We are Peter the First Emperor and Autocrat of All Russia and so on and so forth and so on.
We declare, since everyone knows, by what Absalom’s wickedness Our Son Alexei was arrogant, and that it was not by His repentance that this intention, but by the mercy of God towards our entire Fatherland, was stopped (which is evident from the Manifesto about that matter;) but this is not Why else did he grow up, except from the old custom that the big son was given an inheritance, and besides, he was the only male of Our family at that time, and for this reason he did not want to look at any fatherly punishment; This unkind custom, I don’t know why, was so firmly established: for inaccurately in people, according to the reasoning of smart parents, there were abolitions, but we also see in the Holy Scriptures when Isaac’s wife asked for an inheritance to her husband, her youngest son, who had grown old, and what is even more surprising is that God's blessing followed; Our ancestors are still alive, we see it when the blessed and eternally worthy of memory, Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich, and in truth Great, not in word, but in deed: for he, scattered by the division of the children of Vladimirov, gathered and established our Fatherland, who not by primacy, but by his will repaired, and canceled twice, seeing a worthy heir, who would not waste the assembled and established Our Fatherland, first gave it to his grandson by passing his sons, and then dismissed the already married grandson, and gave his son his inheritance, which is clear from the Book of Degrees, it is possible to see , namely, in the summer of February 7006 on the 4th day, Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich appointed for himself the heir of his grandson
Dmitry Ivanovich, and was crowned in Moscow at the Great Reign by the Princely Crown, Metropolitan Simon; and in the summer of April 7010, on the 11th day, Grand Duke Ivan Vag Silievich was angry with His grandson Prince Dmitry, and did not order Him to be remembered in churches by the Grand Duke, and put Him on guard, and on the same April, on the 14th day, he made His son Vasily Ivanovich the heir , and was crowned by the same Metropolitan Simon; To which there are other similar examples, which for the sake of brevity we are not mentioning here now, but in the future they will be especially published in print. In the same reasoning, last year 1714, We had mercy on Our subjects, so that their private houses 1 would not come to ruin from unworthy heirs, although We made a charter so that real estate could be given to one son, but we gave it to the will the parental one, to whom they will want to give it to their son, seeing the one worthy, although smaller, bypassing the larger ones, recognizing the convenient one, who would not squander the inheritance. How much more must We care about the integrity of Our entire State, which, with the help of God, is now more widespread, as everyone can see; why did We decide to make this charter, so that this would always be in the will of the Governing Sovereign, to whom He wants, He will determine the inheritance, and to a certain one, seeing what obscenity, He will cancel it again, so that children and descendants do not fall into such anger as It is written above, having this bridle on you. For this reason, we command that all Our faithful subjects, spiritual and temporal, without exception, confirm this Charter of ours before God and His Gospel on such a basis that anyone who is opposed to this, or interprets it in any other way: he is considered a traitor, subject to the death penalty and will be subject to church oath 2.
Form. Oath promise
I, the below-named, promise and swear before Almighty God and His Holy Gospel that according to the inheritance charter announced by His Most Serene and Most Powerful Peter the Great Emperor and Autocrat of All-Russia, our All-Merciful Sovereign
of this present February 1722, the 15th day, on which if His Majesty, by all His high will, and by Him, the Ruling Sovereigns of the Russian throne want to make someone the Heir, then in Their Majesty's will be done. And if the one designated as the Heir, seeing what indecency, they deign to cancel again, then let it be done in Their Majesty’s will, and I recognize that His Majesty’s charter is true and righteous; and according to the power of that charter, defined in the Inheritance, I will obey in everything and, according to It, recognize myself as the true Heir and recognize myself as the Sovereign, and in any case stand for it, with the position of my belly I will also be against those who will act contrary to this; and if I appear to be contrary to this, or otherwise contrary to the said statute, I will begin to interpret it; then I am considered a traitor and will be subject to the death penalty and an ecclesiastical oath. And in confirmation of this oath of mine, I kiss the words and the cross of My Savior and subscribe.
PSZ, vol. VI, No. 3893
A comment
This legislative act establishes new norms on the inheritance of the royal throne, in contrast to the previously established order of succession to the royal throne in the Russian state according to the principle of primogeniture, i.e., transfer of the throne to the eldest son. The legislator emphasizes that the previous order of succession to the throne was created not by law, but by custom, established in the Russian state back in the 15th-17th centuries.
Peter I, with his Charter on the succession to the throne of February 5, 1722, abolishes the old order and introduces a new principle - the transfer of the throne at the discretion of the tsar himself, regardless of the kinship status of his heirs. This circumstance was caused not only by the fact that in the Manifesto of 1718 he deprived his eldest son Alexei of the right to inherit the throne as a human
ka, incapable of governing the state and a traitor, but also because Peter I understood the seriousness and enormous importance for the fate of the state of the question of appointing the supreme ruler of the country.
However, Peter I himself did not exercise his right expressed in the Charter of Succession to the Throne. He died without appointing an heir to the throne.
Later, by decree of the Supreme Privy Council of July 26, 1727, the Charter of Peter I was removed from institutions and individuals, but then by the manifesto of December 17, 1731, it was restored to its former force.
More on the topic of 1722, February 5. CHARTER. ABOUT THE HERITAGE TO THE THRONE:
- 13. The influence of immobility and extensive land ownership on the emergence of land accounts. - Its development began in Germany in the 17th century. - Decree of Frederick I of September 28, 1693. Mortgage and Competition Charter of 1722 and the beginning of recording the location of the estate. The first forms of the patrimonial book. - Competition rules April 3, 1748 - Mortgage statute August 4, 1750
- 14. The history of mixing mortgages with competition. - Roman competition and a group of separatists. German practice: entering a mortgage into the competition. - Five classes of competition. - Prussian competition in the laws of 1722 and 1748. Traces of these concepts in the Russian Trade Charter. - Return of the latest legislation to Roman principles - German bankruptcy statute of 1877 Russian insolvency law July 9, 1889 for the Baltic region
- 1720, February 28 GENERAL REGULATIONS OR CHARTER, BY WHICH THE STATE COLLEGE, AS WELL AS AND ALL THE OFFICES AND OFFICES BELONGING TO THEM, NOT ONLY IN EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL INSTITUTIONS, BUT ALSO IN THE DEPARTMENT OF THEIR CHI THEY HAVE TO DO
- CONSTITUTION-BELGIUM February 7, 1831 (as amended September 7, 1893, November 15, 1920, February 6, August 24 and October 15, 1921)
- LAW ON CHURCHES AND PARISHES of February 12, 2002 (Promulgated by decision of the President of the Republic of Estonia No. 110 of February 27, 2002)
- Annex 3 TREATY 0 OF THE EUROPEAN UNION of February 7, 1992, as amended by the Treaty of Amsterdam of October 2, 1997 and the Treaty of Nice of February 26, 2001.
- Features of privatization of cultural heritage objects
- Copyright - Agrarian law - Advocacy - Administrative law - Administrative process - Shareholder law - Budget system - Mining law - Civil procedure - Civil law - Civil law of foreign countries - Contract law - European law - Housing law - Laws and codes - Election law - Information law - Enforcement proceedings - History of political doctrines - Commercial law - Competition law - Constitutional law of foreign countries - Constitutional law of Russia - Forensic science - Forensic methodology - Criminal psychology - Criminology - International law -
And in it, presidents, vice-presidents and other members belonging to it and clerical and office servants, and more from their own subjects, to determine, and also to establish the necessary offices and offices...
4.5. Charter on the succession to the throne29
We, Peter I, Emperor and Autocrat of All Russia, and so on and so forth and so on... We must take care of the integrity of our entire state, which, with the help of God, is now more widespread, as it seems to everyone; why we decided to make this charter, so that it would always be in the will of the ruling sovereign, whoever he wants, he will determine the inheritance, and ... seeing what obscenity, he will again cancel it, so that children and descendants do not fall into such anger, as is written above, having this rein on myself.
4.6. From the order of Catherine II to the commission for drawing up a new code30
Chapter 3 9. The sovereign is autocratic, for no other, as soon as united in
the power is his own and cannot act in a similar way to the space of such a great state.
11. Any other rule would not only be harmful to Russia, but also completely ruinous.
12. Another reason is that it is better to obey the laws under one master than to please many.
13. What is the pretext for autocratic rule? Not one to take away people’s natural freedom, but to direct their actions to obtain the greatest good from everyone.
15. The intention and end of autocratic rule is the glory of the citizens, the state and the sovereign.
29 The text is printed according to: Pisarkova L.F., Danilina G.Ya. Russian history XVIII-XIX centuries: Christianity
stomatia / Ed. A.N. Sakharov. – M.: “Verbum-M”. 2003. – P. 27 The appearance of the Charter is connected with the case of the eldest son of Peter I, Tsarevich Alexei. Accused of plotting against his father, he died suddenly during interrogation and torture. The new law caused a period of palace coups, when “historical accidents” appeared on the Russian throne.30 The text is printed according to: Semenikova L.I. Decree. Op. – pp. 237-238.
FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION
State educational institution of higher professional education
UKHTA STATE TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
V.N. Bublichenko
RUSSIAN HISTORY IN DOCUMENTS AND MATERIALS
Study guide for independent work, 2nd edition, stereotypical
Bublichenko, V. N. Russian history in documents and materials [Text]: textbook. manual for independent work / V. N. Bublichenko. – 2nd ed., stereotype. – Ukhta: USTU, 2011. – 119 p.
ISBN 978-5-88179-448-4
The textbook tells about the most important events of Russian history with the help of documents. Working with them will give you the opportunity to understand the unique flavor of each era, to feel its uniqueness and diversity. Independent work with sources will become your own research, forming an individual personal opinion about this or that plot of Russian history.
The manual is of a control and educational nature and includes reference materials in the form of a dictionary of general historical terms and a chronological table.
The manual is intended for first-year full-time and part-time students of non-historical specialties studying Russian history, as well as anyone interested in the history of our country.
Reviewers: P. P. Kotov, professor of Syktyvkar State University; I. I. Lastunov, head. Department of General Humanitarian and Natural Sciences of the Komi Republican Academy of Public Administration and Administration under the Head of the Komi Republic, Associate Professor, Ph.D. n.
The author expresses sincere gratitude and gratitude to the colleagues of the Department of History and Culture of USTU L.G. Borozints, A.N. Kustyshev, O.Yu. Latygovskaya, V.V. Yurchenko, A.V. Mityanina, V.I. Zelenkova for her help and recommendations during the preparation of the manual.
© Ukhta State Technical University, 2007, 2011
© Bublichenko V.N., 2007, 2011
ISBN 978-5-88179-448-4
4.2. Decree on the establishment of the Senate27
The Governing Senate for our absences was determined to govern: Mr. Count Musin-Pushkin, Mr. Streshnev, Mr. Prince Pyotr Golitsyn, Mr. Prince Mikhail Dolgoruky, Mr. Plemyannikov, Mr. Prince Grigory Volkonsky, Mr. Samarin, Mr. Vasily Apukhtin, Mr. Melnitsky, Chief Secretary of this Senate Anisim Shchukin...
