Grammar of Civilizations. Braudel F.
M.: 2008. - 552 p.
The work of the outstanding historian Fernand Braudel, the largest representative of the French historical school of the Annales, is devoted to the development of the civilizations of the West and the East. The book is published in Russian for the first time. “The Grammar of Civilizations” was written in 1963 and was intended by the author as a textbook for the secondary education system in France. However, it turned out to be too complex for a textbook, but it was received with great interest by the scientific community of the world, as evidenced by translations into many languages. Unlike other fundamental studies of the author, it is written in a much more accessible form, which facilitates the perception of Braudel’s concept not only by specialists, but also by a wide readership. It is also recommended for history teachers at all levels of education.
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CONTENT
From the publisher 10
Braudel teaches history. Maurice Emard I
Instead of a preface 23
Introduction. History and present 28
SECTION I. GRAMMAR OF CIVILIZATIONS
Chapter 1. Changes in terminology 33
Chapter 2. Civilization is defined in relation to other sciences about man 39
Civilizations as geographical and cultural spaces 39
Civilizations as social formations 45
Civilizations as economic structures 48
Civilizations as different collective thoughts 51
Chapter 3. Continuity of Civilizations 54
A look at civilizations from everyday life 54
Civilizations and their structures 57
History and civilizations 63
SECTION II. CIVILIZATIONS OUTSIDE EUROPE
PART ONE. ISLAM AND THE MUSLIM WORLD
Chapter 1. What history teaches 66
Islam, a new form in the Middle East 66
History of the Middle East 68
Muhammad, Koran, Islam 70
Arabia: the problem of a barely urbanized culture 74
Chapter 2. What geography teaches 79
Lands and Seas of Islam 79
Intermediate continent or space-movement: cities 86
Chapter 3. The greatness and decline of Islam (VIII-XVIII centuries) 92
Absence of Muslim civilization until the 8th or 20th century 92
Golden Age of Islam: VIII-XII centuries 96
Science and Philosophy 103
Stoppage or decline: XII-XVIIIBB 107
Chapter 4. Modern revival of Islam 113
The end of colonialism and the youth of national identity 113
Various Muslim states in the modern world 122
Muslim civilization in the 20th century 130
PART TWO. BLACK CONTINENT
Chapter 1 Past 138
Geographical spaces 138
Through the past of the Dark Continent 146
Chapter 2 Black Africa; today and tomorrow 156
Awakening Africa 156
Economic and social problems 162
Art and literature 165
PART THREE. FAR EAST
Chapter 1. Introduction 170
What does geography say 170
Barbarism against civilization: evidence of history 178
Long-standing origins: reasons for cultural conservatism 182
Chapter 2. Classical China 185
Religious parameters 185
Political parameters 197
Economic and social parameters 203
Chapter 3. China yesterday and today 210
Times of Unequal Treaties: Humiliated and Suffering China (1839-1949) 210
New China 215
Chinese civilization in the modern world 222
Chapter 4. India yesterday and today 227
Classical India (before English colonization) 227
English India (1757-1947): old
economic structure that came into conflict with the modern West 244
Will India build an economy through a Chinese-style revolution? 252
Chapter 5. Primorsky Far East: Indochina, Indonesia, Philippines, Korea, Japan 262
Indochina 263
Indonesia 267
Philippines 274
Korea 275
Chapter 6. Japan 281
Primitive Japan before the beginning of Chinese civilization 281
The Impact of Chinese Civilization on Japan 285
Modern Japan 293
SECTION III. EUROPEANCIVILIZATIONS
PART ONE. EUROPE
Chapter 1. Space and freedom 305
The European space is defined: V-XIII centuries 305
Freedom or - more precisely - freedom: XI-XVI11 centuries 312
Chapter 2. Christianity, humanism, scientific thought 328
Christianity 328
Humanism and humanists 333
Scientific thought before the twentieth century 355
Chapter 3. Industrialization of Europe 362
At the origins of the first industrial revolution 362
The spread of industrialization in Europe (and outside Europe) 371
Socialism and industrial society 376
Chapter 4. Components of Europe 386
Brilliant Ingredients: Art and Intelligence 386
Reliable Ingredients: Economics 393
Aleatory (problematic) components: politics. . . 400
Europe in 1981 Notes by Paula Braudel 409
PART TWO. AMERICA
Chapter 1. Another New World: Latin America 411
Space, nature and society: literary evidence 411
Facing the Race Problem: Almost Brotherhood 418
Civilizations tested by economics... 424
Chapter 2. America Par excellence: The United States 440
Life-giving past: the total of the chances received 442
Colonization and independence 442
Conquest of the Far West 450
Industrialization and urbanization 454
