biodiversity ecosystem environmental monitoring

Biological diversity is the main condition for the sustainability of all life on Earth. Biodiversity creates complementarity and interchangeability of species in biocenoses, ensures population regulation, and the self-healing abilities of communities and ecosystems. Due to this diversity, life has not been interrupted for several billion years. During difficult periods of geological history, many species became extinct and diversity decreased, but the ecosystems of the continents and oceans withstood these disasters. The main functions of the biocenosis in the ecosystem - the creation of organic matter, its destruction and regulation of the number of species - are provided by many species, as if insuring each other’s activities (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Budyumkan River in the southeast of the Chita region

In this photo we see many species of plants growing together in a meadow in the floodplain of the river. Budyumkan in the southeast of the Chita region. Why did nature need so many species in one meadow?

Russian geobotanist L.G. Ramensky in 1910 formulated the principle of ecological individuality of species - a principle that is the key to understanding the role of biodiversity in the biosphere. We see that in every ecosystem many species live together at the same time, but we rarely think about the ecological meaning of this. The ecological individuality of plant species living in the same plant community in the same ecosystem allows the community to quickly restructure when external conditions change.

For example, in a dry summer in this ecosystem, the main role in ensuring the biological cycle is played by individuals of species A, which are more adapted to life in conditions of moisture deficiency. In a wet year, individuals of species A are not at their optimum and cannot ensure the biological cycle under changed conditions. In this year, individuals of species B begin to play the main role in ensuring the biological cycle in this ecosystem. The third year turned out to be cooler; under these conditions, neither species A nor species B can ensure the full use of the ecological potential of this ecosystem. But the ecosystem is quickly being rebuilt, since it contains individuals of species B, which do not need warm weather and photosynthesize well at low temperatures.

Each type of living organism can exist within a certain range of external factors. Outside these values, individuals of the species die. In the diagram (Figure 2) we see the limits of endurance (limits of tolerance) of the species according to one of the factors. Within these limits there is an optimum zone, the most favorable for the species, and two zones of inhibition. Rule L.G. Ramensky on the ecological individuality of species states that the limits of endurance and optimum zones of different species living together do not coincide.

Figure 2. Limits of endurance (limits of tolerance) of a species according to one of the factors

If we look at how things are in real ecosystems of the Primorsky Territory, we will see that in a coniferous-deciduous forest, for example, on an area of ​​100 square meters. meters grow individuals of 5-6 species of trees, 5-7 species of shrubs, 2-3 species of lianas, 20-30 species of herbaceous plants, 10-12 species of mosses and 15-20 species of lichens. All these species are ecologically individual, and in different seasons of the year, in different weather conditions, their photosynthetic activity changes greatly. These species seem to complement each other, making the plant community as a whole more ecologically optimal.

By the number of species of similar life forms, with similar requirements for the external environment, living in one local ecosystem, one can judge how stable the conditions in this ecosystem are. In stable conditions, there will usually be fewer such species than in unstable conditions. If weather conditions do not change for a number of years, then the need for a large number of species disappears. In this case, the species that, under these stable conditions, is the most optimal of all possible species of a given flora is preserved. All the others are gradually being eliminated, unable to withstand the competition with him.

In nature we find a lot of factors or mechanisms that provide and maintain high species diversity of local ecosystems. First of all, such factors include excessive reproduction and overproduction of seeds and fruits. In nature, seeds and fruits are produced hundreds and thousands of times more than is necessary to make up for the natural loss due to premature death and dying from old age.

Thanks to adaptations for dispersing fruits and seeds over long distances, the rudiments of new plants end up not only in those areas that are favorable for their growth now, but also in those whose conditions are unfavorable for the growth and development of individuals of these species. Nevertheless, these seeds germinate here, exist in a depressed state for some time and die. This happens as long as environmental conditions are stable. But if conditions change, then previously doomed to death, seedlings of species unusual for this ecosystem begin to grow and develop here, going through the full cycle of their individual development. Ecologists say that in the biosphere there is a powerful pressure of the diversity of life on all local ecosystems.

The general gene pool of the vegetation cover of a landscape area - its flora - is used most fully by the local ecosystems of this area precisely due to the pressure of biodiversity. At the same time, local ecosystems become richer in species. During their formation and restructuring, the ecological selection of suitable components is carried out from a larger number of candidates, the germs of which ended up in a given habitat. Thus, the likelihood of the formation of an ecologically optimal plant community increases.

Thus, a factor in the stability of a local ecosystem is not only the diversity of species living in this local ecosystem, but also the diversity of species in neighboring ecosystems from which the introduction of germs (seeds and spores) is possible. This applies not only to plants that lead an attached lifestyle, but even more so to animals that can move from one local ecosystem to another. Many animal species, although not specifically belonging to any local ecosystem (biogeocoenosis), nevertheless play an important ecological role and participate in ensuring the biological cycle in several ecosystems at once. Moreover, they can alienate biomass in one local ecosystem and throw out excrement in another, stimulating the growth and development of plants in this second local ecosystem. Sometimes such transfer of matter and energy from one ecosystem to another can be extremely powerful. This flow connects completely different ecosystems.

Factors that ensure high biodiversity of ecosystems include the processes of migration of species from neighboring territories from other landscape areas and other natural zones, as well as the processes of autochthonous speciation in place, which continuously occur in nature, sometimes accelerating in epochs of biosphere restructuring, sometimes slowing down in epochs of stabilization climate. Speciation processes occur very slowly. So, for example, for the division of a parent species into two daughter species, if there is a barrier between the two populations that does not allow individuals of these two populations to interbreed with each other, nature requires at least 500 thousand years, and more often about 1 million years. Individual species in the biosphere can persist for 10 million years or more, practically unchanged during this time.

The fauna is an integral element of the natural environment and biological diversity of the Earth, a renewable natural resource, an important regulating and stabilizing component of the biosphere. The most important ecological function of animals is participation in the biotic cycle of substances and energy. The stability of the ecosystem is ensured primarily by animals, as the most mobile element.

For example, migratory fish, accumulating their biomass in the sea, go to spawn in the upper reaches of rivers and streams, where after spawning they die and become food for a large number of animal species (bears, wolves, many species of mustelids, many species of birds, not to mention hordes of invertebrates). These animals feed on fish and release their excrement in terrestrial ecosystems. Thus, matter from the sea migrates to land inland and here it is assimilated by plants and included in new chains of the biological cycle.