4.3. Decree of Peter I to the Senate
Extract Decree on what to do after our departure. 1. To have a court that is unfeigned and unfair
leading judges should be punished by confiscation of honor and all property; Let the sneakers do the same. 2. Look at unnecessary expenses throughout the state, and set aside especially unnecessary ones. 3. Collect as much money as possible, since money is the artery of war. 4. The nobles gather young people to serve as reserve officers, and especially those who are going to be found. 5. Correct bills and keep them in one place. 6. Goods that are farmed out or sold to departments and provinces must be inspected and certified. 7. About the salt of the miner to farm out and the slave’s profit from her...
4.4. General Regulations28
Extraction of Ponezhe His Royal Majesty... following the examples of other Christian communities
lords, the most merciful intention to perceive, for the sake of the decent management of his state affairs, and the correct determination and calculation of his parishes, and the correction of useful justice and police, also for the sake of the possible protection of his subjects and the maintenance of his naval and land forces in good condition, as well as commerce, the arts and manufactories, and the good establishment of their maritime and land duties, and for the sake of the multiplication and growth of mining factories, and other state needs, the following necessary and appropriate State Collegiums should be established. Namely: Foreign Affairs, Kamor, Justits, Revision, Military, Admiralty, Commerce, State Office, Berg and Manufactory Collegium.
27 There, p. 230. The Senate created by Peter I became an administrative body that carried out the “nominal” decrees of the tsar as the bearer of supreme power in the state.
28 The text is printed according to: Epifanov P.P., Epifanova O.P. Decree. Op. WITH. 232.
sa Godunova. What conclusions can be drawn about the civilizational orientation in the activities of this ruler?
4. What conclusions can be drawn based on the book by Grigory Kotoshikhin “Russia in the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich” about the composition of the Boyar Duma, the degree of competence of its members, its compliance with the new foreign and domestic political tasks that faced Russia in the second half of the 17th century? Using information from the document, describe the size of the order system, the number of orders, their functions, staff, and mechanism of action. Which of the orders mentioned in the book was directly subordinate to the sovereign? What was its special role in the overall system? Draw a conclusion about the advantages and disadvantages, as well as the degree of effectiveness of the order system?
5. What methods, goals and objectives pursued by the church reform of Patriarch Nikon are described by Pavel of Alepsky? Make a conclusion about how radical it was, to what extent it concerned the dogmatic side of religion? How could such transformations cause a church schism?
Topic 4. The Russian Empire in the 18th century. From the “Europeanization” of Peter I
To “enlightened absolutism” of Catherine II
4.1. Decree on unified inheritance 26
Extraction
1. All immovable property, that is, ancestral, serviced and purchased estates and estates, as well as courtyards and shops, should not be sold or mortgaged, but should be turned into a clan in this way:
2. Whoever has sons, and if he wants, to give one of them immovable property through the spiritual, it will be his inheritance; other children of both sexes will be rewarded with movable property, which their father or mother must distribute to them according to their will...
3. Whoever is childless, and he is free to give the immovable property of his family name to whomever he wants, and the movable property to whomever he wants to give to his relatives, or
And to outsiders, and that will be according to his will. And if he doesn’t do it to himself, then both those estates will be divided by decree into the clan...
5. And for this purpose, fathers or mothers must write spiritual things in advance, and describe movable property in shares; If a father or mother dies without a spiritual one, then immediately tell their children after the death of their parents where they are known, and demand that their belongings be described and identified before witnesses...
Dear students!
You are holding an important and up-to-date study guide in your hands. In it, historical events of Russian history are conveyed with documentary accuracy. With its help, you can feel like a historian-researcher embarking on a difficult path to comprehend the truth. It will help you gain solid and lasting knowledge.
History can be viewed with full confidence as a kind of storehouse of spiritual, moral, social and cultural experience of mankind, accumulated over many generations.
Our country has come a long and glorious way in its historical development. We have something to be proud of, turning our attention to the deeds of our ancestors. The best representatives of the domestic intelligentsia have made a worthy contribution to the development of world civilization. Names such as Leo Tolstoy, Fyodor Dostoevsky, Pitirim Sorokin, Nikolai Berdyaev, Marc Chagall and many others are widely known to the intellectual elite of the world community. In various fields of human knowledge, we Russians have become pioneers and pioneers.
There have been difficult times in the history of our country, miscalculations and failures, troubles and sorrows. But the famous Russian democrat N.G. Chernyshevsky rightly noted that “the historical path is not the sidewalk of Nevsky Prospect; it goes entirely through fields, sometimes dusty, sometimes dirty, sometimes through swamps, sometimes through wilds.” It is important to recognize and comprehend mistakes so as not to make them again.
Each generation, like each person, learns from historical events; they help him find guidelines in everyday reality. Comprehensive knowledge of the past ensures continuity and interconnection between generations and forms ideological guidelines.
The path of understanding the past is difficult and thorny. Don't stop halfway. Go towards your cherished goal, discover new horizons of historical knowledge and use them in everyday life.
Doctor of Historical Sciences | I.L. Zherebtsov |
26 The text is printed according to: Epifanov P.P., Epifanova O.P. Decree. Op. – pp. 219-220. This decree completed and legislated the process of strengthening noble ownership of land.
Introduction
The modern era, associated with the revaluation of established views and radical experiments, the choice of socio-political, economic, moral and ethical guidelines, requires a person to deeply comprehend
And understanding the prospects for the historical development of both one’s native country and
And the whole world as a whole. Emphasizing the importance of studying the past, the famous Russian scientist N.M. Karamzin wrote: “... The history of ancestors is always interesting for those who are worthy of having a fatherland.”
Interest in history arose at the early stage of the emergence of human society and was dictated by the eternal desire of man to know himself and the meaning of life, to understand and appreciate this life. Instructive examples of the past allow people to develop respect for universal human values: peace, goodness, justice, freedom.
Historical science should be considered as complex knowledge, possessing special features, unique logic and specific cognitive methods. Object of study for history is the entire set of facts characterizing the life of society in the past and present, and subject of history the study of human society becomes a unified and contradictory process. The objects of study by historians can be both the world as a whole and the history of a region or continent, a people or a group of peoples. Historical process, as a chain of interconnected causes, consequences and facts, can be considered in two meanings: firstly, as a process of development of society and nature; secondly, as a system of sciences that study nature and society. In the course of studying a single historical process, it is necessary to involve not only the totality of data from the social sciences, but also the use of the achievements of natural and technical sciences.
The diversity of views and historical interpretations1, however, makes it possible to identify a general trend in studies of the past. A scientist historian, creating his own concept of the historical process, relies primarily on facts drawn from primary sources.
Chinese source - everything that directly reflects the historical process
And making it possible to study the past of human society, i.e. All
1 Historical interpretation– an explanation of a historical fact given by a historian.
voivodships and to cities and to all sorts of parcels, and for service about salary and honor and about an increase in monetary salary, a decree in the same Order; the same applies to the search for honor and dishonor and punishment, as is written above. And whoever the king sends to serve where, and what kind of service there is for whom there is honor and salary and dishonor, and then they write it down in the books ...
Streletsky order; and in it sits a boyar and two clerks. And in that Order there are Streltsy orders, Moscow and police orders; and with that archer they collect wages from the entire Moscow state, from the patrimonial peasants, except for the royal courtyard villages and peasant volosts, and the Novgorod Pskov state, and Kazan, and Astrakhan, and Siberia, against the same as the Crimean occupation. Yes, the Streltsy grain reserves are taken from the peasants, by decree, and they are ordered to put those reserves in Moscow for every year; and as it happens to them, as archers, they serve, and those archery reserves are ordered to be placed in the service in which city they happen to be in; and from distant places, supplies and supplies will be taken from the peasants in cash, according to calculations...
And in Moscow there are Streltsy orders, even though there is no war with any state, there are always more than 20 orders; and in those orders of archers there are 1000 and 800 people per order, which is smaller...
The Order of the Great Treasury... Yes, in the same Order there is a Money Court, and in it sits a nobleman and a deacon to inspect the financial affairs. And they make small silver money: kopecks, on one side there is a king on a horse, and on the other side there is a signature: “Tsar and Grand Duke,” the royal name and the shortest title; half a kopeck, on one side a man on a horse with a sword, on the other the royal signature, the same as on the kopeck; half a share, a quarter of a kopeck, half the money, on one side there is a dove, and on the other it says “tsar”...
And in total in Moscow, except for city and patriarchal orders and customs, there are 42 orders; and clerks in those orders, both in cities and with governors, from 100 people, clerks from 1000 people...
Questions and tasks for documents
1. How has the state policy towards peasants changed since the end of the 15th century? until the middle of the 17th century? Give your opinion on the reasons for this change.
2. Name the main events that accompanied the establishment of the oprichnina. What was the composition of the oprichnina court?
3. After reading Luke Pauli's report to the Austrian Emperor, try to understand the direction and content of Boris's foreign and domestic policies.
mind - they internally grumbled, saying to themselves: “we will not change our books and rituals, which we accepted from ancient times.” However, they do not dare to speak openly, for the anger of the patriarch is indomitable:<доказательство>what he did with the Bishop of Kolomna, exiling him.
3.7. Grigory Kotoshikhin
ABOUT Russia during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich 25
Excerpt from a book
The Order of Secret Affairs, and in it sits a deacon and 10 clerks, and they know and do all sorts of royal affairs, secret and open, and that Order the boyars and Duma people do not enter and do not know the affairs, except for the Tsar himself. And the clerks of that Order are sent with ambassadors to the state, and to embassy congresses, and in war with governors, so that the ambassadors in their embassies do a lot to the honor of their state, in travel and in colloquial speeches, as described above this, in the embassy articles, and the governors in the regiments perpetrate a lot of untruths over the military people, and those clerks look after the ambassadors and over the governors and, when they arrive, they tell the tsar; and who are ambassadors, or governors, aware of their uncorrected deeds, and fearing the king’s wrath, and they give those clerks and honor them above their standards, so that when they are with the king, they, the ambassadors, will expose them, and not vilify them as evil. And that Order was arranged under the current Tsar so that his royal thoughts and deeds would be carried out according to his wishes, and the boyars and Duma people would not know anything about it...
Ambassadorial order: and in it sits the Duma clerk, two clerks, 14 clerks. And in that Order the affairs of all neighboring states and foreign ambassadors are accepted and leave is granted to them: also Russian ambassadors and envoys and messengers are sent to whichever state arrives, leave is granted to them from that Order; yes, for translation and interpretation of translators of Latin, Svean, German, Greek, Polish, Tatar and other languages, with 50 people, interpreters with 70 people...
Discharge order; and in that Prikaz sits a okolnichy, a Duma clerk, and two clerks. And in that Order all kinds of military affairs are known, and city building and fortresses and repairs and guns and service people; also known to the boyars, okolnitsy, and Duma and close people, and stewards, and solicitors, and Moscow nobles, and clerks, and tenants, and noble city officials, and boyar children, and Cossacks and soldiers, in all kinds of service, and whomever it is possible to send to service, in war and in
created earlier by human society and survived to this day in the form of objects of material culture, monuments of writing, morals,
customs, language. It allows us to most objectively reconstruct past eras, identify their diversity and inconsistency, and find a set of positive and negative aspects related to them.
