of products;
The main objects of industrial environmental control are:
Raw materials, materials, reagents, drugs used in production;
Sources of emissions of pollutants into the atmospheric air;
Sources of discharge of pollutants into water bodies, sewerage and wastewater systems;
Exhaust gas purification systems;
Wastewater treatment systems;
Recycling water supply systems;
Storage facilities and warehouses for raw materials and materials;
Waste disposal and disposal facilities;
Finished products.
In some cases, the scope of industrial environmental control includes individual natural objects (control of thermal and chemical pollution of reservoirs and watercourses, groundwater).
Control of hazardous waste is organized at all stages of its management: during waste generation, its accumulation, transportation, processing and neutralization, burial, as well as after burial by monitoring burial sites.
Industrial environmental control is carried out by the environmental protection service. Laboratories that implement the functions of industrial environmental control at an enterprise must be accredited and have the appropriate licenses.
Sources of emissions of harmful substances into the atmosphere and discharge of wastewater into water bodies that are subject to control are determined on the basis of established MPE and MPD standards, as well as statistical reporting data.
The number of sources of emissions and discharges, the list of pollutants subject to control, and the control schedule are annually agreed upon by enterprises and environmental organizations with the territorial divisions of the federal authorized bodies. The schedules indicate sampling points, sampling frequency and a list of controlled ingredients.
The list of the most dangerous air pollutants subject to control at sources consists of substances from three groups: basic (dust, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide and dioxide, sulfur dioxide); substances of the first hazard class; substances for which, according to observational data, a concentration of more than 5 MAC is registered in the controlled area.
The main method for monitoring atmospheric emissions and wastewater discharges should be direct instrumental measurements. The optimal scope of instrument control is established taking into account the characteristics of the technological regime. For large (main) sources of pollution, the organization of continuous automatic monitoring of emissions (discharges) must be provided.
Public environmental control carried out with the aim of realizing the rights of every person to a favorable environment and preventing environmental violations. Public environmental control involves public and other non-profit organizations in accordance with their charters, as well as citizens in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation. The results of public environmental control submitted to state authorities and local governments are subject to mandatory review.
10.5.Security questions
1.What is meant by the “presumption of environmental danger” of economic activity? What legislation establishes it?
2. In what cases is EIA carried out?
3.What is the subject of the state environmental assessment?
4.What is an environmental audit? What are environmental quality standards? Give an example of an environmental quality standard.
5.What is an environmental audit? What are environmental quality standards? Give an example of an environmental quality standard.
6.What are the standards for permissible environmental impact?
7.What is environmental safety?
8. Formulate the content and subject of environmental monitoring.
9. Levels, directions and types of environmental monitoring.
10. How is the “environmental standard” determined in the environmental monitoring system?
11.How is monitoring of sources of anthropogenic impact organized?
12.What are the objectives of industrial environmental control?
13.What is state environmental control? How is it carried out?
14.What is the difference between environmental control and environmental audit?
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Ecological monitoring of the environment is a modern form of implementing environmental activity processes using information technology, which ensures regular assessment and forecasting of Sipan's living environment of society and the operating conditions of ecosystems for making management decisions on environmental safety, conservation of the natural environment and rational use of natural resources. Environmental monitoring is an information system for observing, assessing and forecasting changes in the state of the environment, created with the aim of highlighting the anthropogenic component of these changes against the background of natural processes.
Back in the late 60s, many countries realized that it was necessary to coordinate efforts to collect, store and process environmental data. In 1972, a conference on environmental protection was held in Stockholm under the auspices of the UN, where for the first time the need arose to agree on a definition of the concept of “monitoring”. It was decided to understand environmental monitoring as a comprehensive system of observations, assessments and forecasts of changes in the state of the environment under the influence of anthropogenic factors. The term appeared in addition to the term “environmental control.” Currently, monitoring is understood as a set of observations of certain components of the biosphere, specially organized in space and time, as well as an adequate set of environmental forecasting methods.
The main tasks of environmental monitoring: monitoring the state of the biosphere, assessing and forecasting its state, determining the degree of anthropogenic impact on the environment, identifying factors and sources of impact. The ultimate goal of environmental monitoring is to optimize human relations with nature and the environmental orientation of economic activity.