Stop entering the rivers of the Far East for salmon spawning, and in 5-10 years you can see how much the numbers of most animal species will change. The number of animal species will change, and, as a result, changes will begin in the vegetation cover. A decrease in the number of predatory animal species will lead to an increase in the number of herbivores. Having quickly undermined their food supply, herbivores will begin to die, and epizootics will spread among them. The number of herbivorous animals will decrease, and there will be no one to distribute the seeds of some species and eat the biomass of other plant species. In a word, when red fish stop entering the rivers in the Far East, a series of restructuring will begin in all parts of ecological systems hundreds and even thousands of kilometers away from the sea.

The famous ecologist B. Commoner spoke about the need for a thorough study of ecosystems and the consequences of hasty human actions, even if for well-intentioned purposes: everything is connected to everything; nature knows best.

It is important for people to preserve what exists in ecosystems that has stood the test of time. It is important to understand that it is historically, evolutionarily developed biodiversity that ensures the preservation and long-term functionality of the ecosystem.

There are different ways to preserve biodiversity:

• a) stabilization of the gene pool through the restoration of endangered species in artificial situations in nature;
• b) conservation of genetic material;
• c) regulation of economic use and trade agreements (Convention on Trade in Endangered Species, CiTES)
• d) protection of biotopes as part of landscape planning;
• e) agreement on migratory species, in particular the Bonn Convention.

Preserving existing species is preserving the sustainability of the ecosystem. More than 600 species of birds and about 120 species of mammals are at risk of extinction. And here environmental literacy, environmental responsibility, environmental education, and environmental culture of everyone come to the fore.

“In ancient times the richest countries were those whose nature was most abundant” - Henry Buckle.

Biodiversity is one of the fundamental phenomena that characterizes the manifestation of life on Earth. The decline in biodiversity occupies a special place among the main environmental problems of our time.

The consequence of the disappearance of species will be the destruction of existing ecological connections and degradation of natural groups, their inability to self-sustain, which will lead to their disappearance. Further reduction in biodiversity can lead to destabilization of the biota, loss of the integrity of the biosphere and its ability to maintain the most important environmental characteristics. Due to the irreversible transition of the biosphere to a new state, it may become unsuitable for human life. Man is completely dependent on biological resources.

There are many reasons to conserve biodiversity. This is the need to use biological resources to meet the needs of humanity (food, technical materials, medicines, etc.), ethical and aesthetic aspects, and the like.

However, the main reason for preserving biodiversity is that biodiversity plays a leading role in ensuring the stability of ecosystems and the biosphere as a whole (absorbing pollution, stabilizing the climate, providing conditions suitable for life).

The importance of biodiversity

To live and survive in nature, man has learned to use the beneficial properties of biodiversity components to obtain food, raw materials for making clothing, tools, building housing, and obtaining energy. The modern economy is based on the use of biological resources.

The economic importance of biodiversity lies in the use of biological resources - this is the foundation on which civilization is built. These resources are the basis of most human activities, such as agriculture, pharmaceuticals, pulp and paper, horticulture, cosmetics, construction and waste management.

Biodiversity is also a recreational resource. The recreational value of biodiversity is also of great importance for recreation. The main direction of recreational activity is to have fun without destroying nature. We're talking about hiking, photography, bird watching, swimming with whales and wild dolphins, and the like. Rivers, lakes, ponds, and reservoirs create opportunities for water sports, boat trips, swimming, and recreational fishing. Around the world, the ecotourism industry is growing rapidly and includes up to 200 million people annually.

Health value

Biodiversity still hides many undiscovered medicines from us. For example, quite recently, ecologists using drones discovered it on one of the Hawaiian rocks.

For centuries, plant and animal extracts have been used by humans to treat various diseases. Modern medicine is showing interest in biological resources, hoping to find new types of medicines. There is an opinion that the wider the diversity of living things, the greater the opportunities for discovering new drugs.

The ecological value of species diversity is a prerequisite for the survival and sustainable functioning of ecosystems. Biological species provide soil formation processes. Thanks to the accumulation and transfer of essential nutrients, soil fertility is ensured. Ecosystems assimilate waste and absorb and destroy pollutants. They purify water and stabilize the hydrological regime, retaining groundwater. Ecosystems help maintain atmospheric quality by maintaining adequate oxygen levels through photosynthesis.

The study and protection of biological diversity is critical for the sustainable development of civilization.

A reduction in the diversity of flora and fauna will inevitably affect human life, since biodiversity is the foundation of the spiritual and physical health of any nation. The value of biodiversity is enormous in itself, regardless of the extent to which it is used by people. If we want to preserve our mentality and national identity, we must preserve our nature. The state of nature is a mirror of the state of the nation. Preserving biodiversity is a necessary condition for the survival of humanity.

Source: Environmental blog(website)

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The biological diversity of the planet includes genetic intraspecific, species and ecosystem diversity. Genetic diversity is due to the diversity of traits and properties in individuals of the same species; an example is the many varieties of grassy bellflower - more than 300 species and subspecies of woodpecker - about 210 (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1 Genetic diversity of bluebell and woodpecker

Species diversity is the variety of species of animals, plants, fungi, lichens and bacteria. According to the results of research by biologists published in the journal PLoS Biology in 2011, the number of described living organisms on the planet is approximately 1.7 million, and the total number of species is estimated at approximately 8.7 million. It is noted that 86% are still to be discovered land inhabitants and 91% of ocean inhabitants. Biologists estimate that a complete description of unknown species will require at least 480 years of intensive research. Thus, the total number of species on the planet will be unknown for a long time. The biological diversity of ecosystems depends on natural and climatic conditions; ecosystems are distinguished by structure and function, by scale from microbiogeocenosis to the biosphere (Fig. 2).

Fig.2 Biological diversity of natural terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems

Biological diversity is the planet's main natural resource, enabling sustainable development and having important environmental, social, aesthetic and economic significance. Our planet can be imagined as a complex multicellular organism that, through biological diversity, supports the self-organization of the biosphere, which is expressed in its restoration and resistance to negative natural and anthropogenic influences. Biological diversity allows you to regulate water flows, control the process of erosion, form soils, perform climate-forming functions and much more.

