There are certain norms and rules of spelling that regulate the spelling of words in the language. But it is wrong to consider these norms as something harmful to immutable laws. Of course, most of them are due to historical patterns, changes that occur in the language.
Thus, in the process of language changes, the letters “Ъ” and “b” lost their sound meanings, and accordingly, the spelling of the words in which they denoted sounds also changed. There is no longer a “Ъ” at the end of words ending in a consonant, and some letters, such as “yat” or “fita,” have also fallen out of use.
And this process continues! Language is a living phenomenon. All language “laws” and “rules” are periodically reviewed and changed. Until quite recently, it was possible to use the word “coffee” only in the gender, but now the rules “legalize” the use of this also in the neuter gender. There are many such examples.
If the majority of native speakers get used to using one or another “wrong” word, its form, then gradually this becomes the norm. Thus, this is a reflection of commonly used methods of conveying linguistic realities.
Sometimes a spelling that is completely “wrong” from a historical point of view is perceived by modern people as the only possible one. For example, without thinking, we form “honeycomb” from the word “comb”. But, if we follow the historical trend, the plural in this case should be the same as in the word “mouth” - “mouths”, “lion” - “lions”, etc. It is unlikely that anyone except small children will now change this word in this way.
Spelling principles
But to perceive a spelling or spelling system as something completely chaotic, not subject to any patterns, is also wrong. There are 3 main principles of spelling:
- phonetic;
- morphological;
- historical.
Simply put, they can be described as follows:
With the phonetic (phonemic) principle of spelling, sounds in writing are displayed in the same way as they are pronounced in speech.
The phonetic principle operates, for example, in the Belarusian language.
With the morphological principle, the spelling of a word or part of it, taken as the main one, does not change when the word is changed.
The morphological principle of spelling operates in the Russian language.
The historical principle is characterized by the fact that the spelling of a word does not change, regardless of the word.
A striking example of this principle is the English language.This principle is also called traditional.
Sources:
- Spelling. Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron
How often do you hear the expressions: “I’ll follow the principle,” “a matter of principle,” “an unprincipled person.” Integrity is a concept familiar to almost everyone. But have you ever thought about its meaning?
Instructions
The word "principle" comes from the Latin principium, "beginning", "foundation". According to explanatory dictionaries, it has several meanings in the language. Thus, a principle is the basic position of a doctrine, theory, or social structure. In addition, this word describes the features of the operation or design of machines, equipment, and various devices. Finally, principles are a person’s beliefs that influence his attitude towards certain events and phenomena.
Principled people are often called those people who know exactly what they want and without hesitation go straight to the intended goal. Thanks to firmness and perseverance, they often achieve better results than those around them. However, integrity is not an innate character trait. Beliefs are formed under the influence of life experience: upbringing, perception of one’s own personality, as well as other people, social circle, failures and victories.
But principles can interfere with your life. Rigidity, self-confidence in one’s own rightness and the desire to insist on a certain point of view deprive a person of flexibility and ease of thinking. When it is necessary to act according to circumstances, to make quick decisions, based not on one’s own beliefs, but on the desire to find the best option, a person can get into a dead end. When the well-being, success and happiness of loved ones are on one side of the scale, and his own integrity is on the other, he turns into a slave to his life attitudes.
To principles do not constrain a person’s actions and thoughts; they must be developed independently. Very often, the fear of giving up one’s beliefs is based not on confidence in one’s own position, but on the fear of being misunderstood by loved ones, friends, colleagues, who imposed certain views on life. However, in the case when principles are the result of personal experience, a person acts according to circumstances, seeks compromises and new solutions.
Synonyms (from the Greek synonymas - same name) are the same part of speech, which call the same object or phenomenon differently. These words are similar in meaning, but different in spelling (magician - wizard; read - disassemble - run through - look). It is generally accepted that in a language there are no absolute, completely identical to each other in meaning. The following pairs of words are close to the absolute degree of synonymy: linguistics - , hippopotamus - hippopotamus. In most cases, they can differ greatly in shades of meaning, style, scope and frequency of use, and degree of modernity. Usually synonyms are united into groups - synonymous series, for example: build, arrange, erect, erect, construct, build, create. In such a group, as a rule, there is the most general, neutral, core word, which is usually called dominant (from the Latin dominans - dominant). In the synonymous series given above, the dominant word is “build”. In relation to it, the word “arrange” has an additional component of lexical meaning (“to put in proper order”); “erect”, “erect” and “construct” refer to the book style; “to build” and “to create” have a stylistic connotation of elation. In synonyms, style shades are indicated by special marks (colloquial, bookish, raised, etc.). Not all languages have synonyms. For example, you cannot pick synonyms to proper names (Alexander Pushkin, Izvestia), countries and their inhabitants (Great Britain, Eskimos), some household items (scissors, tablecloth). Also, species-generic pairs (flower - orchid), denoting related concepts (house -), are not synonymous.