Environmental monitoring arose at the intersection of ecology, economics, biology, geography, geophysics, geology and other sciences. There are different types of monitoring depending on the criteria: bioecological (sanitary and hygienic) Geoecological (natural and economic) production and environmental; biosphere (global) geophysical; climatic; biological; public health, etc.
Depending on the purpose, general, crisis and background environmental monitoring of the environment is carried out under special programs (Fig. 14.1).
Rice. 14.1. Types and levels of environmental monitoring system
Source: compiled according to data from the Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources of Ukraine: [Electronic resource]. - Access mode: menr.gov.ua/monitoring
General environmental monitoring - these are optimal places, parameters and frequency of environmental observations in terms of quantity and placement, which allow, based on assessment and forecasting of the state of the environment, to support the adoption of appropriate decisions at all levels of departmental and national environmental activities.
Crisis environmental monitoring - these are intensive observations of natural objects, sources of man-made impact, located in areas of environmental tension, in zones of accidents and hazardous natural phenomena with harmful environmental consequences, with the aim of ensuring a timely response to crisis and emergency environmental situations and making decisions on their elimination, creating normal conditions for the life of the population and economy.
Background environmental monitoring - these are long-term comprehensive studies of specially designated objects of environmental protection zones in order to assess and predict changes in the state of ecosystems remote from industrial and economic activities, or to obtain information to determine the average statistical (background) level of environmental pollution in anthropogenic conditions.
In Ukraine, monitoring of the natural environment is carried out by many departments, within the framework of whose activities the corresponding tasks, levels and components of the monitoring subsystem are implemented. So, for example, in the monitoring system carried out in Ukraine, there are three levels of environmental monitoring environment: global, regional and local.
The purpose, methodological approaches and practice of monitoring at different levels differ. The criteria for the quality of the natural environment are most clearly defined at the local level. The purpose of regulation here is to ensure such a strategy does not bring the concentrations of certain priority anthropogenic pollutants to an acceptable range, which is a kind of standard. It represents the values of maximum permissible concentrations (MPC), which are established by law. Compliance of the quality of the natural environment with standards is monitored by the relevant supervisory authorities. The task of monitoring at the local level is to determine the parameters of the “emission field - concentration field” models. The object of influence at the local level is a person.
At the regional level, the approach to monitoring is based on the fact that pollutants, having entered the cycle of substances in the biosphere, change the state of the abiotic component and, as a result, cause changes in the biota. Any economic activity carried out on a regional scale affects the regional background - it changes the state of equilibrium of the abiotic and biological components. For example, the state of vegetation cover, primarily forests, significantly influences the climatic conditions of the region.
The goals of global monitoring are determined in the process of international cooperation within the framework of various international organizations, agreements (conventions) and declarations. Global environmental monitoring includes seven areas:
1. Organization and expansion of a warning system about threats to human health.
2. Assessment of global air pollution and its impact on climate.
3. Assessment of the quantity and distribution of contaminants in biological systems, especially in the food chain.
4. Assess critical issues that arise from agricultural activities and land use.
5. Assessment of the responses of terrestrial ecosystems to environmental influences.
6. Assessment of ocean pollution and the impact of pollution on marine organisms.
7. Establishment of an improved international disaster warning system.
The state environmental monitoring system carries out the following types of work: routine observations, operational work, special work. Regular work is carried out systematically following annual programs, at specially organized observation points. The need to perform operational work depends on cases of emergency pollution of the natural environment or natural disasters; These works are performed in emergency situations.
The creation and operation of the State System of Environmental Monitoring of the Environment should contribute to the implementation of the state environmental policy, which provides for:
Environmentally rational use of the natural and socio-economic potential of the state, preservation of a favorable living environment for society;
Social, environmental and economically rational solution to problems arising from environmental pollution, hazardous natural phenomena, man-made accidents and disasters;
Development of international cooperation on the conservation of natural biodiversity, protection of the ozone layer of the atmosphere, prevention of anthropogenic climate change, forest protection and reforestation, transboundary environmental pollution, restoration of the natural state of the Dnieper, Danube, Black and Azov Seas.