Genetic intraspecific, species and ecosystem diversity are interconnected. Genetic diversity provides species diversity, the diversity of natural ecosystems and landscapes creates conditions for the formation of new species, and an increase in species diversity increases the overall gene pool of the planet's biosphere. Therefore, each specific species contributes to biological diversity and cannot be either beneficial or harmful. Each individual species will perform certain functions in any ecological system, and the loss of any animal or plant leads to an imbalance in the ecosystem. And the more species become extinct due to unnatural reasons, the greater the imbalance. In confirmation of this, we can cite the words of the domestic scientist Nikolai Viktorovich Levashov, that “... an ecological system is nothing more than a balance between all forms and types of living organisms and their habitat...”. One cannot but agree with these words.

The distribution of species across the planet's surface is uneven, and their biological diversity in natural ecosystems is greatest in tropical rain forests, occupying 7% of the planet's surface and containing up to 70-80% of all animals and plants known to science. This is not surprising, since tropical forests contain many plants, which provide a huge number of ecological niches and, as a result, high species diversity. At the initial stages of the formation of the planet’s ecological system and until today, a natural process of the emergence and disappearance of species occurred and continues to occur. The extinction of some species was compensated by the emergence of new species. This process was carried out without human intervention for a very long time. This fact is confirmed by the fact that in different geological eras there was a process of extinction and appearance of species, which we can judge from the found fossils, prints and traces of life activity (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3 Fossils of ammonites and shells of bivalve mollusks that lived on the planet approximately 150 million years ago, in the Jurassic period

However, currently, under the influence of human factors, biological diversity is decreasing. This became especially noticeable in the twentieth century, when, under the influence of human activity, the rate of extinction of species exceeded the natural rate, which led to the destruction of the genetic potential of the biosphere of our planet. The main reasons for the reduction in the planet’s biodiversity can be considered hunting and fishing, forest fires (up to 90% of fires are caused by humans), destruction and change of habitats (construction of roads, power lines, indiscriminate construction of residential complexes, deforestation, etc.) , pollution of natural components by chemicals, introduction of alien species into unusual ecosystems, selective use of natural resources, introduction of GMO crops into agriculture (when pollinated by insects, genetically modified plants spread, which leads to the displacement of natural plant species from the ecosystem) and many other reasons . To confirm the above reasons, we can cite some facts of violations of natural ecosystems, of which, unfortunately, there are a huge number. Thus, on April 20, 2010, the largest man-made disaster occurred in the Gulf of Mexico, caused by an explosion on the Deepwater Horizon oil platform in the Macondo field (USA). As a result of this accident, about 5 million barrels of oil spilled into the Gulf of Mexico over 152 days, resulting in the formation of an oil slick with a total area of ​​75 thousand square kilometers (Fig. 4). Based on the most conservative estimates, it is unknown how much was actually poured out.

The environmental consequences for the ecosystem of the bay and coastal areas are difficult to assess, since oil pollution disrupts natural processes, changes the living conditions of all types of living organisms and accumulates in biomass. Petroleum products have a long period of decomposition and quickly cover the surface of water with a layer of oil film, which prevents the access of air and light. As of November 2, 2010, 6,814 dead animals were collected as a result of the accident. But these are only the first losses; how many animals and plant organisms have died and will still die when toxic substances enter the food chain is unknown. It is also unknown how such a man-made disaster will affect other regions of the planet. The natural ecosystem of the Gulf of Mexico and its coasts is capable of self-recovery, but this process may take many years.

Another reason for the reduction in biological diversity is deforestation for the construction of roads, housing, agricultural land, etc. As a confirming fact, one can cite the construction of the Moscow-St. Petersburg expressway through the Khimki forest. The Khimki forest was the largest undivided natural complex that was part of the forest-park protective belt of Moscow and the Moscow region and allowed for the preservation of high biological diversity (Fig. 5). In addition, it served as the most important regulator of atmospheric air purity, a recreational natural complex for more than half a million residents of nearby settlements, capable of providing a favorable environment for living.

Fig.5 Khimki forest before the construction of the expressway

As a result of the construction of the expressway, irreparable environmental damage was caused to the Khimki Forest Park, expressed in the destruction of the only corridor passing along the floodplain of the river. Klyazma and connecting the Khimki forest with neighboring forests (Fig. 6).

Rice. 6 Construction of an expressway through the Khimki forest

The migration routes of such animals as elk, wild boar, badger and other organisms have been disrupted, which will ultimately lead to their disappearance from the Khimki forest. The construction of the road subsequently led to fragmentation of the forest, which will further cause an increase in adverse edge effects on natural ecosystems (chemical pollution, exposure to acoustic noise, decay of forest walls adjacent to the highway, etc.) (Fig. 7). Unfortunately, there are a huge number of such examples throughout the country and around the world, and all together this causes irreparable environmental damage to biological diversity.

The fact of reduction in biodiversity is also confirmed by research, which can be found in the works and. According to a report by the World Wildlife Fund, the planet's overall biodiversity has declined by approximately 28% since 1970. Given that the vast number of living organisms still undescribed and the fact that only known species were taken into account in biodiversity assessments, it can be assumed that the decline in biodiversity is mainly occurring at the regional level. However, if people continue to develop in a technocratic and consumerist way and do not take real actions to change the situation, then there is a real threat to global biodiversity, and, as a consequence, the possible death of civilization. A decrease in the diversity of life leads to a decrease in maintaining the functions of the biosphere in its natural state. Ignorance and denial of the laws of nature often leads to the false belief that the loss of one species of animal or plant in nature is interchangeable. Yes, this is true if it is caused by the natural course of evolution of living matter. However, today “intelligent” human activity has begun to predominate. I would like to remind you of one of the laws of ecology of the American ecologist Barry Commoner: “Everything is connected to everything.” The law shows the integrity of the ecological system of the living organisms and habitat that form it. I would like to end my short reflection with the words of the Bulgarian aphorist Veselin Georgiev: “Take care of the nature in yourself, and not yourself in nature.”