One of the most common types is written historical sources. Historian M.N. Tikhomirov considered them the foundation of historical research, rightly believing that “where they are absent, the historian wanders in the dark”2. A distinctive feature of this type of sources is the encoding of information contained in them in the form of a letter - handwritten or printed, stored on paper, parchment or papyrus. All written sources on Russian history can be divided into three groups: 1) chronicles, senior books, chronographs, palace records, testimonies of foreigners about Russia; 2) government acts (internal and external); 3) monuments of literature: spiritual, polemical, philosophical works, land descriptions, travel descriptions, etc. (according to N.G. Ustryalov).
The manual presents the most important written sources (in full or in the form of extracts) on the history of Russia from ancient times to the present day. They are all grouped under the following topics:
Topic 1. Features of the socio-political development of Kievan Rus.
Topic 2. Mongol-Tatar invasions of Rus'. Expansion into the western and northwestern parts of the country.
Topic 3. Russia in the second half of the XV-XVII centuries.
Topic 4. The Russian Empire in the 18th century. From the “Europeanization” of Peter I to the “enlightened absolutism” of Catherine II.
Topic 5. Socio-economic and political development of Russia in the first half of the 19th century.
Topic 6. Domestic policy of the Russian autocracy in the second half
Topic 7. The evolution of Russian state power at the beginning of the twentieth century. Topic 8. Political origins and essence of the Soviet system in 1917-1941.
Topic9. Economic foundations of the Soviet political regime in 1917-1941. Topic 10. USSR in World War II and the Great Patriotic War.
Topic 11. Foreign policy and international relations of the Soviet Union during the Cold War.
Topic 12. Fundamentals of the constitutional system of the Russian Federation. State symbols.
At the end of each topic there are questions and assignments for documents. They allow you to better assimilate the information contained in them and expand your knowledge of the course of national history. Working with primary sources will provide an opportunity to understand the unique flavor of each era, to feel its uniqueness and diversity. Independent work with sources allows you to conduct a kind of small research and form your own opinion about this or that plot of Russian history. It will no longer depend on either the political situation or outside influence. The researcher becomes involved in the events of the past and learns about it himself. In this way, an active life position and a sense of patriotism are formed.
The study of primary sources is one of the most complex types of research activity and requires a certain preparation, painstaking and attentiveness. When engaging in this type of activity, you should be guided by the following rules:
1. When starting to read a source, pay attention to the time it was written and the historical period associated with it.
2. Compare what you already know about the event you are studying and what new you learned about it from the source. Remember and record differences or similarities.
3. Pay attention to which group of sources the document belongs to, which will allow you to more correctly comprehend and explain the information it contains, and draw a correct and well-founded conclusion.
4. If the meaning of the information received from a source is not entirely clear to you, it is recommended to take a break from studying it. Refer to educational or reference literature.
5. When creating your theory, strive to rely on facts from the document,
A do not fit into known schemes.
To make it easier to work with sources, reference materials are provided at the end of the manual: a dictionary of basic concepts and terms (explanations of some of them are given at the end of the documents in the form of footnotes) and a chronological table. Working with the manual involves searching for additional information in educational, reference and scientific literature.
The purpose of the manual is to teach independent work with written historical sources on the history of the Fatherland, the ability to identify and analyze the most significant connections and signs of historical processes, independently correlate and compare historical facts in time and space, relying on documentary evidence of the past.
3.6. Pavel Alepsky24
Travel of the Patriarch of Antioch Macarius to Russia in the first half of the 17th century
Excerpt from the book... The Moscow Patriarch convened a council (1655) as a result of instructions that
ry our teacher (i.e. Patriarch Macarius) made to him, and the advice he gave regarding innovations and various errors in matters of faith: firstly, regarding the fact that they do not serve, like us, on the antimension with images and
With inscriptions, public relics of saints, and not a piece of white linen; secondly, that when they make a sacred sacrifice, they take out not nine ranks (particles), but only four; thirdly, that they make mistakes in some words in “I believe in one God”; fourthly, they are applied to icons only once or twice a year; fifthly, they do not take antidor; sixthly, regarding their sign of the cross with a different arrangement of fingers; seventhly, regarding the baptism of the Poles, for they are now baptizing them with a second baptism, and regarding various deeds and rituals, which we have already talked about, we will talk about. Patriarch Nikon listened to the words of our Bishop the Patriarch and translated the service book of the liturgy
With Greek language into Russian, set out in it the rituals and proskomedia in clear expressions understandable to children, according to genuine Greek rituals. He printed this missal in several thousand (copies) and distributed them to churches throughout the country; He also printed more than fifteen thousand antimensions with writings and images, consecrated them with the relics of saints and also distributed them throughout the country. He corrected many errors, according to the royal approval and command, based on the testimony of the law and the prophets. We concluded the discussions at the council, deciding, according to the opinion of our teacher, that the baptism of Poles is impermissible, as commanded in the Euchology and the Law (Nomocanon), for the Poles believe in St. Trinity, baptized and not as far from us as other heretics and Lutherans, somehow: Swedes, English, Hungarians and other French peoples who do not fast, do not worship icons, nor the cross, etc. Patriarch Nikon, since he loves the Greeks, expressed consent (to the correction) and said, turning to to the bishops and other archimandrites and priests present: “I am Russian, the son of a Russian, but my convictions and my faith are Greek.” Some of the bishops responded with obedience, saying: “The light of faith in Christ and all the rites of religion and its sacraments have shone to us from the countries of the East”; and some of them - for in every nation there are certainly people of rude disposition and stupid
24 Pavel Alepsky is the nephew of the Patriarch of Antioch Macarius, who visited Moscow with his uncle and was present at the Council of 1655. The text is printed according to: Semenikova L.I.
Decree. Op. – pp. 175-176.
3.5. Cathedral Code of 164923
Extraction
Chapter 11. The trial of the peasants, and there are 34 articles in it.
1. Which sovereigns of palace villages and black volosts, peasants and peasants, having run out from state palace villages and black volosts, live for the patriarch, or for metropolitans, and for archbishops and bishops, or for monasteries, or for boyars, or for okolnichy and for duma, and for housekeepers, and for stewards, and for solicitors, and for Moscow nobles, and for clerks, and for tenants, and for city nobles and boyar children, and for foreigners, and for all sorts of patrimonial landowners and landowners, and in the scribe books that scribes submitted books to the Local and other orders after the Moscow fire of the past 134, those fugitive peasants or their fathers were registered for the sovereign, and those sovereign fugitive peasants and peasants were sought to be brought to the sovereign's palace villages and to the black volosts to their old lots according to the scribe books with their wives and children and with all their peasant bellies without lesson years.
2. There will also be someone who will teach the patrimonial owner and the landowner to beat the sovereign with his forehead
O their runaway peasants and about the peasants and they will say that their peasants and peasants, having run out from behind them, live in the sovereign and palace villages, and in the black volosts, or in the suburbs of the townspeople, or in the archers, or in the Cossacks, or in the gunners, or in others in some of the service people in the cities of Moscow and in the Ukrainian cities, or for the patriarch, or for the metropolitans, or for archbishops and bishops, or monasteries, or for the boyar, and for the okolnichy and for the Duma, and for the room people, and for the tables, and for attorneys, and for Moscow nobles, and for clerks, and for tenants, and for city nobles and boyar children, and for foreigners, and for all kinds of patrimonial landowners and landowners, and for those peasants and peasants to be handed over in court and for investigation according to the scribe books , which books the scribes in the Local Order gave after the Moscow fire last year 134, those of their runaway peasants or those of their runaway peasants’ fathers were written in those scribe books for them, or after those scribe books the same peasants or their children in new dachas were written for by whom in separate or in refused books. And to give away runaway peasants and peasants from the races according to the scribe books of all ranks of people without formal years...
23 The text is printed according to: Council Code of 1649. Text and comments. – L. 1987. –
Topic 1. Features of the socio-political development of Kievan Rus
1.1. From the work of Ibn-Rusteh “Dear Values”3
Extract The country of the Slavs is flat and wooded, and they live in it. And they don't have wine
towns and arable fields. And they have something like barrels made of wood, in which there are beehives and honey. They call it ulishj, and up to 10 jugs of honey are extracted from one barrel. And they are a people who herd pigs as (we) herd sheep. When someone dies among them, their corpse is burned...
...And they all worship fire. Most of their crops are millet. During the harvest, they take a ladle with millet grains. They raise it to the sky and say: “Lord, you who (until now) supplied us with food, now provide us with it in abundance.”
They have all kinds of lutes, harps and pipes. Their pipes were two cubits long. Their lute has eight strings. Their intoxicating drink is made from honey. When the deceased is burned, they indulge in noisy fun, expressing joy at the mercy shown to him by God. They have very few draft animals... Their weapons consist of darts, shields and spears; they have no other weapons. Their head is crowned, they obey him and do not deviate from his words. His location is in the middle of the country of the Slavs... In their country the cold is so strong that each of them digs a kind of cellar in the ground, to which they attach a wooden pointed roof, like a Christian church, and put earth on the roof. The whole family moves into such cellars and, taking wood and stones, lights a fire and heats the stones red-hot on the fire. When the stones are heated to the highest degree, they are doused with water, which spreads steam, heating the house to the point that they even take off their clothes. They remain in such housing until spring.
1.2. Treaty between Rus' and Byzantium4
Extract In the summer of 6420. Oleg sent his husbands to establish peace and conclude an agreement
thief between the Greeks and Russia... We are from the Russian family<следует перечень имен>, sent from Oleg, the Grand Duke of Russia, and from all the lights subject to him -
3 The text is printed in: History of Russia. Textbook for independent work / Ed. L.I. Semennikova. – M.: Book House “University”. 2001. – S. 113-114.
4 The text is printed from: Reader on the history of Russia from ancient times to the present day // A.S. Orlov, V.A. Georgiev, N.G. Georgieva, T.A. Sivokhina. – M.: Prospekt, 1999. – S. 13-23.
ly boyars to you, Leo, Alexander and Constantine, by the grace of God, the great autocrats, the Caesars of Greece, to confirm and strengthen the friendship between Christians and Russia that has existed for many years, according to the desire and command of our princes and all Rus' subject to them...
First of all, we will make peace with you, the Greeks, and we will become friends with each other with all our souls and, according to our common desire, we will not allow any disorder or resentment... If a Rusin kills a Christian or a Christian Rusin, let him die there. Where he committed the murder. If he hides and turns out to be the possessor, then let a close relative of the murdered person take that part of the property that belongs to him by law... If someone hits another with a sword or any other weapon, then let him pay the victim 5 liters of silver for the blow or beating according to the law Russian... If a Rusin Christian or a Christian Rusin inflicts any torment and forcibly seizes someone else's property, and this is proven, then let the culprit compensate the losses to the victim in triple amount. If a boat is thrown onto a foreign land by a strong wind and is discovered by someone from Rus', then they will protect it with its discovery and goods, and send it to the Christian land... Also, if an accident happens to a Russian boat near the Greek land, we will carry it out to the Russian land... If a captive held by either side, Russia or the Greeks, is sold to another country and is discovered by Rusin or Grechin, then it is allowed to ransom him and return the ransomed person to his country... If the Russian servant is stolen or runs away, and this will be confirmed by the servants, then let Rus' take it... About the people from Rus' in the service of the Greeks of the Christian Caesar. If one of them dies without leaving a will regarding his property, but his<родственников>he will not have it here, then let his estate be returned to his close relatives in Rus'. If he makes a will, then let the one to whom he bequeathed it take his property and inherit it...