Sources:
- Dictionary of Russian synonyms
There are three main principles of spelling: morphological, semantic and phonetic. Let's take a closer look at each of them. The morphological principle is characteristic, to a greater extent, of the Russian language. It lies in the fact that the spelling of a morpheme does not depend on pronunciation and does not depend on positional changes. For example, move - walk - find - exit. In this series, the morpheme “move” is the same. The semantic principle is that spelling has absolutely nothing to do with sound. It reflects only semantics. The last one is the phonetic principle - words in writing. In particular, with its help, spelling reflects the weakening of unstressed vowels (spelling o/e, a/ya).
There is also a principle of graphically uniform design of the spellings of words belonging to certain grammatical categories. It includes: uniform spelling of feminine nouns ending in hissing (the soft sign indicates the third); writing a soft sign after the sibilant of the infinitive (this is a formal sign of the indefinite form of the verb); writing the imperative form with at the end (form indicator).
Russian spelling has almost two hundred years of history. The first scientist to become interested in spelling was V.K. Trediakovsky, who wrote about the need to introduce the phonetic principle. After him M.V. Lomonosov proposed a combination of phonetic and morphological principles. Then there was the work of J. K. Grot “Controversial issues of Russian spelling from Peter the Great to the present day.”
Video on the topic
To understand what a preposition is and how it is used in speech, it is necessary to consider its morphological and syntactic function, meaning and features of formation (origin).
Instructions
Preposition belongs to the category of auxiliary parts of speech. That is, it expresses the dependence of numerals and pronouns on other words in the phrase. Prepositions cannot be considered members of a sentence, but are included in their composition. Also, unlike conjunctions, prepositions cannot build syntactic relationships between simple sentences as part of a complex sentence. A preposition acquires meaning only in combination with the case forms of the words to which it refers. All prepositions are immutable.
Depending on their meaning, prepositions are divided into several categories. Spatial ones indicate a place, for example: “in”, “on”, “from behind”, “under”, “near”, “around”, “at”, “to”, “above” and others. If prepositions denote time, then they are called temporary. For example: “through”, “before”, “during”, “before” and others. By the same principle, we can distinguish prepositions of reason (“due to”, “in view of”, “as a result of” and others), purpose (“for”, “for the sake of”, “on”) and mode of action (“with”, “without” ", "by" and others). Additional prepositions indicate the object to which the action is directed, for example: “about”, “about”, “about”, “with”, “by”, “”. Note that the same can express different meanings depending on the words and to which it refers.
By origin, prepositions are divided into derivatives and. The latter include prepositions that are not correlated in their formation with any significant word (“in”, “on”, “under”, “y”, “to” and others). A variety of non-derivatives are complex prepositions (“because of”, “from under”, “over” and others). Derivative prepositions are formed from other parts of speech (adverbs, nouns,). For example: “during”, “in continuation”, “thanks to”, “instead”, “in view of”. It is worth paying attention to, which differs from the corresponding combinations of a preposition with a noun.
Video on the topic
Basic spelling rules are included in the language curriculum.
Sources:
- what is a spelling in Russian
Consoles They belong to service morphemes, are found before a root or other prefixes and form words with a new meaning. The name of the term “prefix” indicates the role of this significant part of the word - to be added to the original base and perform a semantic distinguishing function.
What is spelling? This is a question that concerns not only schoolchildren before exams and students of philological specialties. It occupies the minds of many scientists, because it is a whole branch of linguistics.
What is spelling and what are the origins of the word
For the first time, any civilized inhabitant of the planet encounters the concept and rules of spelling in elementary school. We are taught spelling, and this is spelling. The very name of science came to us from the distant ancient era. Its meaning is deciphered as “correct” - orthos and “I am writing, expounding” - grapho.
The modern world and the lack of spelling are incompatible. Without spelling there is no English, French, Chinese, Russian and other languages. The existence and functioning of any written language itself implies the presence of a certain set of rules regulating the features of writing sentences and words.
Spelling rules, including the spelling of the Russian language, have their own history.
Spelling has stood the test of time, changing and adapting to the realities of life in the process of its historical development. Even today, new words and letters appear in some languages. For example, in the Ukrainian language in the 90s of the last century the letters “ґ” appeared. From a historical perspective, this is a bold step.
Where did the spelling of the Russian language come from?
The history of the formation of spelling in Russia is very interesting. Modern scientists are sure that first there was the Glagolitic alphabet, and then it was replaced by the Cyrillic alphabet. Schoolchildren of that time were practically unfamiliar with the question of what spelling is. The parents of writing were Cyril and Methodius, who carried out the orders of the Byzantine emperor, Michael III. In the classical version, Old Church Slavonic writing had 43 letters. The first spelling reform began in the 17th century. due to the need to correct books.