Biological diversity as the most important factor in sustainable development

Biological diversity is the diversity of all forms of living organisms and the systems of which those organisms are part. The concept of biological diversity refers to different levels of organization of living things - molecular-genetic, population-species, taxonomic (from “taxonomy” - systematics) and cenotic (from “cenosis” - community). Each subsequent of these levels includes the previous one.
Biological diversity forms the Earth's biota, represented both by the totality of organisms and species itself, and by the structure of their distribution among communities (biocenoses) and by the communities themselves as the main structural units of the biosphere.

The importance of biological diversity

Biological diversity was formed as a result of the interaction between the biosphere and the geographical envelopes of the Earth - the hydrosphere, atmosphere and earth's crust (lithosphere), the composition of which, in turn, is largely determined by biota. It was the biota that at one time caused the transition of a reducing atmosphere into an oxidizing one, which gave impetus to the evolutionary process and the emergence of new forms of life.

As life conquered the planet, living beings became increasingly important as factors in the transformation of matter and energy. The effectiveness of these processes, without which life on Earth is no longer conceivable, is determined by biological diversity - the functional specialization of various species and the distribution of their roles in communities.

Factors in the stability of biological communities themselves (as well as any other complex systems) are duplication (in this case, duplication of ecological niches occupied by different organisms) and redundancy of structural elements. These factors in natural conditions are provided by biological diversity - as a rule, the removal of any one species does not lead to the destruction of the ecosystem, because functional connections are maintained at the expense of other species.

Biological diversity also determines such an important property of life as maintaining certain climatic environmental conditions suitable for life. First of all, the temperature range that ensures that water remains in a liquid state. According to modern cosmogonic concepts, there are no physical barriers between the climatic conditions of the Earth and the neighboring planets - Mars and Venus, where life is impossible. The transition of the Earth's climate to the climate of any of these planets can occur in a fairly short period of time - about 10 thousand years. However, over almost 4 billion years of the history of life on Earth, this has not happened due to the fact that albedo, the greenhouse effect and other important climate characteristics are under the control of the global biota. To support this concept, we give three typical examples.

Emissions of inorganic carbon from the earth's interior into the atmosphere are compensated by the deposition of this element in organic compounds in sedimentary rocks, so that the CO 2 content in the atmosphere remains at a relatively constant level for hundreds of millions of years.

The quantitative ratio in the ocean of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and oxygen atoms that make up various compounds coincides with the ratio of these elements in living matter, which indicates that their concentration is determined by the activity of biota.

Biota also plays a dominant role in the water cycle on land: 2/3 of precipitation is determined by transpiration - the evaporation of water from the surface of plants.

Finally, we should not forget that living organisms provide us with food and clothing, building materials, medicinal substances and, importantly, spiritual food. Species of wild plants and animals are an exhaustible, irreplaceable resource, a repository of an invaluable genetic fund, the full potential of which we are sometimes unaware of.

In the second half of the 20th century. humanity is faced with a contradiction between growing economic needs and the inability of the biosphere to meet these needs. The riches of nature and the possibilities of its self-restoration turned out to be not limitless.

Elimination of this contradiction is possible only within the framework of the so-called sustainable development human society based on satisfying our economic needs within the economic capacity of the biosphere, those. within limits that do not entail irreversible changes in the natural environment. Otherwise, the reduction in biological diversity could actually develop into an environmental disaster that threatens our very existence on Earth.

What we know about biotic regulation of the environment allows us to conclude that this limit has already been exceeded, but irreversible changes in the biosphere have not yet occurred, and humanity still has a chance to return to the area of ​​acceptable influences.

Reducing the load on nature and maintaining acceptable levels in the future is the only way for us to survive. At the same time, we are talking not so much about reducing environmental pollution as about preserving natural ecosystems, preserving biological diversity as the main regulator of the stability of the biosphere. After all, our civilization, using a huge number of technologies that destroy ecosystems, has offered, in fact, nothing that could replace natural regulatory processes. And it is obvious that humanity will not have time to learn how to somehow regulate the state of the environment using technical means in the time remaining before the onset of catastrophic changes in the biosphere. So the only chance to eliminate the more than real threat to the vital interests of future generations is to clear the way for the stabilizing action of natural forces themselves.

The state of biological diversity on the planet and in Russia

Currently, the planet's biological diversity is depleting due to the following reasons.

1. Direct destruction of ecological systems - uprooting, burning and cutting down forests, plowing steppes, draining swamps and floodplain reservoirs, as well as building up natural biotopes with settlements, industrial enterprises, laying transport highways... Anthroposystems arise in place of natural ecosystems. With such an impact, both ecosystem and species diversity are simultaneously destroyed.

2. Transformation of source ecosystems under the influence of anthropogenic influences - changes in forest types under the influence of logging (the emergence of anthropogenic forest successions) and silvicultural work, artificial afforestation of open spaces, the creation of semi-natural agricultural landscapes (agrobiocenoses), an increase in pastures depleted under the influence of overgrazing... Transformed ecosystems are usually depleted in species.

To be continued

Biological diversity

The International Convention on Biological Diversity, signed in June 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, can be seen mainly as an expression of universal concern about the loss of what cannot be restored - species of living beings, each of which occupies a certain place in the structure of the biosphere. Will united humanity be able to preserve biological diversity? This largely depends on the attention to historical processes and current factors under the influence of which biological diversity as we know it, or, more precisely, we know it to a small extent, has developed.

We don't know how many species there are. There may be up to 30 million in the tropical forest canopy alone, although most researchers accept a more conservative figure of 5-6 million. There is only one way to save them - by protecting the tropical forest as an ecosystem from clear cutting and pollution. In other words, to preserve species diversity, it is necessary first of all to take care of the diversity of a higher level—ecosystems. At this level, tundras and polar deserts deserve no less attention than tropical forests, with which they are comparable in spatial parameters as structural divisions of the biosphere, although much poorer in species.

Biological diversity (BD) is the diversity of forms and processes in the organic world, manifested at the molecular genetic, population, taxonomic and coenotic levels of the organization of living things. Although the levels of organization are named here in their traditional sequence from bottom to top (each subsequent level includes the previous ones), this order of consideration does not provide much for understanding the nature of the BD. If we are interested in the reasons for the emergence of the BR (according to religious beliefs, the BR arose as a result of a creative act, the logic of which should also be accessible to a rational being), then it is better to move from top to bottom, starting with the biosphere - the earth’s shell containing organisms and the products of their vital activity. The biosphere is superimposed on the physical shells of the Earth - the earth's crust, hydrosphere and atmosphere, the composition of which is largely determined by the biogenic cycle of substances.