1.3. From “The Tale of Bygone Years”5
Extraction After a long time, the Slavs settled along the Danube, where now the land of Wenger is
Sky and Bulgarian. And from the Slavs the Slavs dispersed throughout the land and were called by their own names, where someone sat in what place. So, some came and settled on the Morava River and were called Moravians, while others called themselves Czechs. And here are the same weak-
5 The text is printed according to: Semennikova L.I. Decree. Op. pp. 116-118, 120-122.
3.4. From the report of Luke Pauli21 to the Austrian Emperor22
So, Mr. Grand Duke Boris Fedorovich has the intention and has firmly decided to conclude and restore friendship and harmony with Your Imperial Majesty and with the entire highly esteemed House of Austria, so that in the future, in the event of a hostile attack on one of the parties, the other should help with advice and action and Rescue; and when this ... is delivered and confirmed on both sides, then he wants not only to open access to his vast and closed country, but also to allow all his subjects and trading people to make their trips here for buying and selling, as well as the subjects of your Imperial The Majesty will be allowed free, unhindered passage into his land, so that thanks to this not only navigation and maritime trade will be resumed, strengthened and increased compared to the previous one, but also to bring benefit and help for food in the coastal cities of the Roman Empire of the German people and the Russian and Moscow lands and peoples...
In addition, he would like, as he had often expressed a strong desire, after opening access to his country, to found Latin schools (as he agreed on this with the late brother of the Danish king, Duke John of Holstein, and wanted to carry it out), so that young men cities were studied and practiced in Latin and other languages, so that over time they would unlearn their innate rudeness and could not only speak with other Christian peoples, especially thanks to the Latin language, but also agree with them in decent customs and virtues and treat each other politely with a friend.
Moreover, he would like, after the conclusion of that alliance, to bring his vast country (which in many places was deserted) into a better condition, to free his subjects and people according to German and other customs from great burden, yoke and lethargy, to introduce and grant to the old and rich cities freedom, police and order, and to maintain justice and justice, introduce civil government, and build and strengthen especially on the Oka and Bona, ten miles from one another, free cities, to hold back the invasions of the Crimean Perekop Tatars, supply them with land and people, plant noble people there who, with their strength, could not only hold back the Tatars, but also contribute to their destruction.
21 Luca Pauli is an envoy of the Austrian Emperor.
22 170-171.
there were the mansions of the queen and the grand duchesses, behind the Nativity of the Most Pure One and St. Lazarus, and cellars and glaciers and kitchens, all along the Chicken Gate; Likewise, the prince of Volodymer's court, Ondreevich, took the place of the metropolitan of the place. He commanded and at the settlement of the street, taking the streets from the Moscow River: Chertolskaya street from the Semchinsky village and to the alley, and Arbatskaya street on both sides and with Sivtsov Enemy and to the Dorogomilovsky alley, and to Nikitskaya street half the street, driving from the city on the left side and to the fullest. From the Novinsky Monastery and the Savinsky Monastery to the settlements and from the Dorogomilovsky settlements, and from the New Devich Monastery and the Alekseevsky Monastery to the settlements; and the settlements will be in oprichnina: Ilyinskaya, near Sesenki, Vorontsovskaya, Lyshchikovskaya.
And which streets and settlements the sovereign seized into oprichnina, and in those streets he ordered to be boyars and nobles and all sorts of clerks whom the sovereign captured, but whom he did not order to exist in oprichnina, and those from all the streets he ordered to be transferred to new streets in the suburbs. He ordered his Moscow state, the army and the court, and the government, and all kinds of zemstvo affairs, to be supervised and carried out by his boyars, whom he ordered to exist in the zemstvos: Prince Ivan Dmitreevich Belsky, Prince Ivan Fedorovich Mstislavsky and all the boyars. And he ordered the stablemaster and the butler and the treasurer and the clerk and all the clerks to be, according to his orders, to carry out the administration in the old way, and to come to the boyars about general affairs; and the military men will conduct or conduct great zemstvo affairs, and the boyars will come to the sovereign about those matters, and the sovereign and the boyars will order the administration of that matter.
For his rise, the Tsar and the Grand Duke sentenced him to take one hundred thousand rubles from the zemstvo; and some boyars and governors and officials went to the death penalty for great treason against the state, and others came to disgrace, and the sovereign took over their lives and assets. The archbishops, bishops and archimandrites and abbots and the entire consecrated cathedral, and the boyars and clerks, laid everything on the sovereign's will.
That same winter, February, the Tsar and the Grand Duke ordered the death penalty for their great treasonous deeds of the boyar Prince Oleksandr Borisovich Gorbatovo and his son Prince Peter, and Okolnichevo Peter Petrov's son Golovin, and Prince Dmitry Prince Ondreev's son Shevyrev. The boyar Prince Ivan Kurakin and Prince Dmitry Nemovo ordered to be tonsured into monks. And the nobles and boyar children who fell into disgrace with the sovereign, he laid his disgrace on them and took their bellies for himself; and others he sent to his patrimony in Kazan to live with their wives and children.
Väne: white Croats and Serbs, and Horutans. When the Volochs attacked the Danube Slavs and settled among them and oppressed them, these Slavs crossed over and sat on the Vistula and were called Poles, and from those Poles came Poles, other Poles - Lutichs, others - Mazovshans, others - Pomeranians.
In the same way, these Slavs came and sat along the Dnieper and were called Polyans, and others - Drevlyans, because they sat in the forests, and still others sat between Pripyat and Dvina and were called Dregovichs, others sat along the Dvina and were called Polochans after the river that flows into the Dvina and is called Polota. The same Slavs who settled near Lake Ilmen called themselves by their own name - Slovenes (Slavs) and built a city and called it Novgorod. And others sat along the Desna, and the Seim, and the Sula and called themselves northerners. And so the Slavic people dispersed, and after their name the letter was nicknamed “Slavic”.
… They all had their own customs and laws of their fathers and traditions, and each had their own character. The Polyanas have the custom of their fathers to be meek and quiet, bashful before their daughters-in-law and sisters, mothers and parents; They have great modesty before their mothers-in-law and brothers-in-law; They also have a marriage custom... And the Drevlyans lived according to animal customs, they lived in a bestial manner, they killed each other, ate everything unclean, and they did not have marriages, but they kidnapped girls near the water... And if someone died, they held a funeral feast for him, and then they made a large log and laid the deceased on this log and burned it, and then, having collected the bones, they put them in a small vessel and placed them on poles along the roads, as the Vyatichi still do now. The same custom was followed by the Krivichi and other pagans who did not know God’s law, but set the law for themselves...
… In summer 6367 (859). The Varangians from overseas collected tribute from the Chuds and the Slavs,
And from Mary, and from all the Krivichi, and they took zakhars from the glades and from the northerners, and from the Vyatichi, for ermine and squirrel from the smoke.
In summer 6370 (862). They drove the Varangians overseas and did not give them tribute, and began to control themselves. And there was no truth among them, and generation after generation rose up, and there were strife among them, and they began to fight with themselves. And they said to themselves: “Let’s look for a prince who would rule over us and judge us by right.” And they went overseas to the Varangians, to Rus', that’s what those Varangians were called - Rus, like others are called Swedes, some Normans, Angles, other Goths, these same ones. The Chud, the Slovenians, the Krivichi, and all of them said to the Russians: “Our land is great and abundant, but there is no clothing in it. Come reign and rule over us." And three brothers with their clans were chosen, took all of Rus' with them, and came to the Slovenes first, and cut down the city of Ladoga, and the oldest Rurik sat in Ladoga, and the other, Sineus, sat on White Lake, and the third, Truvor, sat in Izborsk. And from those Varangians the Russian land was nicknamed. Novgorodians,
Novgorod people - from the Varangian family, were formerly Slovenian. Two years later, Sineus and his brother Truvor died. And Rurik alone took all power, and came to Ilmen, and cut down a town above Volkhov, and named it Novgorod, and sat down to reign here, distributing volosts and cities to cut down - Polotsk to this, Rostov to another, Beloozero to this. And in those cities the Varangians were aliens, and the original population in Novgorod was Slovenian, in Polotsk - Krivichi, in Rostov - Merya, in Beloozero - all, in Murom - Muroma, and Rurik possessed all of them.
And he had two husbands, not of his tribe, but of the boyars, and they went to Constantinople with their family. And they set off along the Dnieper, and, passing by, they saw a town on the mountain. Askold and Dir remained in this city, gathered many Varangians around and began to own the land of the glades. Rurik reigned in Novgorod at that time...
IN summer 6387 (879). Rurik died, transferring his reign to Oleg, his relative, into whose arms he gave his son Igor, for he was still very small.
IN summer 6390 (882). Oleg set out on a campaign, gathering with him many warriors: Varangians, Chud, Slovenians, Meryu, all, Krivichi, and came to Smolensk with the Krivichi, and took the city, and planted his husband in it. From there he went down and took Lyubech and imprisoned his husband. And they came to the Kyiv mountains, and Oleg found out that Askold and Dir reigned here... And he killed Askold and Dir... And Oleg sat down to reign
V Kyiv, and said: “This will be the mother of Russian cities.” And he had Varangians and Slovenes, and others - nicknamed Rus. It was Oleg who started the cities and established tribute to the Slovenes and Krivichi, and Meri, and ordered that the Varangians give tribute from Novgorod 300 hryvnia per summer for the sake of preserving peace, which was given to the Varangians until the death of Yaroslav.
IN summer 6391(882). Oleg began to fight against the Drevlyans and, having conquered them, took tribute from them by black marten.
IN summer 6392 (884). Oleg went against the northerners, and defeated them, and imposed a light tribute on them, and did not allow them to pay tribute to the Khazars, saying: “I am their enemy, but you have no need.”
IN summer 6393 (885). He sent to the Radimichi, asking: “Who are you giving tribute to?” They answered: “The Khazars.” And Oleg said to them: “Don’t give it to the Khazars, but give it to me.” And they gave Oleg a crack 6, as they used to give to the Khazars. And Oleg owned the glades, and the Drevlyans, and the Northerners, and the Radimichi, and fought with the Ulichs and Tivertsy...
IN summer 6495 (987). Vladimir summoned his boyars and city elders and told them: “The Bulgarians came to me, saying: accept our law. Then when
6 Shchelyag is the Polish name for the Western European monetary unit shilling.
Noah and the children who belong to the same sovereign with them in the same fortress and whose children were born before servitude, but will learn the life of a new sovereign, or will learn for themselves the life of not being a slave...
80. But the slave will overwhelm the army, but he will run out and he will be free, but not a slave to the old sovereign. And that slave wants to go to his old sovereign and that slave will be revealed as a boyar, and the clerk will sign on the old fortress, and taxes will be collected
With heads according to altyn. And whoever the slave runs with his sovereign, or runs alone without his sovereign, and does not overwhelm the army, and that slave will come out from the lands that are again near Moscow, and he will be a slave to the old sovereign according to the old servitude, besides the one to whom the sovereign grants something, will give a wave letter ...
88. And peasants can move from volost to volost and from village to village for one period of the year: a week before Yuryev, autumn days and a week after Yuryev, autumn days. And the elderly in the households pay a ruble and two altyns in the field, and in the forests... for the yard half a ruble and two altyns... And the elderly are charged from the gate...