The state environmental monitoring system should become an integrated information system that will collect, store and process environmental information for departmental and comprehensive assessment and forecast of the state of natural environments, biota and living conditions, and develop informed recommendations for making effective social, economic and environmental decisions in the future. all levels of state executive power, improvement of relevant legislative acts, as well as fulfillment of Ukraine’s obligations under international environmental agreements, programs, projects and events.
The functioning of the State Environmental Monitoring System is implemented according to the principles:
Systematic observations of the state of the natural environment and man-made objects that affect it, or are considered environmentally unstable;
Timely receipt and processing of observation data at departmental and general (local, regional and state) levels;
Comprehensive use of environmental information entering the system from departmental environmental monitoring services and other suppliers;
The objectivity of primary, analytical and forecast environmental information and the consistency of regulatory, organizational and methodological support for environmental monitoring of the environment carried out by the relevant services of ministries and departments of Ukraine and other central executive authorities;
Compatibility of technical, information and software of its components; efficiency of communicating environmental information to executive authorities, other interested bodies, enterprises, organizations and institutions;
Availability of environmental information to the population of Ukraine and the world community.
The state environmental monitoring system must ensure the achievement of the following main goals:
1) increasing the level of adequacy of its information model to the actual ecological state of the environment;
2) increasing the efficiency of obtaining and reliability of primary data through the use of advanced techniques at all levels of government and local government;
3) increasing the level and quality of information services for consumers of environmental information at all levels of system operation based on network access to distributed departmental and integrated data banks;
4) integrated processing and use of information to make appropriate decisions.
So, monitoring implements a system of observations that make it possible to identify changes in the state of the biosphere under the influence of human activity. The main blocks of this system are observation, assessment and forecast of the state of: the natural environment; anthropogenic changes in the state of the abiotic component of the biosphere (in particular, changes in the levels of pollution of natural environments), the reverse reaction of ecosystems to these changes and anthropogenic shifts associated with the influence of pollution, agricultural use of land, deforestation, transport development, urbanization, etc. The current stage of development of society involves the introduction in all spheres of life with the latest information technologies, the use of significant amounts of information and, accordingly, the availability of new and broad knowledge. It is necessary to develop an information strategy, including the development of the most effective methods for its selection, processing and dissemination, which requires updating and developing the monitoring system itself.
The most important issue in the strategy for regulating the quality of environmental protection is the issue of creating a system capable of identifying the most critical sources and factors of anthropogenic impact on public health and environmental protection, identifying the most vulnerable elements and parts of the biosphere susceptible to such impacts.
Such a system is recognized as a system for monitoring anthropogenic changes in the state of the natural environment, capable of providing the necessary information for decision-making by the relevant services, departments, and organizations.
Environmental monitoring– a comprehensive system of observations, assessment and forecast of the state of the environment under the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors.
The basic principle of monitoring is continuous tracking.
The purpose of environmental monitoring is information support for the management of environmental activities and environmental safety, optimization of human relations with nature.
There are different types of monitoring depending on the criteria:
Bioecological (sanitary and hygienic),
Geoecological (natural and economic),
Biosphere (global),
Space,
Climatic, biological, public health, social, etc.
Depending on the severity of anthropogenic impact, impact and background monitoring are distinguished. Background (basic) monitoring– monitoring natural phenomena and processes occurring in a natural environment, without anthropogenic influence. Carried out on the basis of biosphere reserves. Impact monitoring- monitoring of anthropogenic impacts in particularly hazardous areas.
Depending on the scale of observation, global, regional and local monitoring are distinguished.
Global monitoring– monitoring the development of global biosphere processes and phenomena (for example, the state of the ozone layer, climate change).
Regional monitoring– monitoring natural and anthropogenic processes and phenomena within a certain region (for example, the state of Lake Baikal).
Local monitoring– monitoring within a small area (for example, monitoring the air condition in the city).
In the Russian Federation, the Unified State System of Environmental Monitoring (USESM) is functioning and developing, formed at three main organizational levels: federal, constituent entities of the Russian Federation and local (objective) with the aim of radically increasing the efficiency of the monitoring service. Based on the monitoring results, recommendations are developed to reduce the level of environmental pollution and a forecast for the future.
Monitoring systems are associated with environmental assessments and environmental impact assessments (EIA).