Each of these shells, in turn, is heterogeneous in physical properties and chemical composition in the direction of gravity and rotational forces that determine the division into the troposphere and stratosphere, oceans, marginal seas and inland water bodies, continents with their geomorphological heterogeneities, etc. Heterogeneity of conditions is also created by the uneven distribution of incoming solar energy over the earth's surface. The latitudinal climatic zonation on the continents is complemented by climatic vectors directed from the coast inland. The natural change in conditions in height above sea level and depth creates vertical zonation, which is partly similar to latitudinal zonation. Life is superimposed on all these heterogeneities, forming a continuous film that is not interrupted even in deserts.

Continuous living cover is the result of long evolution. Life arose at least 3.5 billion years ago, but for about 6/7 of that time the land remained virtually lifeless, as were the deep oceans. The expansion of life was carried out through adaptation to different conditions of existence, differentiation of life forms, each of which, within its habitats, is most effective in using natural resources (you can try to replace all the diversity with one species, as is essentially what modern man does, but the efficiency of use biosphere resources will decrease sharply as a result).

Conditions changed not only in space, but also in much the same way in time. Some forms of life have proven to be more adaptable to change than others. Life was interrupted in certain zones, but, at least in the last 600 million years, there were constantly forms that could survive the crisis and fill the gaps formed (remains of more ancient organisms are few, and we are not sure that during Precambrian history life did not was interrupted). Thus, BR ensures the continuity of life over time.

As life covered the surface of the planet with a continuous film, the organisms themselves increasingly acquired the importance of the main factor in the formation of living space, the functional structure of the biosphere, associated with the biogenic transformation of matter and energy carried out within its boundaries, the effectiveness of which is ensured by the distribution of roles between organisms, their functional specialization . Each functional cell of the biosphere - an ecosystem - is a local collection of organisms and components of their environment interacting in the process of biogenic circulation. The spatial expression of an ecosystem can be a landscape, its facies (in this case we speak of a biogeocenosis, which, according to V.N. Sukachev, includes a geological substrate, soil, vegetation, animal and microbial population), any component of the landscape (reservoir, soil, plant community) or a single organism with its external internal symbionts.

The functional space of an ecosystem (multidimensional, as opposed to physical) is divided into ecological niches corresponding to the distribution of roles between organisms. Each niche has its own life form, a kind of role that determines the basic morphophysiological characteristics of organisms and, in the order of feedback, depends on them. The formation of an ecological niche is a reciprocal process in which the organisms themselves play an active role. In this sense, niches do not exist separately from life forms. However, the predetermination of the structure of the ecosystem, associated with its functional purpose, makes it possible to recognize “empty niches” that must certainly be filled in order for the structure to be preserved.

Thus, biological diversity is necessary to maintain the functional structure of the biosphere and its constituent ecosystems.

A stable combination of functionally interrelated life forms forms a biotic community (biocenosis), the composition of which is the more diverse, the more complex the structure of the ecosystem, and this latter depends mainly on the stability of the processes occurring in the ecosystem. Thus, in the tropics, diversity is higher, since photosynthesis is not interrupted throughout the year.

Another important function of the BR is associated with the development and restoration of the community - reparation. Species perform different roles during autogenetic succession—the change of development stages from pioneer to climax. Pioneer species are undemanding with regard to the quality and stability of the environment and have a high reproductive potential. By stabilizing the environment, they gradually give way to more competitive species. This process moves towards the final phase (climax), which is capable of holding the territory for a long time, remaining in a state of dynamic equilibrium. Since a variety of external influences constantly disrupt succession, monoclimax most often remains a theoretical possibility. Development stages are not completely replaced, but coexist in complex succession systems, providing them with the opportunity to recover from destructive influences. The restoration function is usually performed by rapidly reproducing pioneer species.

It would be an exaggeration to say that we can accurately determine the functional purpose of each species in any of the many ecosystems. The removal of a species also does not always lead to their destruction. Much depends on the complexity of the ecosystem (in Arctic communities with a relatively simple trophic structure, the proportion of each species is much higher than in the tropics), its successional and evolutionary stage of development, which determines the overlap (duplication) of ecological niches and the redundancy of structural elements. At the same time, duplication and redundancy in systems theory are considered as stability factors, that is, they have a functional meaning.

All of the above allows us to conclude that the random element in the BR does not play a significant role. BR is functional. Each of its components is formed by the system in which it is included, and in turn, according to the principle of feedback, determines the features of its structure.

In general, the BR reflects the spatiotemporal and functional structure of the biosphere, ensuring: 1) the continuity of the living cover of the planet and the development of life over time, 2) the efficiency of biogenic processes in the ecosystem, 3) maintaining dynamic balance and restoration of communities.

These appointments determine the structure of the BR at all hierarchical levels of its organization.

^ Structure of biological diversity

The genetic material in most organisms is contained in huge molecules of DNA and RNA, filamentous polynucleotides that look like a ring chromosome or a set of linear chromosomes, which are extremely diverse in the overall DNA content, number, shape, and development of various types of heterochromatin. and also by the types of reconstructions in which they participate. All this creates a diversity of genomes as complex systems, comprising - in higher organisms - tens of thousands of discrete genetic elements, or genes. Their discreteness is structural in nature (for example, unique or repeatedly repeated sequences of nucleotides) or expressed functionally, as in protein-coding elements that are reproduced as a whole, jointly controlled, involved in cross-exchange between paired chromosomes, and, finally, elements that move throughout the genome. When the molecular mechanisms were not understood, the concept of a gene was abstract and it was endowed with all these functions, but it is now known that they are performed by structurally distinct genetic particles that make up the diversity of gene types. As a result of changes in the nucleotide composition, or mutations, similar sections of paired chromosomes have different structures. Such regions-chromosomal loci, known in several states, are called polymorphic. Genetic polymorphism is transformed into protein polymorphism, which is studied by molecular genetic methods, and, ultimately, into the genetic diversity of organisms. At these derived levels, gene diversity appears indirectly, since traits are determined by the genetic system and not by individual genes.