3.3. On the establishment of the oprichnina Extracts from the Continuation of the Chronicler of the beginning of the kingdom18
<…>The Sovereign Tsar and the Grand Duke of the archbishops and bishops accepted the petition on the fact that his traitors to him, who committed treason against him, the Sovereign, and in which they were disobedient to him, the Sovereign, put their opprobrium on those, and executed others and gave them their bellies and statures19 , and teach him in his state an oprichnina for himself, a courtyard for himself and for his entire daily life20 to create a special one, and for the boyars and okolnichi and the butler and the treasurers and clerks and all sorts of clerks, and for the nobles and the children of the boyars and the steward and the solicitors and the tenants to create for himself especially, and at the palaces on Sytny and on Kormovoy and on Khlebenny, teach the stickmen and the podklyushniks and the sytniks and cooks and bakers, and all the masters and grooms and hounds and all kinds of courtyard people for their daily use, and he sentenced the archers to teach themselves especially...
And the sovereign should teach 1000 heads of princes and nobles and children of boyar servants and policemen in his oprichnina; and he gave them estates in those cities from Odnovo, which the cities captured in the oprichnina, and he ordered the estates and landowners who were not in the oprichnina to be taken out of those cities and ordered the land to be sent to that place in other cities, since he commanded the oprichnina to be taught to me especially. The Grand Duchess Tsarina ordered the courtyard to clean the place where
18 The text is printed according to: Semenikova L.I. Decree. Op. - WITH. 166-168.
19 “Their bellies and remains” – here: their property.
20 “For all your daily needs” - on the maintenance of the oprichnina.
In the East, foreigners continued to worry. We saw that in 1720, Colonel Count Golovkin was sent by the Senate to calm the Bashkirs and remove prisoners from them. In the spring of 1722, he returned, brought a drawing of the Bashkir land and announced that he had expelled 4965 families who had run away from June 7, 1720 to March 1, 722, and 19815 people of both sexes. But in 1724, the flight to the Bashkirs began again, who went out against the detectives in battle . The newly baptized man was sent secretly, as if he were a fugitive, to find out what was going on with the Bashkirs. The Bashkirs accepted him and said: “Why do you need to live in the Kazan district: there will soon be a war with Russia, and the war will not be the same as before; the dreams will be of the Siberian and Yaik Cossacks.” News came that the newly baptized were cleaning spears and sharpening arrows, the yasak Tatars refused to pay the capitation and give recruits. The Bashkirs had a meeting in the Ufa district, on Lake Berseven; the warrior Aldarko arrived with 700 people, the son of the traitor Seitka, who fled to the Kirghiz in 1707, arrived, and 500 Kirghiz people came with him; Bashkirs and Tatars from everywhere gathered on this lake, they wanted to besiege Ufa, because there are three judges on Ufa, and they demanded that one be left and two given to them, they don’t need profit-makers.
But with these concerns on the part of steppe Asia, Peter’s attention never ceased to turn to the most distant Asian border, to the shores of the Eastern Ocean: here it was necessary to satisfy the requirement of science set forth by Leibniz, to find out whether Asia is connected to America. On January 2, 1719, instructions were written to surveyors from the navigators Ivan Evreinov and Fyodor Luzhin: “You should go to Tobolsk and from Tobolsk, taking guides, go to Kamchatka and further, where you are indicated, and describe the places there, whether America has come together with Asia, that must be done very carefully." Evreinov and Luzhin did not find out whether America had converged with Asia; they only delivered a map of the Kuril Islands to Peter in 1722. Peter, of course, was not satisfied with this and in 1725 wrote instructions to Captain Bering: “1) It is necessary to make one or two boats with decks in Kamchatka or another place there. 2) On these boats (sail) near the land that goes north , and according to hope (they don’t know the end of it) it seems that that land is part of America. 3) And in order to look for where it converged with America (with Asia), and in order to get to which city of European possessions and visit the shore ourselves , and take a genuine statement, and, betting on the card, come here."
Such was the strange new empire, leaning against the Baltic Sea in the west, and on its eastern borders deciding the question: will Asia unite with America? But many people in Russia and abroad must have been occupied with the thought of the future of this empire, the thought of who would be the successor of the great man who gave new meaning to his people. The eldest son was sacrificed to this new significance; the youngest, Tsarevich Peter, on whom his father’s hopes were focused, soon died; remained grandson, Alexei's son, Peter; but no satisfactory conclusion could be drawn about the character of this six-year-old child, just as it could not be drawn subsequently; moreover, to declare little Peter heir to the throne meant to arouse the hopes of people who regretted his father as a representative of a certain order of things, to arouse the fears of people who spoke out against Alexei, and the emperor relied most on these people to support his cause. At the beginning of 1722, during the celebrations of the Peace of Nystadt, which took place in the ancient capital, Peter issued a charter on the succession to the throne: “Everyone knows how arrogant our son Alexei was by Absalom’s wickedness and that this intention was not due to his repentance, but by the grace of God to all of our the fatherland was stopped, and this was not for any reason that it grew up with him, only from the old custom that the greatest son was given an inheritance, and besides, he was the only male of our surname at that time, and for this reason he did not want to look at any fatherly punishment. the custom, I don’t know why, was so established, for not only in people, according to the reasoning of intelligent parents, there were abolitions, but we also see it in Holy Scripture, and we also see it in our ancestors (the example of John III).In the same reasoning in the past, 1714, we were merciful about our subjects, that their particular houses did not come to ruin from unworthy heirs, although we made a charter so that real estate could be given to one son, however, we gave it to the will of the parents, to whom they want to give it to the son, seeing a worthy one, although and to the smaller one bypassing the larger ones, recognizing the convenient one, who would not squander the inheritance. How much more must we have concern for the integrity of our entire state, which, with God’s help, is now more widespread, as it seems to everyone; Why did they decide to make this charter, so that this would always be in the will of the ruling sovereign: whoever he wants, he will determine the inheritance, and for a certain one, seeing what obscenity, he will cancel it again, so that the children and descendants do not fall into such anger, as written above, I have this bridle is on myself." Not content with the motives expressed in this manifesto, Peter instructed Feofan Prokopovich to write a detailed justification for the measure; Feofan’s work was published under the title True will of the monarchs.
See care to have care, to postpone care... Dictionary of Russian synonyms and expressions similar in meaning. under. ed. N. Abramova, M.: Russian Dictionaries, 1999. care, care, guardianship, guardianship; charity, supervision, patronage, zeal,... ... Synonym dictionary
grieve- (to have care, to take care of) someone about something (obsolete). Here we are, you and I, judging and treating children, but we don’t grieve about our souls (Mom’s Sibiryak). See also grieve II... Control Dictionary
A form of crimes against life, views on which have changed significantly in different eras of the development of criminal law. Roman law recognized as punishable the failure to provide assistance to an attacker dying from a criminal act, bringing this under the concept... ...
And failure to provide assistance to a dying person is a form of crimes against life, views on which have changed significantly in different eras of the development of criminal law. Roman law made it punishable to fail to provide assistance to someone dying from a criminal act... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron
The word T. (from German Thurm tower) means: A) in a specific sense, a building isolated from the outside world and guarded by guards for the forced detention of persons subject to imprisonment by court verdicts or by order of an administrative... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron
When writing this article, material was used from the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron (1890-1907). History of penitentiary institutions from the Middle Ages to the beginning of the 20th century. This article is about prisons, penal institutions and other places... ... Wikipedia
To think, to worry, to care, to be jealous, to be sick (about something), to care (to worry), to have care, to grieve; look, follow, observe, look, look after, peep, keep an eye on someone, keep an eye on someone, look after; convert... ... Synonym dictionary
GERMANY- GERMANY. Area G. 468.746 sq. km. Population as of June 16, 1925: 63,178,619 people. (30,583,823 men and 32,594,796 women), versus 64,925,993 h. in 1910. Population density 134.24 per 1 sq. km in 1925 (versus 124.19 in 1910 and 127.16 in 1919) ... Great Medical Encyclopedia
MARRIAGE- a social, and in particular legal, institution consisting of a long-term union of persons (husband). and wives gender, which forms the basis of the family. The history of mankind knows different forms of marriage: monogamous (birth of one husband and one wife), polygamous (polygamy) ... Orthodox Encyclopedia
Born on May 30, 1672 in Moscow. The only son of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich from his second marriage to Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina, a pupil of the enlightened boyar Artamon Matveev. The fourteenth child in the family, Peter was educated at home under the supervision of his “uncle” Nikita Zotov. He complained that by the age of 11 the prince was not very advanced in literacy, history and geography, captivated by the “exercises of the soldier’s system” - military “fun” first in the village of Vorobyovo, then in the village. Preobrazhensky. Specially created detachments of “amusing troops” (which later became the guard and core of the Russian regular army) took part in these executions of the future tsar. Physically strong, agile, inquisitive, Peter, with the participation of palace craftsmen, mastered carpentry, weapons, blacksmithing, watchmaking, and printing. Foreigners (F.Ya.Lefort, J.V.Bruce, P.I.Gordon) had a great influence on the formation of his interests - first teachers in various fields, and later his associates. The Tsar knew German from childhood, and later learned Dutch, partly English and French.
Under the guise of studying shipbuilding and maritime affairs, he traveled as one of 30 volunteers at the Great Embassy of 1697–1698 to Europe. There, Pyotr Mikhailov, as the tsar called himself, completed a full course in artillery sciences in Konigsberg and Brandenburg, worked as a carpenter in the shipyards of Amsterdam for six months, studying naval architecture and plan drawing, and completed a theoretical course in shipbuilding in England. On his orders, books, instruments, and weapons were purchased in these countries, and foreign craftsmen and scientists were invited. At the same time, the Grand Embassy prepared the creation of the Northern Alliance against Sweden, which finally took shape two years later (1699). In the summer of 1697, he held negotiations with the Austrian emperor, intending to also visit Venice, but having received news of the impending uprising of the Streltsy in Moscow, to whom Princess Sophia promised an increase in salary in the event of the overthrow of Peter, he returned to Russia. Having met in Moscow only with his mistress Mons in the German settlement, on August 26, 1698, he began a personal investigation into the Streltsy case and did not spare any of the rebels (1,182 people were executed, Sophia and her sister Martha were tonsured as nuns).
In February 1699, he ordered the disbandment of the unreliable rifle regiments and the formation of regular ones - soldiers and dragoons, because “until now this state did not have any infantry.” Soon he signed decrees that, under pain of fines and flogging, ordered men to “cut their beards” (previously considered a symbol of the Orthodox faith), wear European-style clothing, and women to reveal their hair (previously hidden under warlocks and kicks). Such measures prepared society for radical changes and undermined the traditional foundations of lifestyle and habits. In 1700, he introduced a new calendar with the beginning of the year on January 1 (instead of September 1) and the calendar from the “Nativity of Christ,” which he also considered as a step in breaking ancient customs.
European politics gave no reason to expect that Russia would receive support in the fight against Turkey for access to the southern seas, so Peter ordered the continuation of the construction of the Azov Fleet in Voronezh, which began during the Azov campaigns, and personally checked the shipbuilders. And yet the Grand Embassy forced him to change his foreign policy course from the south to the west.