Chapter 3. Ghosts and difficulties: yesterday and today 462
An Old Nightmare: The Race Question or a Population You Can't Get Rid of 462
Capitalism: from trusts to state intervention and oligopolies 466
United States and the rest of the world 476
Chapter 4. About the English world order 485
In Canada: France and England 485
South Africa: Dutch, English and Black Africans 489
Australia and New Zealand or England,
finally left alone 494
PART THREE. OTHER EUROPE
Other Europe: Muscovy, Russia, USSR 500
Chapter 1. From the origins to the revolution of 1917 501
Kievan Rus 501
Orthodox religion 505
Russian Empire 508
Chapter 2. USSR from 1917 to the present day 518
From Karl Marx to Lenin 518
Marxism and Soviet civilization today 526
October Congress of the CPSU (1961) 537
The need to explain the decision to publish this book, written in the 60s of the last century, in Russian is not obvious, but it is advisable to do so. Among the major works of the classic of the Annales school, Fernand Braudel, the book The Grammar of Civilization is the last to be published in Russia. With the fundamental works Material Civilization and Capitalism; What is France?; Our readers became acquainted with the Mediterranean Sea and the Mediterranean world in the era of Philip II in 1986-2003. So was it necessary to translate the book after five turbulent decades radically changed the face of the world that the French historian knew then, and about the fate of which he wrote in his Grammar? Moreover, the author created the book as a textbook (which is described in detail in the author's preface and in the foreword by Maurice Aimard), although many considered it too complex for this genre. We were convinced of the need to make this work accessible to Russian readers when we started work (unfortunately, for various reasons, it took significantly longer than we planned), and we only became stronger in this opinion by the time the book was published.
The main thing is that, despite all the changes in the world, Braudel’s text (which the author never managed, fortunately, to turn into a textbook) has not become outdated; moreover, in many respects it has acquired the character of a confirmed foresight. The analysis of long-term trends in social development, given by the author in the 60s, turned out to be frighteningly accurate on many problems and, because of this, requires the most careful attention. The five decades that separate us from the time of the creation of this text are our advantage. Such a significant time distance allows us to see that some of Braudel’s assessments twenty years ago would certainly have seemed completely erroneous to the reader, but were completely confirmed over the next twenty years. And this is a lesson for the reader, to whom today something in Braudel’s assessments and forecasts about the nature of civilizational development will again seem untenable. Maybe we need to wait a couple more decades?
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Producer: "State Literary Museum" Episode: "Theme" The work of the outstanding historian Fernand Braudel, the largest representative of the French historical school of the Annales, is devoted to the development of the civilizations of the West and the East. The book is published in Russian for the first time. "The Grammar of Civilizations" was written in 1963 and was intended by the author as a textbook for the secondary education system in France. However, it turned out to be too complex for a textbook, but it was received with great interest by the scientific community of the world, as evidenced by translations into many languages. Unlike other fundamental studies of the author, it is written in a much more accessible form, which facilitates the perception of Braudel’s concept not only by specialists, but also by a wide readership. It is also recommended for history teachers at all levels of education. ISBN:978-5-7777-0642-3 Publisher: "State Literary Museum" (2014)
He revolutionized historical science with his proposal to take into account economic and geographical factors when analyzing the historical process. Layed the foundations. A prominent representative of the French historiographic school “Annals”, which was engaged in a thorough study of history in the social sciences. Works
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Review of: Russian translation of "The Grammar of Civilizations" by Fernand Braudel. (Fernand Braudel, Grammar of Civilizations. M.: Ves mir, 2008).
Badly published foreign books are, alas, a common, almost routine thing. Perhaps this time it was worth giving up. If only such a book had not been damaged and if the damage had not been so blatant. Below we will talk about Fernand Braudel’s masterpiece “The Grammar of Civilizations” and what the publishing house “The Whole World” did with it.