N.I. Vavilov showed on extensive material that the diversity of hereditary characters in closely related species is repeated with such accuracy that it is possible to predict the existence of a variant that has not yet been found in nature. Thus, the orderliness of genetic variability was revealed (contrary to the ideas about the unpredictability of mutations), in which the properties of the genome as a system are manifested. This fundamental generalization, formulated as the law of homological series, underlies the study of the structure of BR.

The transfer of hereditary information from one generation to another is carried out in the process of reproduction of organisms, which can be asexual, sexual, in the form of alternating asexual and sexual generations. This diversity is superimposed on differences in the mechanisms of sex determination, separation of sexes, etc. It is enough to recall the species of fish consisting of only females (reproduction is stimulated by males of other species) or the ability of females to turn into males, if there are not enough of them, to imagine the diversity reproduction processes in vertebrates, not to mention organisms such as fungi, where it is many times higher.

Organisms involved in reproduction constitute the reproductive resources of a species, which are structured according to a variety of reproductive processes. The units of the reproduction system are demylocal groups of interbreeding individuals and populations, larger groups within a landscape or ecosystem. Accordingly, geographic and coenotic populations are distinguished, although their boundaries may coincide.

During the process of reproduction, a recombination of genes occurs, which seem to belong to the population as a whole, constituting its gene pool (the gene pool is also spoken of in a broader sense as the totality of genes of fauna or flora; this is partly justified, since at least an episodic exchange of genes is possible during hybridization or transfer of genetic material by microorganisms). The unity of the population, however, is ensured not only by a common gene pool, but also by entering into geographical or biological systems of a higher level.

Populations from neighboring landscapes or ecosystems always show some variation, although they may be so close that taxonomists consider them to be a single species. In essence, a species is a collection of populations of a number of historically interconnected landscape and (or) coenotic complexes. The integrity of a species as a system is determined by the historical commonality of its constituent populations, the flow of genes between them, as well as their adaptive similarity due to similar living conditions and coenotic functions. The latter factors are also effective in relation to asexual organisms, determining the universal significance of the species as the basic unit of biological diversity (the often exaggerated idea of ​​​​sexual gene transfer as the most significant criterion of a biological species makes us see in it a category characteristic exclusively of dioecious organisms, which contradicts taxonomic practice).

The properties of a species are determined, as we have already noted, by that part of the ecological space that it stably occupies, i.e. ecological niche. At the early stages of development of the biological community, there is a significant overlap of ecological niches, but in the established coenotic system, species, as a rule, occupy fairly separate niches, however, a transition from one niche to another is possible during growth (for example, in attached forms with mobile larvae) , entering various communities in some cases as a dominant species, in others as a secondary species. There is some disagreement among experts regarding the nature of biotic communities: whether they are random collections of species that have found suitable conditions for themselves, or integral systems like organisms. These extreme views most likely reflect a diversity of communities that are vastly unequal in their systemic properties. Also, species are sensitive to their coenotic environment to varying degrees, from independent (conditionally, since they belong to communities of higher ranks) to “faithful”, according to which associations, unions and classes are distinguished. This classification approach was developed in Central Europe and is now widely accepted. A rougher “physiognomic” classification based on dominant species is adopted in northern countries, where relatively homogeneous forest formations still occupy vast areas. Within the landscape-climatic zones, groups of characteristic formations form the biomes of tundras, taiga forests, steppes, etc. - the largest landscape-cenotic divisions of the biosphere.

^ Evolution of biological diversity

BR develops into a process of interaction between the biosphere and the physical shells of the Earth on which it is superimposed. The movement of the earth's crust and climatic events cause adaptive changes in the macrostructure of the biosphere. For example, a glacial climate has a higher diversity of biomes than an ice-free climate. Not only polar deserts, but also tropical rainforests owe their existence to the atmospheric circulation system, which is formed under the influence of polar ice (see above). The structure of biomes, in turn, reflects the contrast of relief and climate, the diversity of geological substrates and soils - the heterogeneity of the environment as a whole. The species diversity of their constituent communities depends on the granularity of the division of ecological space, and this latter depends on the stability of conditions. In general, the number of species s==g – p y, where a is the diversity of species in communities, p is the diversity of communities and y is the diversity of biomes. These components change at certain intervals, rebuilding the entire BR system. For example, in the Mesozoic (glacial-free climate) the diversity of plants approximately corresponds to the modern one in similar formations of hard-leaved shrubs and summer-green forests, but the total number of species is approximately half that of the modern one due to low diversity.

Genetic diversity in turn changes as a function of species' adaptive strategies. The fundamental property of a population is that, theoretically, during its reproduction, the frequencies of genes and genotypes are preserved from generation to generation (Hardy-Weinberg rule), changing only under the influence of mutations, genetic drift and natural selection. Variants of the structure of genetic loci - alleles - that arise as a result of mutations often do not have an adaptive effect and constitute a neutral part of polymorphism, subject to random changes - genetic drift, and not directed selection - hence the model of “non-Darwinian” evolution.

Although the evolution of population diversity is always the combined result of drift and selection, their ratio depends on the state of ecosystems. If the structure of the ecosystem is disturbed and stabilizing selection is weakened, then evolution becomes incoherent: genetic diversity increases due to mutagenesis and drift without a corresponding increase in species diversity. Stabilizing an ecosystem directs population strategy toward more efficient use of resources. In this case, the more pronounced heterogeneity (“coarse grain”) of the environment becomes a factor in the selection of genotypes that are most adapted to the “grain” of the landscape-coenotic mosaic. At the same time, neutral polymorphism acquires adaptive significance, and the ratio of drift and selection changes in favor of the latter. Progressive differentiation of demes becomes the basis for the fragmentation of species. Developing steadily over thousands of years, these processes create exceptionally high species diversity.

The system, thus, directs the evolution of the organisms included in it (let us note, to avoid misunderstandings, that organisms not included in the coenotic systems do not exist: even the so-called coenophobic groups that disrupt the development of the community are included in systems of a higher rank).

The overarching evolutionary trend is one of increasing diversity, punctuated by sharp declines resulting in mass extinctions (about half at the end of the era of dinosaurs, 65 million years ago). The frequency of extinction coincides with the activation of geological processes (movement

Earth's crust, volcanism) and climatic changes, pointing to a common cause.