Standardization of environmental quality (ecological regulation)
Under environmental quality understand the degree to which a person’s living environment corresponds to his needs. The human environment includes natural conditions, workplace conditions and living conditions. Life expectancy, health, morbidity levels of the population, etc. depend on its quality.
Environmental regulation– the process of establishing indicators of the maximum permissible human impact on the environment. Its main goal is to ensure an acceptable balance between ecology and economics. Such rationing allows for economic activity and preservation of the natural environment.
In the Russian Federation the following are subject to rationing:
Physical impact factors (noise, vibration, electromagnetic fields, radioactive radiation);
Chemical factors - concentrations of harmful substances in air, water, soil, food;
Biological factors – the content of pathogenic microorganisms in the air, water, food.
Environmental standards are divided into 3 main groups:
Technological standards - established for various industries and processes, rational use of raw materials and energy, minimizing waste;
Scientific and technical standards - provide for a system of calculations and periodic revision of standards, monitoring the impact on the environment;
Medical standards determine the level of danger to public health.
Standardization of environmental quality– establishing indicators and limits within which changes in these indicators are allowed (for air, water, soil, etc.).
The purpose of standardization is to establish maximum permissible standards (environmental standards) for human impact on the environment. Compliance with environmental standards should ensure the environmental safety of the population, the preservation of the genetic fund of humans, plants and animals, and the rational use and reproduction of natural resources.
The standards for maximum permissible harmful effects, as well as methods for determining them, are temporary and can be improved as science and technology develop, taking into account international standards.
The main environmental standards for environmental quality and impact on it are as follows:
1. Quality standards (sanitary and hygienic):
Maximum permissible concentrations (MPC) of harmful substances;
Maximum permissible level (MAL) of harmful physical influences (radiation, noise, vibration, magnetic fields, etc.)
2. Impact standards (production and economic):
Maximum permissible emission (MPE) of harmful substances;
Maximum permissible discharge (MPD) of harmful substances.
3. Comprehensive standards:
Maximum permissible ecological (anthropogenic) load on the environment.
Maximum permissible concentration (MPC)- the amount of a pollutant in the environment (soil, air, water, food), which, with permanent or temporary exposure to a person, does not affect his health and does not cause adverse consequences in his offspring. MPCs are calculated per unit volume (for air, water), mass (for soil, food products) or surface (for workers’ skin). MPCs are established on the basis of comprehensive studies. When determining it, the degree of influence of pollutants is taken into account not only on human health, but also on animals, plants, microorganisms, as well as on natural communities as a whole.
Maximum permissible level (MAL)- this is the maximum level of exposure to radiation, vibration noise, magnetic fields and other harmful physical influences, which does not pose a danger to human health, the condition of animals, plants, or their genetic fund. MPL is the same as MPC, but for physical impacts.
In cases where MPC or MPL have not been determined and are only at the development stage, indicators such as TPC - approximately permissible concentration, or TAC - approximately permissible level, respectively, are used.
Maximum permissible emission (MPE) or discharge (MPD)- this is the maximum amount of pollutants that a given specific enterprise is allowed to emit into the atmosphere or discharge into a body of water per unit of time, without causing them to exceed the maximum permissible concentrations of pollutants and adverse environmental consequences.
A comprehensive indicator of environmental quality is the maximum permissible environmental load.
Maximum permissible ecological (anthropogenic) load on the environment (PDEN)– this is the maximum intensity of anthropogenic impact on the environment, which does not lead to a violation of the stability of ecological systems (or, in other words, to the ecosystem going beyond the limits of its ecological capacity).
The potential ability of the natural environment to tolerate one or another anthropogenic load without disrupting the basic functions of ecosystems is defined as capacity of the natural environment, or ecological capacity of the territory.
The resistance of ecosystems to anthropogenic impacts depends on the following indicators:
Stocks of animal and dead organic matter;
Efficiency of organic matter production or vegetation production;
Species and structural diversity.
The higher these indicators are, the more stable the ecosystem.
At the end of the 20th century, the scientific and technical activities of mankind became a significant factor in the impact on the environment. In order to optimize the relationship between man and nature and the ecological orientation of economic activity, a multi-purpose information system for long-term observations - monitoring - has appeared.