Let me make a reservation right away that my complaints are least addressed to the translation. The translator approached the matter in good faith. True, Braudel’s elegant and precise language disappeared behind the ponderous and sometimes not very intelligible constructions of the Russian text. But you can get to the meaning, fortunately there are not many semantic errors in translation (more on them a little later), and what more could you want in a situation where the mass of translated books is frankly a meaningless collection of words?
So, my complaints, or, if you will, bewilderments, are addressed primarily to the editors and publishers of this book. The latter took the meaning of the word “textbook” too literally in relation to the work of Fernand Braudel. “The Grammar of Civilizations”, in fact, was created for first-year university students and therefore can be considered a textbook. But, unlike the textbooks familiar to our compatriots since Soviet times, the great historian’s book is completely devoid of crude didactics. The original text is not broken down (through indentation, bold font, etc.), which helps lazy students separate the “important” from the “secondary.” If Braudel wants to emphasize a point, he puts it in italics. But the Russian editors felt that they knew better than the author which points of his narrative were more important and, therefore, should be highlighted. Guided by the criteria they know best, they take a sentence or two out of context and, through indentation and bold font, invite the reader to see the text through their eyes. The fabric of the text turned out to be studded with ridiculous buttons of quasi-paragraphs. However, I would like to remind you that such violence against the original is incorrect not only intellectually, but also legally. Rights holders may well sue for misrepresentation of the intent of the work.
In section three, which talks about Europe, Braudel pays much attention to the question of freedom as a constitutive element of European civilization. The idea of freedom for him does not boil down to a set of formal legal guarantees (no matter how important these freedoms, i.e. rights, may be). Likewise, the idea of liberalism cannot be reduced to the body of provisions of the ideology that appropriated this name. Braudel insists on making this distinction. Liberalism in the first sense of the word is one thing, and liberalism as a designation of political and economic doctrine is another thing. Liberalism, he says, is “more than the ideology of one party.” This is the "social atmosphere". This is a philosophy that states that Homo homini res sacra. This is the belief that man is an end and not a means. And this (universal) belief should not be confused with (particular) ideology. The author's thoughts, however, are completely obscured due to the dissection to which the editors subject his text. First, they type in bold the passage that says “ the concept of freedom... became the ideology of liberalism”, and then attract the reader’s eye to the following judgment:
« At the same time, throughout the first half of the 19th century. liberalism served as a cover for establishing the political dominance of the bourgeoisie and business aristocracy, the dominance of the propertied class».
As a result, Braudel looks almost like a modern Russian anti-liberal. What did the publishers want to achieve with this? To please the mass sentiments in which the word “liberal” is inseparable from the word “Chubais”? Help educate the younger generation in the spirit of hatred towards the “liberals”?
However, in places while reading the book I got the impression that the editors were not spoiling the original out of malice. They just have such brains. Having formed in the era of the undivided dominance of “Marxism-Leninism”, they cannot help but alter the text they publish in their own way, understandable to them. Hence, in particular, the following set of pearls.
Original: « Collective psychology, consciousness...».
Russian version: « Collective psyche, growing consciousness...».
Original: « Civilizations as societies».
Russian version: « Civilizations as social formations».
Original: « The end of colonialism and the emergence of new nationalist movements».
Russian version: « The end of colonialism and the youth of national identity».
In a word, a pure stream of associations of those who were socialized under the influence of either Sholokhov’s “Virgin Soil Upturned”, or Stalin’s “Short Course”, or the Diamat / Historical Math textbook of the Brezhnev era.
I repeat that the lion's share of responsibility for such reinterpretations lies, first of all, with the editors. (The translator can be forgiven a lot, given the usual amount of the fee).
But there are traces of new spiritual trends in the book published by the publishing house “The Whole World”. I mean the obsession of public consciousness in today's Russia with the idea of a culture war. Talking about the fate of Byzantium, Braudel touches on the theme of the mutual idiosyncrasy of Eastern and Western Christianity. For Byzantium, it was easier to give in to the onslaught of the Turks than to accept defeat from its sworn rival.
« The Orthodox Church (...) chose to surrender to the Turks rather than unite with the Latins", notes the French historian. But this thought does not fit into the mind of the translator (or, perhaps, the editors who corrected the translation?). After all, the Turks are representatives of a civilization hostile to Christianity. It seems that it was precisely this conviction that led to the fact that in the Russian version of the book we read:
« The Orthodox Church (...) preferred unity with the Latins - the only thing that could save it from submission to the Turks».