Having concluded the Peace of Constantinople of 1700 with Turkey, Peter switched all the country’s efforts to fight Sweden, which was ruled by 17-year-old Charles XII, who, despite his youth, had gained a reputation as a talented commander. The Northern War of 1700–1721 for Russia's access to the Baltic began with the November battle of Narva. The 40,000-strong untrained and unprepared Russian army lost to the army of Charles XII. Calling the Swedes “Russian teachers” for this, Peter ordered decisive reforms that could make the Russian army truly combat-ready.
Considering Russia defeated after Narva, Charles XII went to fight (“got stuck for a long time,” according to Peter) in Poland, which gave Peter the necessary respite. He hoped to change the face of his country, making it similar to the West, but maintaining autocracy and serfdom. “Now an academician, now a hero, now a navigator, now a carpenter” (A.S. Pushkin), Peter did not regret and was ready to ignore personal interests in the name of the prosperity of Russia with its innumerable natural resources. He did not separate himself from the state, believing that only he knew how to overcome Russian backwardness, ignorance and laziness: “our people are like the children of unlearned people who will never take up science unless they are forced by the master.”
Peter's reform activities took place in a sharp struggle with the conservative opposition. Already the first, superficial attempts at reforms made at the end of the 17th century aroused resistance from the boyars and clergy (I. Tsykler’s conspiracy, 1697). The tsar-reformer continued to experience secret opposition to his decrees throughout the many years of the 18th century (the conspiracy of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich of 1718).
But rooting out all kinds of sedition, Peter, with the harshness of the son of his age (“kind as a man, was rude as a king,” according to V.O. Klyuchevsky) began a “major overhaul” of Russia. Needing like-minded people and associates, he ordered young nobles to be sent abroad to study navigation, mechanics, artillery, mathematics and foreign languages. In 1701, the first navigation school in the history of the country was founded. “Captivity drove away laziness, and forced me to hard work and art day and night,” he would later write. The country began a hasty recruitment of 100,000 soldiers into the army (after 1705 the term “recruits” appeared). They were “seen off as if they were buried” (according to Peter’s decree, the service life was 25 years), and according to the established practice in Russia, the most obstinate and rebellious young people who violated traditional norms of peasant behavior began to be sent to the soldiers. As a result of this, it turned out that the new army consisted mainly of energetic, brave, and outstanding people. The officer corps was formed, according to the tsar's plan, from nobles who were required to serve in the guards regiments to receive rank.
The maintenance of recruits, the number of which increased fourfold during the years of the Northern War, required twice as much money as was previously consumed: 1,810,000 rubles instead of 982,000. Of the main state revenues, customs and tavern duties, the collection of which was transferred to the new central institution (town hall, created in 1699 and which laid the foundation for the creation of a system of local self-government, “burmister chambers”) - Peter easily found government funds to maintain the new cavalry (recruited in 1701). Next, new taxes were assigned (dragoon money, ship money, conscript money, household taxes). Recoining a silver coin into a coin of lower denomination at the previous nominal price (damage to the coin) yielded 946 thousand rubles in the first 3 years (1701–1703), 313 thousand in the next 3 (from here foreign subsidies were paid). The forced creation of the Russian industrial base forced the tsar to sign orders for the construction of iron factories and manufactories, weapons factories in Karelia and the Urals (Olonets region), in Lipetsk, and the extraction of non-ferrous metals (copper, silver).
The measures conceived by the king brought success. Russian artillery, after its radical transformation, played a decisive role in the capture of Dorpat in 1701 (now Tartu). In 1702, they managed to recapture Noteburg (Oreshek, now Shlisselburg) at the mouth of the Neva from the Swedes, after which fortresses began to grow in its place, and ships began to be built at shipyards. In 1703, near the Nyenschanz fortress captured from the Swedes, the tsar ordered the foundation of a city named after him, Petersburg, and make it the new capital. Dutch and English merchant ships appeared in the harbor near it. The “window to Europe” was cut through, and the breadth of the tsar’s state thinking already extended to dreams of connecting the Baltic with the Caspian through a system of rivers and canals. Peter began to come to the old capital only on Christmastide; then his usual riotous life in the German Settlement was resumed here, but at the same time the most urgent state affairs were discussed and resolved.
The foundation of the new capital coincided with changes in Peter's personal life: he met the laundress Marta Skavronskaya, who went to Menshikov as a war trophy; named her Catherine, the king baptized her according to the Orthodox rite. In 1704, she already became Peter’s common-law wife, and by the end of 1705 he became the father of Catherine’s son, Paul. On this occasion, the Tsar ordered celebrations to be held and the foundation of the Church of Peter and Paul on Basmannaya Street in Moscow, and Peter himself sketched the drawing for the future temple; they built on it (1705–1715). But the tsar, always in a hurry and overwhelmed by state concerns, had no time for domestic affairs: he was preoccupied with the successes of the Russian troops and their advance to Courland.
The continuation of the war with Charles XII (the anti-Swedish union collapsed after the defeat of Saxony by the Swedes in 1706) and the deepening of reforms in the spirit of Europeanization of the country expressed Peter’s understanding of patriotism, and the old Russian traditions seemed not only symbols of inertia, but also danger, like the Streltsy riots in his youth. The construction of new manufactories, providing them with essentially free labor (state-owned and yasak peasants were assigned to state-owned and private factories by families and villages) continued. Most enterprises were created at the expense of the treasury. Peter personally delved into financial issues, monitored the signing of government orders and the mass mobilization of peasants and townspeople into the army and for the construction of cities, fortresses, and canals.
The severity of the Northern War and reforms placed a considerable burden on the peasantry, who made up the majority of the country's population. The main form of peasant protest was flight from their owners, but sometimes discontent erupted in real popular uprisings. One of them was Peasant the war led by K.A. Bulavin 1707–1708, preceded by the powerful Astrakhan uprising of 1705, as well as the unrest of the Bashkirs 1705–1711. But ruthless to himself, to his health, obsessed with the idea of serving the state, the tsar in Russia “introduced Europe like a barbarian” (A.I. Herzen), remaining intolerant of all manifestations of disagreement with his will. The uprisings were suppressed with Asian cruelty and indifference, but at the same time they showed the need to reorganize not only the punitive apparatus, but also the entire system of local government.
Immediately after the suppression of the Bulavin rebellion, Peter ordered the regional reform of 1708–1710, which divided the country into 8 provinces headed by governors and governors general. The autocrat transferred to them the highest military and civil functions, and the fullness of local judicial power. Later (1719) the provinces were divided into provinces, the provinces into counties: this greatly inflated the local bureaucratic apparatus, but at the same time made territories remote from the center controlled. However, Peter could not then pay due attention to the systematic reform of state institutions, since foreign policy occupied all his time, and matters of ensuring it required his presence in all parts of the state.
However, the innovations turned out to be timely, since at the height of the Bulavin War, Swedish troops invaded the western borders of Russia, sent by Charles XII directly to the old capital (Moscow). A secret conspiracy with the Ukrainian hetman Mazepa forced Charles to change his plan and move south. The rapid rush of the cavalry detachment, led personally by Peter, made it possible to prevent the connection of Karl’s army with the corps of General Levengaupt, who was coming to his aid: near the village of Lesnoy near Mogilev in 1708, the reinforcements coming to Karl were defeated. The Tsar called this battle “the mother of the Poltava battle” - the decisive battle on June 27, 1709 near the Poltava fortress, which ended in the complete defeat of the Swedish army. The famous words of the Tsar, who called on the army to fight “not for Peter, but for the Orthodox faith and the Church... so that the Fatherland may live in bliss and glory,” inspired the soldiers. Charles XII was wounded in the battle, but managed to escape to Turkey. By annexing new lands in the Baltic states (Riga, Revel, Vyborg) to Russia in 1710, Peter personally sailed at that time on the Munker shnyava (boat) as part of Admiral Apraksin’s squadron, Peter never tired of proving that the concept of winning a war with one general battle was outdated. At that time, it dominated among Western military theorists, but it turned out to be refuted by Peter’s idea of mobilizing all means and capabilities for waging a long-term war on land and at sea. The “three-time school” of the Northern War (21 years) confirmed the validity of Peter’s innovation in military strategy, which was far ahead of its time and frightened Western rulers and diplomats who were dissatisfied with the growth of Russian power and tried to prevent a change in the balance of power in northern Europe.
Peter was above their petty intrigues. He was more interested in the southeastern direction of foreign policy, so successfully outlined in the mid-1690s. But 1711 turned out to be unsuccessful for the Tsar-commander. Russian regiments surrounded in Moldova on the river. The Prut was saved by the superior forces of the Turks, according to legend, by the wife of the autocrat, who from 1709 accompanied the tsar on all trips and campaigns, and just before the campaign she was declared “the true and legitimate empress.” Catherine made it possible to begin peace negotiations by handing over the jewelry she had brought with her to the Turkish vizier and persuading him to sign the agreement. But Turkey still had to return Azov, destroying the newly created new base of the Azov Fleet - Taganrog.
Simultaneously with his attempts to advance to the southeast, Peter continued to reform the state apparatus, eliminating old institutions that were too slow and unadapted to change. The most important financial institution remained the Near Chancellery, created back in 1699, and the place of the Boyar Duma in 1711 was taken by the Senate, which from now on was in charge of legislation and administrative affairs. Peter appointed members of the Senate himself; they made decisions collectively, and decisions came into force only with general consent. The course of the meeting, all oral speeches were recorded: “for by this all stupidity will be revealed,” the autocrat believed. In addition, the tsar personally held congresses of generals who received fees for urgent military needs.
The Decree on Single Inheritance of 1714 equalized estates and estates and introduced primogeniture (granting the right to inherit real estate to the eldest of the sons), which was intended to ensure the stable growth of noble land ownership. In the same year, the Russian fleet won a victory at Cape Gangut, and the Åland Islands became part of Russia. On September 9, 1714, the Tsar, who personally participated in the Battle of Gangut, solemnly brought the ships captured from the Swedes to St. Petersburg, presented a report of victory in the presence of the Senate and assumed the title of vice admiral in connection with the victories.
The birth of daughters during these years, who received the same names Natalya - in 1713 from his official wife E.F. Lopukhina (with whom Peter dissolved his marriage in 1712, but the daughter was born after that) and from Martha (Ekaterina) in 1714 did not bring joy to Peter. The birth of the grandson of Peter II Alekseevich in 1715 from his unloved son Alexei, who later became tsar for 3 years (1727–1730), was not long-awaited either. Household affairs not only did not occupy him, but rather depressed the Tsar-Reformer. In addition, his son Alexei showed disagreement with his father's vision of proper governance. Peter tried to influence him with persuasion, then threatened to imprison him in a monastery. Fleeing from such a fate, Alexey fled to Europe in 1716. Peter declared his son a traitor, achieved his return, imprisoned him in a fortress, and in 1718 personally led his investigation, seeking Alexei’s abdication of the throne and the release of the names of his accomplices. The "Tsarevich's Case" ended with Alexei being sentenced to death. After these events, suspicion, unpredictability and cruelty intensified in the king’s character. Even Catherine and Petrov, Menshikov’s favorite, were under threat of execution.
Trying to distract himself from suspicions of impending treason, the tsar delved into all the details of administrative, military, tax and many other reforms. From 1716, the organization, weapons and equipment, rules of training and tactics, the rights and responsibilities of all ranks of the army and navy began to be determined by the Military Regulations of 1716, in the drafting of which Peter took an active part. In 1716, as a royal vice-admiral, he arrived in the capital of Denmark, united a squadron of Russian ships with English, Danish and Dutch ones, but he failed to achieve more active allied action against the Swedes.