Ecological monitoring (environmental monitoring) (from the Latin monitor - one who reminds, warns) is a multi-purpose information system for long-term observations, as well as assessment and forecast of the state of the natural environment. The main goal of environmental monitoring is to prevent critical situations that are harmful or dangerous to human health, the well-being of other living beings, their communities, natural and man-made objects.
The monitoring system itself does not include environmental quality management activities, but is a source of information necessary for making environmentally significant decisions.
The environmental monitoring system accumulates, systematizes and analyzes information: on the state of the environment; about the causes of observed and probable changes in condition (i.e. about sources and factors of influence); about the admissibility of changes and loads on the environment as a whole; about existing biosphere reserves.
Basic procedures of the monitoring system
3 identification (definition) and examination of the object of observation;
3assessment of the state of the object of observation;
3prediction of changes in the state of the observed object;
3presentation of information in a form convenient for use and bringing it to the consumer.
Environmental monitoring points are located in large settlements, industrial and agricultural areas.
Types of monitoring
1. Depending on the territory covered by observations, monitoring is divided into three levels: global, regional and local.
· Global monitoring - tracking global processes (including anthropogenic influence) occurring throughout the planet. The development and coordination of global monitoring of the natural environment is carried out within the framework of UNEP (a UN body) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). There are 22 networks of operating stations of the global monitoring system. The main goals of the global monitoring program are: organizing a warning system about threats to human health; assessment of the impact of global air pollution on climate; assessment of the quantity and distribution of pollutants in biological systems; assessment of problems arising in agricultural activities and land use; assessment of the response of terrestrial ecosystems to environmental impacts; assessment of pollution of marine ecosystems; creation of a disaster warning system on an international scale.
· Regional monitoring - tracking processes and phenomena within a single region, where these processes and phenomena may differ both in natural nature and in anthropogenic influences from the basic background characteristic of the entire biosphere. At the regional monitoring level, observations are made of the state of ecosystems of large natural-territorial complexes - river basins, forest ecosystems, agroecosystems.
· Local monitoring is monitoring natural phenomena and anthropogenic impacts in small areas.
In a local monitoring system, the most important is monitoring the following indicators (Table 4).
Table 4.
Objects of observation and indicators
|
Atmosphere |
Chemical and radionuclide compositions of the gas and aerosol phases of the air sphere; solid and liquid precipitation (snow and rain) and their chemical and radionuclide compositions, thermal pollution of the atmosphere. |
|
Hydrosphere |
Chemical and radionuclide compositions of the environment of surface waters (rivers, lakes, reservoirs, etc.), groundwater, suspended matter and bottom sediments in natural drains and reservoirs; thermal pollution of surface and ground waters. |
|
Chemical and radionuclide compositions. |
|
|
Chemical and radioactive contamination of agricultural land, vegetation, soil zoocenoses, terrestrial communities of domestic and wild animals, birds, insects, aquatic plants, plankton, fish. |
|
|
Urban environment |
Chemical and radiation backgrounds of the air in populated areas, chemical and radionuclide compositions of food, drinking water, etc. |
|
Population |
Population size and density, fertility and mortality, age composition, morbidity, etc.), socio-economic factors. |
2. Depending on the object of observation, a distinction is made between basic (background) and impact monitoring.
· Basic monitoring - tracking general biosphere natural phenomena without imposing anthropogenic influences on them. For example, basic monitoring is carried out in specially protected natural areas that experience virtually no local impacts from human activity.
· Impact monitoring is monitoring of regional and local anthropogenic impacts in particularly hazardous areas.
In addition, monitoring is distinguished: bioecological (sanitary and hygienic), geoecological (natural and economic), biosphere (global), space, geophysical, climatic, biological, public health, social, etc.
Environmental monitoring methods
Environmental monitoring uses various research methods. Among them are remote (aerospace) and ground-based methods. Remote methods, for example, include sensing from artificial satellites and spacecraft. Ground-based methods include biological (bioindication) and physico-chemical methods.
One of the main components of environmental monitoring is biological monitoring, which is understood as a system of long-term observations, assessment and forecast of any changes in the biota (presence and disappearance of any species, changes in their condition and numbers, the appearance of random introduced species, changes in habitat, etc. ) caused by factors of anthropogenic origin.