By the way, the preference given by the Byzantine Church to the Turks was explained not only by the intolerance of the thought of losing ground to the “Latins,” but also by a completely rational consideration: the indifference of Islamic Turkey to the religious subtleties of the “infidels.” After all
« The Turks gave the Greek Church complete freedom of action».
« the pope gave the Greek church complete freedom of action».
However, the Russian mass consciousness - I mean, including the masses of those who call themselves “intellectuals” - in many ways inherits the worst Soviet models. This consciousness is characterized, for example, by spontaneous sexism. That is why, where the original speaks of the freedom of “his or her faith,” or, in other words, “ freedom to believe as he or she wishes,” the Russian edition talks about “freedom to believe as he or she wishes.”"; [italics hereinafter are mine - V.M.]). True, on the same page we have the opportunity to make sure that post-Soviet ideological realities did more harm than good to our publishers. If they had prepared their translation of “The Grammar of Civilizations” during the Soviet period, they would certainly have tried to avoid stylizing the author as a cultural chauvinist. In particular, when Braudel talks about the Protestant Church in America, he notes that “in the old, exclusive [my italics - V.M.] sense of the word, there is only one church - this is the Catholic Church.” In the Russian version, this remark looks much more straightforward and aggressive: “the only real Church in the sense familiar to us remains the Catholic one.”
In conclusion, I will give several illustrations of stylistic and semantic flaws, which, with all due respect to the thankless work of translation, remain on the conscience of B. A. Sitnikov.
« Christianity was also born along with Christ and at the same time before him" In original: " Christianity arose with Christ, and yet, in a sense, precedes Him».
« God is a rose without blemishes" In Islamic poetry - and in Braudel - it is the other way around: “ A rose without blemishes is God».
« Natural and acquired advantages" Braudel, like any author knowledgeable in the social sciences and humanities: “ Natural and acquired benefits».
« The term capitalism is not so archaic" In original: " The word “capitalism” is not too much of an anachronism here" (We are talking about the admissibility of using this term in relation to the Arab East of the 9th - 13th centuries).
And if you go in the opposite direction, the picture will be like this.
Braudel: « The study of civilization includes all human sciences».
Translation: « Civilization is defined in relation to other human sciences».
Braudel: « must be paid when knighting the eldest son».
Translation: « need help during knighting of eldest son»
Braudel: « dowry must be given when marrying the eldest daughter».
Translation: « need to provide assistance during the wedding of the eldest daughter"(ibid.).
Braudel: « “No taxation without representation” is an element of the English political tradition"(No taxation without representation = those who are deprived of representation in parliament do not pay taxes).
Translation: " English political tradition says that taxes cannot be introduced without the consent of taxpayers».
And finally, the “right to insurrection,” which was included in the American Declaration of Independence in accordance with the famous principle of J. Locke and which appears in the Russian text as the “right to indignation.”
And now the question is: are the readers who have been waiting 45 years for the Russian version of the “Grammar of Civilizations” ready to come to terms with all this? Or will they decide to wait until more responsible and qualified people take on the publication of Braudel’s work?
This book is a textbook, or rather the main part of a textbook, first published in 1963. It was conceived and written for the graduating classes of our lyceums, and therefore it should be read precisely as a textbook. But this does not imply any comments or reservations. This is not a custom text written on occasion, in which Braudel is present, but is, as it were, hidden behind the generally accepted form of a textbook. This is precisely Braudel's textbook, written by him under special conditions and even with challenge. This text he created was not for his colleagues and not even for the general public, who at that time hardly knew him, but for a certain audience - boys and girls from 16 to 18 years old (in one of his articles, which appeared in 1983. in the Italian Corriere della Sera, he called them "of age"), to whom he addressed, as well as to their teachers.
Continuity of civilizations.
In this difficult debate, which she will complicate even more, while at the same time giving meaning to this debate, it remains to introduce history, its methods of investigation, its apparently fundamental explanations. Indeed, there is not a single modern civilization that could be truly understood without knowledge of the past paths of its development, its past values, and accumulated experience. Civilization is always the past, a definite living past.
Therefore, the history of civilization is a search among the realities of the past for those that have not lost their significance today. The point is not to tell everything that is known about Greek civilization or about the civilization of medieval China, but about what from that past life has been preserved in life today, whether it concerns Western Europe or China in the era of Mao Zedong. In other words, to show points of contact and interaction between the past and present, separated by centuries.
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