At this time, the Senate’s attempts to organize control over the provinces also ended in failure. By orders of the tsar, the government constantly violated the newly established rules, demanded from the governors more and more new “devices” (increasing income), since expenses did not decrease (they were required by the needs of the Baltic fleet, the construction of a new capital, the defense of southern Russia). The task of increasing tax collection confronted Peter with the need for decrees on a new population census (1718), and administrative reform required the urgent replacement of obsolete orders with executive institutions of a new type - collegiums (1718). Their control apparatus was represented by fiscals, subordinate to prosecutors headed by the prosecutor general. Among the collegiums there were the “first” (Military, Admiralty, Foreign), financial, economic, justice collegium, and also the Preobrazhensky Prikaz, which was in charge of political investigation, acted as a collegium.
Disagreements with the allies over the fate of the German possessions of Sweden prompted Peter I in 1718 to begin negotiations with Charles XII (Aland Congress), but the unexpected death of the king during the siege of Fort Frederikshall (Norway) freed the hands of the Russian army, which twice devastated the shores of Sweden near Stockholm. The landing of troops in Sweden itself prompted her to agree to a peace agreement. By this time, Peter, with the rank of vice admiral, had already commanded (from 1719) the entire Baltic Fleet, working on drawing up the Naval Regulations, sometimes sitting at work for fourteen hours a day. The result was enshrined in law in 1720 and coincided with the victories of the Russian fleet at Grenham. Over the course of two decades, Peter's army finally surpassed the Swedish both in organization and armament. It had a rigid structure (brigades and divisions, strong regimental and battalion artillery, grenadier regiments, dragoon cavalry, light corps - corvolant - with horse artillery), was well equipped with the latest guns with flintlocks and bayonets, field and naval guns, ranged by types and calibers. Childhood hobbies of “amusing regiments” showed obvious military leadership talent, which allowed Peter to remain in history not only as the creator of the Russian regular army and navy, but also as the founder of a special military school, which later gave birth to A.V. Suvorov, F.F. Ushakov , M.I. Kutuzova.
In the same 1720, when he wrote the Naval Charter, Peter, trying to consolidate the merchant class, completed the reform of city government. The Chief Magistrate in the capital (as a collegium) and magistrates in the cities were created according to the European model. All of them were called upon to “propagate” trade and manufacture. In those years, a significant part of state-owned enterprises was transferred into private hands, entrepreneurs were encouraged with subsidies, especially those who participated in the construction of the Vyshnevolotsky, Ladoga bypass and other canals. Peter himself complained more than once that of all government affairs, “nothing is more difficult for him than commerce” and he (according to I.G. Fouquerodt) supposedly “could never form a clear idea about this matter in all its connections.” But at the same time, he was a talented administrator: by the early 1720s, Russia was freed from the need to import textile products, since more than 100 manufactories operating in the country met demand. In a similar way, Peter’s plan to satisfy the country’s needs for metal was realized, and Russian iron was highly valued in Europe for its quality. Trade from Arkhangelsk was forcibly transferred to the new trading port (Petersburg). The first artificial waterways were designed to connect the capital with central Russia and the East, for which the autocrat personally granted privileges to the organizers of new factories and imported craftsmen from abroad.
In 1721, as a co-author of another “regulation”, this time the Spiritual one, Peter spoke out against the preservation of the patriarchate, which was followed by its liquidation and the establishment of a government-controlled Theological College, or Synod (1721).
When concluding peace after the long Northern War, which was signed in Nystadt in 1721, the tsar showed himself to be a talented diplomat who deeply understood the tasks of Russian foreign policy and showed the ability to take advantage of circumstances and use compromises. Russia's victory over Sweden was unconditional and significant (“We have been brought into existence from non-existence,” exclaimed the autocrat, referring to access to the sea and the favorable preconditions it created for the development of economic and cultural ties). According to the agreement, Russia received lands along the Neva, in Karelia and the Baltic states with the cities of Narva, Revel, Riga, Vyborg, etc. At the same time, Finland and 2 million rubles in silver were transferred by Peter to the losing side - Sweden - as compensation for the lost territories.
Following the signing of peace, Russia was declared an empire. A year later (1722) it was published Table of ranks of all military, civil and court service ranks, according to which family nobility could be obtained “for blameless service to the emperor and the state.” By establishing the order of rank in the military and civil service not according to nobility, but according to personal abilities and merits, Peter hoped to consolidate like-minded people from among the “educated class” and at the same time expand its composition at the expense of those loyal to him and persons from among the unborn and ignorant.
Having forced the Western world to recognize Russia as one of the great European powers, the emperor began to solve urgent problems in the Caucasus. Peter's Persian campaign of 1722–1723 secured the western coast of the Caspian Sea with the cities of Derbent and Baku for Russia. There, under Peter, for the first time in Russian history, permanent diplomatic missions and consulates were established, and the importance of foreign trade increased.
Soon after the completion of military campaigns, the autocrat ordered a change in the taxation unit: household taxation of peasants was replaced by a poll tax (1724). Realizing the danger of imports for the development of Russian industry, Peter ordered the introduction of a protective tariff that same year, protecting new branches of domestic industry from foreign competition.
Over the course of more than 35 years of rule, Peter managed to carry out many reforms in the field of culture and education. Their main result was the emergence of a secular school in Russia and the elimination of the clergy’s monopoly on education. The School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences (1701), the Medical-Surgical School (1707) - the future Military Medical Academy, which still exists today, the Naval Academy (1715), the Engineering and Artillery Schools (1719), schools of translators at the collegiums - all this was laid down in Peter's time. In 1719, the first museum in Russian history, the Kunstkamera with a public library, began operating. Primers, educational maps were published, and in general a beginning was laid for the systematic study of the country's geography and cartography. The spread of literacy was facilitated by the reform of the alphabet (replacing cursive with a civil script, 1708) and the publication of the first Russian printed newspaper Vedomosti (from 1703). During the era of Peter I, many buildings were erected for state and cultural institutions, the architectural ensemble of Peterhof (Petrodvorets). Fortresses were built (Kronstadt, Peter and Paul Fortress, etc.), planned development of the capital (St. Petersburg) began, which marked the beginning of urban planning and the construction of residential buildings according to standard designs. The Emperor encouraged the activities of scientists, engineers, and artists, seeing in them a path to strengthening the absolutist state and developing ties with Western European culture.
In 1725, the doors of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences with a gymnasium and a university opened, but the emperor was no longer destined to evaluate the results of its activities. In October 1724, he caught a bad cold, encountering a boat that had run aground on the road and deciding to help, standing waist-deep in the water, remove the soldiers from it. Hectic life went on as usual until the end of January 1725, when he decided to seek the help of doctors. Pneumonia turned out to be too advanced, and on January 28, 1725, Peter died in St. Petersburg, without having time to appoint an heir and thereby decide the fate of the state. He was later buried in the Peter and Paul Cathedral in the Peter and Paul Fortress.
The bearer of the rationalistic idea of the monarch as the first official of the state, the emperor, like many intelligent, strong-willed, decisive people who spare no effort in the name of a cherished goal, was strict not only with himself, but also with others. He was sometimes cruel and merciless, and did not take into account the interests and lives of those who were weaker than him. In his state and military activities, Peter I relied on talented, devoted associates, who were later called “chicks of Peter’s nest.” Among them were both representatives of the noble nobility (B.P. Sheremet, F.Yu. Romodanovsky, P.A. Tolstoy, F.M. Apraksin, F.A. Golovin), and persons of non-noble origin (A.D. Menshikov , P.P. Shafirov. F. Makarov). Energetic, purposeful, greedy for new knowledge, Peter was not petty and, despite all his contradictions, went down in history as “raising Russia on its hind legs,” managing to radically change its appearance and the course of history for many centuries.
Many strong-willed Russian rulers (from Catherine II to Stalin) admired the “life and deeds” of Peter I. In the 18th–20th centuries. Numerous monuments were erected to him in St. Petersburg (including “The Bronze Horseman” by E.M. Falcone, 1782; a bronze statue of B.K. Rastrelli, installed in 1743 near the Engineering Castle, a bronze seated sculpture of M.M. Shemyakin in Petropavlovskaya fortress), Kronstadt (F. Jacques), Arkhangelsk, Taganrog, Petrodvorets (M.M. Antokolsky), Tula, Petrozavodsk (I.N. Schroeder and I.A. Monighetti), Moscow (Z. Tsereteli). In the 20th century memorial house-museums of Peter I were opened in Leningrad, Tallinn, Vologda, Liepaja, Pereslavl-Zalessky. Writers (A.S. Pushkin, A.N. Tolstoy, A.P. Platonov, etc.) turned to the image of the outstanding Russian ruler; artists (M.V. Lomonosov, V.I. Surikov, V. A. Serov, A. N. Benois, E. E. Lanceray).
Essays: Letters and papers of Emperor Peter the Great. Tt. 1–11. St. Petersburg, M.–L., 1887–1964; Voskresensky N.A. Legislative acts of Peter I. M. – L., 1945
Natalia Pushkareva
APPLICATION
DECREE ON THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE GOVERNMENT SENATE AND ON ITS PERSONNEL COMPOSITION
The decree is to be declared subsequent:
The Governing Senate has been determined to be absent for our absences to govern:
Mr. Count Musin Pushkin,
Mr. Streshnev,
Mr. Prince Peter Golitsyn,
Mr. K. Mikhail Dolgoruky,
Mr. Plemyannikov,
Mr. K. Grigory Volkonsky,
Mr. Samarin,
Mr. Vasily Apukhtin,
Mr. Melnitsky,
Obor-Secretary of this Senate Anisim Shchukin.
1. To govern the Moscow province and report it to the Senate to Vasily Ershov.
2. On Prince Petrov, Golitsyn’s place is Mr. Kurbatov.
3. Instead of ordering Razryadny to be at the table of Razryadny under the above-mentioned Senate.
4. Also, from all provinces in the above-mentioned court, for the purpose of requesting and adopting decrees, there should be two commissars from the provinces.
FROM THE GENERAL REGULATIONS OR CHARTERS,
BY WHICH STATE COLLEGES, AS WELL AS AND ALL THE OFFICES AND OFFICES BELONGING TO THEM, NOT ONLY IN EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL INSTITUTIONS, BUT ALSO IN THE EXERCISE OF THEIR OFFICE, HAVE THE MOST FOLLOWING ACTIVITY
After all, E.I.V., our all-merciful Sovereign, following the examples of other Christian regions, most mercifully deigned to accept the intention of accepting, for the sake of the decent management of His State affairs, and the correct determination and calculation of its parishes and the correction of the useful Justice and Police (that is, in the justice and citizenship), also for the sake of the possible protection of His loyal subjects, and for the maintenance of His naval and land forces in good condition, as well as commerce, arts and manufactures, and the good establishment of His maritime and land duties, and for the sake of increasing the growth of mining factories and other state needs, the following In addition, the necessary and appropriate State Collegiums should be established, namely: Foreign Affairs, Kamor, Justice, Revision, Military, Admiralty, Commerce, State Office, Berg and Manufacturer Collegiums.