The structure of biological monitoring is quite complex. It consists of separate subroutines based on a principle based on the levels of organization of biological systems. Thus, genetic monitoring corresponds to the subcellular level of organization, environmental monitoring – to the population and biocenotic levels.
Biological monitoring implies the development of early warning systems, diagnostics and forecasting. The main stages of activity in the development of early warning systems are the selection of suitable organisms and the creation of automated systems capable of identifying “response” signals with sufficient accuracy. Diagnostics involves the detection, identification and determination of the concentration of pollutants in the biotic component based on the widespread use of indicator organisms (from the Latin indicare - to indicate). Prediction of the state of the biotic component of the environment can be carried out on the basis of biotesting and ecotoxicology. The method of using indicator organisms is called bioindication.
Bioindication, in contrast to simple physical or chemical measurements of anthropogenic factors (provide quantitative and qualitative characteristics that allow only indirect judgment of the biological effect), makes it possible to detect and determine biologically significant anthropogenic loads. The most convenient for bioindication are fish, aquatic invertebrates, microorganisms, and algae. The main requirements for bioindicators are their abundance and constant connection with the anthropogenic factor.
Advantages of live indicators:
· summarize all biologically important data about the environment without exception and reflect its state as a whole;
· make the use of expensive and labor-intensive physical and chemical methods for measuring biological parameters unnecessary (short-term and burst releases of toxicants cannot always be recorded);
· reflect the speed of changes occurring in nature;
· indicate the paths and places of accumulation of various types of contaminants in ecological systems and possible ways for these agents to enter food;
· allow one to judge the degree of harmfulness of certain substances for nature and humans;
· make it possible to control the action of many compounds synthesized by humans;
· help normalize the permissible load on ecosystems.
There are mainly two methods suitable for bioindication: passive and active monitoring. In the first case, visible and invisible damage and deviations from the norm, which are signs of massive stress exposure, are studied in free-living organisms. Active monitoring attempts to detect the same effects on test organisms under standardized conditions in the study area.
Monitoring the state of natural resources in Russia
Environmental monitoring of the environment can be developed at the level of an industrial facility, city, district, region, territory, republic.
There are several departmental monitoring systems in operation in the Russian Federation:
* environmental pollution monitoring service of Roshydromet;
* forest monitoring service of Rosleskhoz;
* water resources monitoring service of Roskomvod;
* service for agrochemical observations and monitoring of agricultural land pollution of Roskomzem;
* service for sanitary and hygienic control of the human environment and his health of the State Committee for Sanitary and Epidemiological Surveillance of Russia;
· control and inspection service of the State Committee for Ecology of Russia, etc.
|
Monitoring organizations anthropogenic impact to various environmental objects |
Objects of research |
|
Federal Service of Russia for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring |
Air pollution. Pollution of land surface waters. Sea water pollution. Transboundary pollution. Comprehensive monitoring of environmental pollution and impact on vegetation. Atmospheric fallout pollution. Global background atmospheric monitoring. Comprehensive background monitoring. Radiation factors. Emergency toxicological monitoring. |
|
Ministry of Natural Resources Protection of the Russian Federation |
Natural and disturbed regime of groundwater. Exogenous geological processes. |
|
Ministry of Agriculture and Food of the Russian Federation |
Soil pollution. Vegetation pollution. Water pollution. Contamination of agricultural products, products of processing enterprises. |
|
State Committee for Sanitary and Epidemiological Surveillance of the Russian Federation |
Drinking sources of water supply to populated areas. Work area air. Food products. Sources of noise. Sources of vibration. Sources of electromagnetic radiation. Morbidity of the population from environmental pollution factors. Residual amounts of halogen-containing compounds in food products. |
|
Federal Forestry Service of the Russian Federation |
Forest resource monitoring |
|
Federal Fishery Agency of the Russian Federation |
Monitoring of fish resources. |
Ambient air monitoring. Atmospheric air in Russia is not taken into account as a natural resource. To assess the level of air pollution in 506 cities of Russia, a network of posts of a national service for monitoring and monitoring air pollution has been created. At the posts, the content of various harmful substances in the atmosphere coming from anthropogenic sources of emissions is determined. Observations are carried out by employees of local organizations of the State Committee for Hydrometeorology, the State Committee for Ecology, the State Sanitary and Epidemiological Supervision, sanitary and industrial laboratories of various enterprises. In some cities, surveillance is carried out simultaneously by all departments. Air quality control in populated areas is organized in accordance with GOST 17.2.3.01-86 “Nature conservation. Atmosphere. Rules for monitoring air quality in populated areas,” for which three categories of air pollution observation posts are established: stationary posts (designed for regular air sampling and continuous monitoring of pollutant content), route posts (for regular monitoring using specially equipped vehicles), mobile posts (conducted near highways to determine the characteristics of air pollution created by cars), torch posts (conducted on a vehicle or at stationary posts to study the characteristics of air pollution from emissions of individual industrial enterprises).