In the past, J. Cuvier explained such crises by the direct destruction of species as a result of marine transgressions and other disasters. C. Darwin and his followers did not attach any importance to crises, attributing them to the incompleteness of the geological Chronicle. Nowadays, no one doubts crises; Moreover, we are experiencing one of them. A general explanation of crises is given by the ecosystem theory of evolution (see above), according to the second, the reduction in diversity occurs due to the stability of the environment, which determines the tendency towards

simplification of the structure of ecosystems (some species turn out to be redundant),

interruption of successions (species of the final climax stage are doomed to extinction) and

increasing the minimum population size (in a stable environment, a small number of individuals ensures reproduction, a “dense packing” of species is possible, but in a crisis, a population that is small and incapable of rapid growth can easily disappear).

These patterns are also valid for the anthropogenic crisis of our days.

^ Human Impact on Biodiversity

The direct ancestors of humans appeared about 4.4 million years ago, at the beginning of the Gilbertian paleomagnetic era, marked by the expansion of glaciation in the Antarctic, aridization and the spread of herbaceous vegetation in low latitudes. The habitat, bordering the tropical forest and savannah, the relatively weak specialization of the teeth, the anatomy of the limbs, adapted both for movement in open areas and for arboreal acrobatics, indicate a wide ecological louse of Australopithecus africanus, the oldest representative of this group. Subsequently, evolution enters a coherent phase, and species diversity increases. Two lines of adaptive radiation—australopithecus graceful and massive—developed along the path of food specialization, in the third—Homo labilis—at the level of 2.5 million years, signs of tool activity appeared as a prerequisite for the expansion of the food niche.

The latter turned out to be more promising in the unstable conditions of the Ice Age, the crisis phases of which corresponded to the wide distribution of polymorphic species of Homo erectus and later Homo sapiens, with a discrepancy between high genetic and low species diversity characteristic of incoherent evolution. Each of them

Then it entered the phase of subspecific differentiation. About 30 thousand years ago, the specialized Neanderthal subspecies of the “reasonable” was supplanted by the nominative subspecies, the fragmentation of which took place along the line of cultural rather than biological evolution. Wide adaptive capabilities have ensured its relative independence from local ecosystems, which has recently developed into coenophobia. As we have already noted, coenophobia is possible only up to a certain level of the hierarchy of natural systems. Cenophobia regarding the biosphere as a whole dooms the species to self-destruction.

Humans influence all factors of BR - spatio-temporal heterogeneity of conditions, the structure of ecosystems and their stability. Disruption of the climax community as a result of logging or fires may result in some increase in species diversity due to pioneer and successional species. Spatial heterogeneity in some cases increases (for example, vast forest areas are dismembered, accompanied by a slight increase in species diversity). More often, a person creates more homogeneous conditions. This is expressed in the leveling of the relief (in urbanized areas), clearing forests, plowing up steppes, draining swamps, introducing alien species that displace local ones, etc.

Human influence on temporary factors is expressed in the multiple acceleration of natural processes, such as desertification or drying out of inland seas (for example, the Aral Sea, which in the past repeatedly dried out without human intervention). The human impact on the global climate destabilizes biosphere rhythms and creates a general precondition for simplifying the structure of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, and, consequently, for the loss of BD.

Over the past two decades, forests have been reduced by almost 200 million hectares, and currently damage amounts to about 1% of the remaining area per year. These losses are distributed very unevenly: the greatest damage was caused to the tropical forests of Central America, Madagascar, and Southeast Asia, but also in the temperate zone, forest formations such as redwood in North America and China (metasequoia), Manchurian black fir in Primorye, etc. There are virtually no undisturbed habitats left within the steppe biome. In the United States, more than half of the wetlands have been lost; in Chad, Cameroon, Nigeria, India, Bangladesh, Thailand, Vietnam, and in New Zealand, more than 80%.

Species loss due to habitat disturbance is difficult to estimate because methods for recording species diversity are very imperfect. If we take a “moderate” estimate of insect diversity for tropical forests at 5 million species and the number of species is proportional to the fourth root of the area, then losses due to deforestation will amount to 15,000 per year. Actual losses may differ significantly from those estimated. For example, in the Caribbean region, no more than 1% of primary forests remain, but the diversity of native bird species has declined by only 11%, as many species remain in secondary forests. Even more problematic is the assessment of the reduction in BR of soil biota, reaching 1000 species of invertebrates per square meter. m. The loss of soil cover as a result of erosion is estimated at a total of 6 million hectares per year - about 6 * 107 species can live in this area.

Probably the most significant losses of species diversity are associated with economic development and pollution of ecosystems characterized by a particularly high level of endemism. These include the hard-leaved formations of the Mediterranean and the Kalekoy province in southern Africa (6,000 endemic species), as well as rift lakes (Baikal - about 1,500 endemics, Malawi - more than 500).

According to (McNeely, 1992), the loss of species diversity by group since 1600 is:

Disappeared under threat

Higher plants 384 species (0.15%) 18699 (7.4%)

Pisces 23 -»- (0.12%) 320 (1.6%)

Amphibians 2-»-(0.05%) 48(1.1%)

Reptiles 21 -»- (0.33%) 1355 (21.5%)

Birds 113-»- (1.23%) 924 (10.0%)

Mammals 83 -»- (1.99%) 414 (10.0%)

Violation of the structure and function of ecosystems is associated with their use as raw materials, recreational and deposit (for waste disposal) resources, and raw material and deposit use can give directly opposite results. Thus, overgrazing, removal of canopy-forming trees or game animals disrupt the trophic structure and often return the ecosystem to the early stages of development, delaying succession. At the same time, the entry of organic pollutants into water bodies accelerates succession, passing the ecosystem through a eutrophic state to a hypertrophic one.

The size of the human population depends little on the size of the species being exterminated, so the feedback in the “predator-prey” system is broken, and a person gets the opportunity to completely exterminate one or another species of prey. In addition, in his role as a superpredator, man exterminates not the weak and sick, but rather the most complete individuals (this also applies to the practice of loggers to cut down the most powerful trees first).