And in these Presidents, Vice-Presidents and other members belonging to them and clerical and clerical servants, and more from their own subjects, determine, and also establish the necessary Chancelleries and Offices. For the sake of this, E.I.V. has deigned to judge, to everyone in the above-described State Collegiums who are found to be high and low servants in general, and to each individual specifically, by these General Regulations, in the news, and instead of the General Instruction (mandate), announce his most merciful command in the chapters described below.
Chapter I. ABOUT JURY OFFICE
Members of the State Collegiums, as well as other civil ranks in general, and each especially have, especially H.I.V. and Her Majesty the Empress Tsarina, and the High Heirs, faithful, honest and kind people and servants to be, for Their benefit and well-being in every way and, to the fullest extent possible, seek and promote, ward off loss, harm and danger, and declare in good time how this is proper and proper for honest people and subjects of E.I.V., and they are in this before God and His Majesty in their own conscience and before In all honesty, they can give an answer. To which every servant, high and low, especially both in writing and verbally, has an oath to commit himself to this in a formal manner... (The following is the text of the oath.)
Chapter II. ABOUT THE ADVANTAGE OF COLLEGES
Since then, all State Collegiums, only under the E. I. V. special, as well as the Governing Senate, are established by decrees; If the Senate orders something about some matter, and the Collegium sees that something is contrary to E.V.’s decrees and high interests, then the State Collegium should not immediately carry it out, but has in the Senate a proper written proposal to make it. And if the Senate, regardless of this, remains with its previous determination, then the Senate is responsible for giving an answer, and the Collegium, according to the written decree of the Senate, must carry out and then inform the E.I.V. about it, and if it does not notify, then the Collegium everyone will be subject to that punishment, according to the severity of the harm. For this reason, E. I. V. allows all of His decrees to be sent to the Senate and to the Collegium, as well as from the Senate to the Collegium, in writing: for both in the Senate and in the Collegium, verbal decrees should never be sent.
ABOUT THE DAYS AND HOURS ASSIGNED FOR SEATING
Collegiums have their sitting every week, except Sundays, and the Lord's holidays, and the State Angels, on Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Friday, and on Thursdays the Presidents usually gather in the Senate Chamber, on the shortest days at 6 o'clock, and on long days at 8 o’clock and be there for 5 o’clock. And if important matters happen, which are not delayed, but are soon completed, then, according to the invention of affairs and circumstances, either the entire College, or some members, as determined by the Collegiums, regardless of the mentioned time and hours, must gather and send those matters. And the clerical servants... have to sit all day and gather an hour before the judges. The arrival and departure of ordered people is determined by the President and other members, depending on the case [...] and for an hour of not sitting, a week of salary deduction.
Chapter IV. ON THE EXECUTION OF DECREES
Every President must immediately carry out all the decrees of E.V. and the Senate, which must be written and secured, and not verbal, and have two notes on this, which are completed and executed, and enter them into the book; and those that are not completed, or are completed, but not fulfilled by action, keep the painting on the table, so that it is constantly in memory.
Interpretation. Cases, of course, about which a written decree is required, are those that must be carried out in action, and not those that require the creation of an action. For example, you need to collect money or provisions, then order in words, so that they complain about it, how to fix it; but when they put it in, then report whether it is so, and when it is tested, then do not put it into action without a written decree. And in order to fulfill them as quickly as possible, namely: no more than a week of time, if it is impossible as soon as possible. If any State affairs require certificates from the Governorates and Provinces, they will give time until the Governorates and Provinces to travel one way, one hundred miles, in two days, and upon return the same. And in the Governorates and Provinces thereof, correct them, without delaying anything for as little time as possible; and don’t continue for more than a month. And if it is corrected within such a period of time, it will not be possible... and another period of two weeks is given to correct it; and moreover, namely: for six weeks, not to continue at all, and after receiving those orders, those cases must be completed according to the same week, under the penalty of death, or exile to the galleys, and deprivation of all property due to the force of the deed and guilt. And the petitioners’ all sorts of correctional matters should be carried out according to the register without any delay as much as possible, and then for six months, as His Majesty’s Personal Decree ordered on December 8, 1714, not to continue under punishment. If, beyond this stipulated period, whoever drags his feet without a legal reason will be punished for each day by 30 rubles, if the loss was not caused to someone, and if the loss was caused, then it will be doubled the first time and the second time, and the third time. , as if he disobeyed the decree, he will be punished.
Chapter V. ABOUT REPORTS TO THE COLLEGE
As soon as the Collegium at the above-mentioned time and hours gathers, although not all, but most of the members, the Secretary reports and reads everything in the proper order, namely, in the written manner below: first public State affairs concerning H.I.V. interest , then private matters. Under both such administrations, the position of the Secretary's rank is that he should sign numbers on all incoming letters and reports, and assign numbers to them when submitted, and report them without any forgery or bias by numbers and numbers, unless By the way, such things will happen that cannot be stopped, but will soon be sent, and in such a case, this order will be set aside, and those that are more necessary should be reported in advance. It’s the same in petitioner’s cases, in which the cases that are senior in the register are written, but the plaintiff and the defendant are not received in due time, and in other cases, which are later written in the register, the plaintiff and the defendant are received, then having completed the Sovereign’s, their cases are immediately report according to the procedure described above, and not by choice, so as not to drag them for a long time, but to send them as soon as possible. If anyone acts against this and neglects it, he will be punished with a fine: and if anyone causes any harm or loss to anyone, then it will be corrected for them... And in State affairs, even that is actually accepted, from what would be a loss or harm could have happened, although it did not happen.
When the proposal is made, then, according to the above-described procedure, one by one is written down in the protocol from the Notary, and then throughout the Collegium each case is discussed in detail, and finally, without falling into one another’s speech, they give their votes, and the greatest number of votes follows; and if the votes are equal, then they should be followed, with which the President agrees. Moreover, each member, by his oath and position, is obliged, while a matter is being discussed, to freely and clearly declare his opinion, according to his rightful understanding and conscience, regardless of the person, since in this case he can give an answer before E.V. himself, God himself, and for this reason, no one will remain with his opinion out of intent, stubbornness, pride, or any other form. But if from another opinion, which has good grounds and reasons, he decides to follow them: in the same way, each member is given freedom if his vote is not accepted, and he decides to be well-founded and useful in the interest of E.I.V., through a notary in The protocol says to write it down. And most of all, it is necessary to look at what matters are doubtful, and what kind of clarification they require, so as not to rush to completion, but according to the invention of the case and circumstances in advance: either report to the Senate, or inquire where it is necessary; and when all this is clarified, the votes are given and collected, then the decision is made from that, and this is clearly entered into the protocol from the word to the Notary, and then they have to be sent to the Chancellery and Offices (where each case is due, about which then in it will be mentioned in the appropriate place), however, it is necessary to collect all the votes from below, and to carry out the affairs in order, and to strengthen the resolution by everyone; and according to these resolutions, decrees are sent only to those who happen to sign the Collegium; for dishonest giving of votes, under punishment against the third chapter, for every offense. If someone, out of stubbornness or untruth, does not follow the truthful voices, and if there is no one to follow, and he does not order his right voice to be recorded in the protocol, then he will be guilty, if the investigation is under investigation, of such a fine as the guilty person would be subject to; and if it is a matter of state that involves only a monetary loss, then doubly correct it; if it is criminal, then they will also be punished criminally according to the importance of the case. [...]
Chapter VIII. ABOUT THE DIVISION OF LABOR
In the Collegium, the Presidents do not have special work or supervision, but a general and supreme directorate (or management), and affairs between the Advisors and Assessors are divided in such a way that each of the affairs occurring in the collegium has a certain part, and over the Chancery and Offices, and over especially supervision is given by their deeds and labors, as can be seen at length in the particular instructions of the Collegiums; Moreover, the position of President and Vice-President is to ensure that other College Members take care of the entrusted affairs and the supervision ordered to them with due diligence and diligence; and if the President sees that one of them is of little understanding, or due to his position of rank, due to weakness, cannot carry out his affairs, then the President must announce it in the Senate with the appropriate circumstances, so that the most skillful person can be appointed in his place. And if the President sees that some of the Collegiate Members show negligence in his special supervision and affairs, and the President should remember and punish him with polite words, so that in future he will show better care and diligence in the service of H.I.V.; If she does not correct herself from those words, then she must announce her fault to the Senate; If, due to his negligence, a harmful stoppage occurs in business, the President will inflict this on him against Chapter 25. [...]
Complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire. Collection 1. T. 6., 1830
CHARTER ON SUCCESSION TO THE THRONE
We are Peter the first emperor and autocrat of all Russia and so on and so forth and so on. We declare, since everyone knows, how arrogant our son Alexey was by Absalom’s anger, and that it was not through repentance that his intention was stopped, but by God’s mercy towards our entire fatherland (which is evident from the manifesto about that matter); and this grew up for no other reason than the old custom that a big son was given an inheritance, and besides, he was the only man of our family at that time, and for this reason he did not want to look at any fatherly punishment; This unkind custom, I don’t know why, was established in such a way, for not only in people, according to the reasoning of smart parents, there were abolitions, but also in the holy scripture we see when Isaac’s wife asked for an inheritance to her husband, his youngest son, who had grown old, and what is even more surprising, is that God’s blessing followed; We also see it in our ancestors, when the blessed and eternally worthy memory of the Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich, and truly great not in word, but in deed; for he, scattered by the division of the children of Vladimirov, gathered and established our fatherland, which, not by primacy, but by will, repaired this, and twice canceled it, seeing a worthy heir, who would not waste our collected and established fatherland again in waste, first, past his sons, he gave it to his grandson , and then dismissed his grandson, who was already married, and gave his son his inheritance (which is clear from the Degree Book), namely, in the summer of February 7006, on the 4th day, Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich created for himself the heir of his grandson, Prince Dmitry Ivanovich , and was crowned in Moscow during the great reign by the princely crown, Metropolitan Simon, and in the summer of April 7010, on the 11th day, Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich was angry with his grandson Prince Dmitry, and did not order him to be commemorated in churches by the Grand Duke, and put him on guard and that On the 14th day of April he made his son Vasily Ivanovich heir and was crowned by the same Metropolitan Simon; To which there are other similar examples, which, for the sake of brevity, are not mentioned here now, but in the future they will be especially published in print. In the same reasoning, last year 1714, we had mercy on our subjects, so that their private houses would not fall into ruin from unworthy heirs, although we created a charter so that real estate could be given to one son, but we gave it to the will of the parents, to whom the son they will want to give, if they see someone worthy, although to a smaller one, bypassing the larger ones, recognizing the convenient one, who would not squander the inheritance. How much more must we have concern for the integrity of our entire state, which, with God’s help, is now more widespread, as it seems to everyone; why we decided to make this charter, so that it would always be in the will of the ruling sovereign, whoever he wants, he will determine the inheritance, and for a certain one, seeing what obscenity, he will cancel it again, so that children and descendants do not fall into such anger as is written above, having this bridle on you. For this reason, we command that all our faithful subjects and worldly people, without exception, confirm this charter of ours before God and his gospel on such a basis that anyone who is opposed to this, or interprets it in any other way, is considered a traitor, subject to the death penalty and ecclesiastical will be subject to an oath.
Literature:
Soloviev S.M. Public readings about Peter the Great. M., 1872
Anisimov E.V. Time of Peter's reforms. L., 1989
Pavlenko N.I. Peter I and his time. M., 2004