Water monitoring is carried out within the framework of the state water cadastre. Accounting of water resources (except underground) and monitoring of their regime is carried out at a network of hydrometeorological observatories, stations and posts of Roshydromet. Roskomvod provides enterprises, organizations and institutions with control over the correct accounting of the amount of water taken from water sources and the discharge of used water into them. State accounting of groundwater (including operational reserves) is carried out by organizations of the Ministry of Natural Resources Protection of the Russian Federation. Selected drinking and industrial waters are subject to control.
Monitoring of land resources is carried out both by land users and state land management bodies. Land inventory is carried out once every 5 years. Information about state registration of land use, accounting for the quantity and quality of land, soil grading (comparative assessment of soils according to their most important agronomic properties) and economic assessment of land are recorded in the state land cadastre.
Monitoring of mineral resources is carried out at various stages of their development. Geological study of the subsoil, accounting for the state of movement of mineral reserves are within the competence of the bodies of the Ministry of Natural Resources Protection of the Russian Federation. Supervisory activities in the field of rational use of mineral resources are carried out by Gosgortekhnadzor of Russia (a specialized control body that, along with supervision of the state of safety of work in industry, supervises compliance with the procedure for using subsoil during the development of mineral deposits and processing of mineral raw materials). The Ministry of the Russian Federation for the Protection of Natural Resources in terms of subsoil protection controls about 3,650 enterprises for the extraction and processing of mineral raw materials, which include more than 171 thousand objects (mines, mines, quarries and open pits).
Monitoring of biological resources. The accounting of hunting and commercial animals is entrusted to the State Service for the Accounting of Hunting Resources of Russia, which, based on available information, makes forecasts for the rational use of animal resources. Monitoring of fish resources is carried out in all fishing basins and in places most susceptible to anthropogenic impact. It is carried out by employees of fishery institutes and ichthyological services of fisheries protection bodies subordinate to the Federal Fishery Agency of the Russian Federation.
Work on the study and mapping of wild plant reserves is carried out mainly by research institutes and departments of relevant universities. In particular, for industrial raw materials of medicinal plants, the areas where they are located and reserves within their habitats are determined. In addition, work is underway to assess the floristic diversity of individual regions, regulate grazing loads on natural groups, and control the removal of commercial plants.
Monitoring of forest resources includes accounting of the forest fund, protection of forests from fires, sanitary and forest pathological control and control of logging and restoration of forests, as well as specialized monitoring of production and territorial complexes, zones of environmental distress. The functional and technological structure of the national level forest monitoring system includes: forest management enterprises, forest pathological monitoring service, specialized enterprises and stations for forest protection, research institutes, industries and universities, and some others.
In the state system of environmental management, an important role is given to the formation of the Unified State System of Environmental Monitoring (USESM) (Resolution of the Government of the Russian Federation of March 31, 2003 N 177) as a source of objective comprehensive information about the state of the natural environment in Russia. This system includes: monitoring of sources of anthropogenic impact on the environment; monitoring of pollution of abiotic and biotic components of the natural environment; ensuring the creation and functioning of environmental information systems.
Thus, environmental monitoring can be characterized as one of the measures for protecting the natural environment, a function of public administration and a legal institution. An established, large-scale and effective network for monitoring the state of the environment, especially in large cities and around environmentally hazardous sites, is an important element of ensuring environmental safety and the key to sustainable development of society.