However, the most important is the indirect damage from impacts that disrupt the balanced relationships and processes in ecosystems and thereby change the direction of the evolution of species. Evolutionary changes occur as a result of mutagenesis, genetic drift and natural selection. Radiation and chemical pollution have a mutagenic effect. The removal of biological resources - a significant part of natural populations - turns into a factor of genetic drift, forcing natural fluctuations in numbers, loss of genetic diversity and, giving an advantage to genotypes with accelerated sexual maturation and high reproductive potential (due to this, indiscriminate removal usually leads to accelerated sexual maturation and reduction ). The direction of natural selection can change under the influence of various biological and chemical factors. physical (noise, electromagnetic, etc.) pollution. Biological pollution - the deliberate or accidental introduction of alien species and biotechnological products (including laboratory strains of microorganisms, artificial hybrids and transgenic organisms) - is a common factor in the loss of natural BR. The most famous examples are the introduction of placentals into Australia (in fact, reintroduction, since they lived on this continent many millions of years ago), Elodea into the reservoirs of Eurasia, ctenophores into the Sea of ​​Azov, amphipods Corophium cnrvispinHm into the Rhine from the Ponto-Caspian region (from the first appearance in In 1987, the number of this species increased to 100 thousand individuals per 1 sq.m., competing with local species of zoobenthos, which serve as food for commercial fish and waterfowl). Biological pollution is undoubtedly facilitated by changes in habitats as a result of physical and chemical impacts (increased temperature and salinity, eutrophication in the case of the introduction of amphipod thermophilic filter feeders),

In some cases, the impact causes a chain reaction with far-reaching consequences. For example, the entry of eutrophicating substances into coastal waters from the continent and from mari culture causes blooming of dinoflaellates, secondary pollution with toxic substances - the death of cetaceans and an increase in the solubility of carbonates - the death of corals and other skeletal forms of benthos. Acid-forming pollution of water bodies, in addition to the direct impact on respiration (deposition of aluminum on the gills) and reproductive function of amphibian fish, poses a threat of extinction to many species of aquatic vertebrates and waterbirds due to a reduction in the biomass of the larvae of stoneflies, mayflies, and chironomids.

The same factors change the ratio of genotypes in animal and plant populations, giving an advantage to those more resistant to various types of stress.

Pollution also becomes a powerful factor of natural selection. A classic example is the increase in the frequency of the melanistic form of Biston betularia butterflies in industrial areas, which they tried to explain by the fact that on soot-covered trunks they are less noticeable to birds than the light forms. This long-standing textbook explanation seems naive, since under conditions of pollution, melanistic forms are more resistant in many species, including domestic cats and humans. This example cautions against simplistic views of the human impact on BD.

^ Conservation of biological diversity

In ancient times, as we have already noted, totemism and the religious ideas that grew out of it contributed to the preservation of individual species and their habitats. We owe the preservation of such relics as ginkgo mainly to the religious rituals of eastern peoples. In North America, European Colonists adopted from local tribes their normative attitude towards nature, while in European feudal countries nature was preserved mainly as royal hunting grounds and parks, with which the aristocracy protected itself from too close contact with the common people.

In early democracies, moral and aesthetic motives were supplanted by economic ones, which often came into conflict with the preservation of the BR. The utilitarian attitude towards nature has acquired especially ugly forms in totalitarian countries. P. A. Manteuffel, expressing the official position, wrote in 1934: “These groups (animals) formed without the influence (will) of man and for the most part do not correspond to the economic effect that could be obtained with a rational change in zoological boundaries and communities, and therefore we put forward the question of the reconstruction of the fauna, where, in particular, the artificial relocation of animals should occupy a prominent place.”

However, the new aristocracy - the party leadership and those close to it - also needed protected hunting grounds, called hunting reserves.

In the 60s, the reserves underwent a twofold reduction due to extensive economic development. In addition, the allocation of huge areas for monoculture had an extremely adverse effect on the state of the BR. In the early 80s, to implement the “food program,” roadsides, borders and inconveniences were plowed up, depriving wild species of their last refuges in developed areas.

Unfortunately, these trends developed further during the perestroika period in connection with the transfer of waste land to farmers and the development of private entrepreneurship in conditions of legislative chaos. Self-seizure of land for vegetable gardens, deforestation in green belts around cities, illegal extraction of rare species and free sale of biological resources have become common practice. The reserves have never enjoyed much popularity locally and, as control weakens, they are coming under increasing pressure from economic structures and poachers. The development of international tourism is causing damage to areas that were previously protected as sensitive areas. These include military training grounds and border lands (in Germany, a 600x5 km exclusion zone over the years of confrontation has turned into a kind of nature reserve, which is now trampled by crowds of tourists).

At the same time, there is reason to hope for an improvement in the situation (and, in particular, the transformation of former regime areas into nature reserves) thanks to the general recognition of the priority of conservation of the BR. The immediate challenge is to develop and strengthen national programs. Let us note some fundamental points that arise in this regard. Inventory and protection of biological diversity. Identification of the species structure in many cases is necessary for organizing protection. For example, the New Zealand tuatara, the only representative of the oldest group of beaked reptiles, has been protected since 1895, but only recently it became clear that there are two species of tuatara with subspecies, one of the species, S. guntheri, and a subspecies of the other, S.punctata reischeki were on the verge of extinction, and ten out of forty populations had already disappeared; Traditional taxonomy still has a long way to go in the field of conservation.

At the same time, the quite often expressed idea that for conservation it is necessary, first of all, to inventory all taxonomic diversity, has a somewhat demagogic connotation. There can be no question of describing the entire multimillion-dollar diversity of species in the foreseeable future. Species disappear without ever receiving the attention of a taxonomist. A more realistic approach is to develop a fairly detailed syntaxonomic classification of communities and organize the protection of in-situ on this basis. Security of a top-level system to a certain extent ensures the preservation of its components, some of which we do not know or know in the most general terms (but at least we do not exclude the possibility of finding out in the future). In the following sections we will look at some principles for organizing protection on a syntaxonomic basis to capture all or most of the taxonomic diversity.

Combining human rights with animal rights. Recognizing the rights of animals does not mean abandoning their use. After all, people are also used legally. It cannot be denied that it is fair that a person has more rights than an animal, just as an adult has more rights than a child. However, without falling into ecological terrorism, which is mostly provocative in nature, it should still be recognized that reasonable use has nothing to do with killing for pleasure or on a whim, as well as with cruel experimentation, which is also mostly senseless, according to