Thus, minor changes were made to the set of rules, which lasted until the reforms of Peter I of 1708-1711. It is worth noting that until that time the Church Slavonic alphabet had not been subject to changes.
The years 1917-1918 brought Russia the Russian alphabet, consisting of 33 letters, which we all use at the moment. 1956 brought regulation and a set of rules for Russian punctuation and spelling. Since that time, scientists have begun to wonder what spelling is and define it as a field of general linguistics.
Principles of spelling
The purpose and objectives of spelling are to correctly convey words when written, but in all countries it is based on general principles - phonetic, morphological and semantic. Let's take a closer look at the meaning of each of them:
- Morphological principle. It consists of writing morphemes, and this does not depend on phonetic pronunciation. Russian spelling is built precisely on this principle. That is, when reading, each letter is pronounced, and diphthongs are not used.
- The phonetic principle is based on the primacy of pronunciation rules. In this case, the words are written the same way as they are pronounced. It is no secret that each person hears words differently, and it would be wrong to base the principles of spelling on phonetics alone. This would lead to chaos and inconsistency in the perception of what is written.
- Historical principle. This is a standard traditional principle that has been followed by more than one generation of people. It consists in the theory of the formation of linguistic means under the influence of historical events.
There is another principle - differentiating, but it is not always taken into account.
How to check text for spelling errors
Today, you can check whether the text is written correctly using special programs.
Many of them have built-in language recognition and reproduction plugins for the convenience of users. On the Internet, you can quickly check text for spelling errors on specialized websites online. We learn the basics of spelling in adolescence while studying at school. Subsequently, the understanding of what spelling is and the rules for spelling words is consolidated on a subconscious level. This is called literacy.
Spelling – (from the Greek orthos – correct, grapho – I write; literally – correct writing, spelling) a section of the science of language in which the rules of writing words are studied. Letters and other graphic means are used to convey words in writing.
Many alphabetic systems in the world have gone through centuries of development. And although they were improved in connection with the development of the sound side of languages, a complete correspondence between the sound system and the alphabet in a particular language is not observed for various reasons.
The use of letters is regulated by special rules established by spelling. Spelling is a system of rules for spelling words, a branch of the science of language that defines uniform ways of conveying words in writing using alphabetic and non-letter graphic means. A separate graphic sign in a written word is the spelling. There are two types of spellings in words: spellings determined by pronunciation, and spellings determined by spelling rules and writing tradition. In spellings of the first type, sounds are conveyed by their letters, for example: house, drill, son, and in spellings of the second type, sounds are conveyed by letters of other sounds, for example: oak[p], pine[a], forest[i], station[g]. Spelling deals with spellings of the second type. Spelling (from the Greek orthos - correct, gramma - written sign) is the spelling of a word that corresponds to a certain spelling rule. Some spellings in words are spellings, while others are not; for example: bucket, pole, for a moment, somehow (spellings are highlighted).
The rules for using letters may be associated not with a separate sound, but with a more complex part of the word - a morpheme (root, prefix, suffix, ending). In this case, the parts common to related words and forms are always indicated in the same way in writing, regardless of how the sounds within these parts are pronounced.
Spelling may be based on the principle of preserving the appearance of the whole word in writing, while the modern pronunciation of the word is not taken into account. A classic example of the implementation of this principle, called historical or traditional, is English spelling.
When denoting a word in writing, Russian orthography, like most European orthographies, uses capital letters - a special graphic technique that allows you to distinguish between proper and common nouns. There are great difficulties in this area, since it is not always easy to determine whether a particular word is a proper noun. It is natural, therefore, that spelling should have rules that would help the writer navigate the writing of proper names of different nature. The listed techniques regulate the use of letters within a word and determine the spelling of an individual word. But for writing, in particular Russian, this is not enough.
This is a set of rules establishing a uniform spelling of words and their forms. The world's spelling systems differ depending on the principles underlying the use of letters. In writing, you can reflect the pronunciation of words and their forms - sequentially, letter by letter, record the sounds of speech. The unit of writing in this case is a separate sound in its real sound. This principle of spelling in science is called phonetic, or sound.
The leading principle of Russian orthography is the morphological principle. This principle provides for uniform spelling of morphemes (meaningful parts of a word - root, prefix, suffix, ending). The morphological principle in the Russian language has a phonemic basis: the transmission of sounds (phonemes) by letters (the same letters of the alphabet denote a phoneme in all its variations).
Subject to the morphological principle:
- designation of unstressed vowels, verified by stress: tables - table, forests - forest.
- writing consonants at the end of a word and before other consonants: run - run, thrush - thrushes.
- writing the endings of nouns, adjectives, verbs, etc.: with a chair, in an open window, building.
- writing some prefixes and suffixes: run up, approach - approach; move away, run away - move away.
The morphological principle of spelling helps to find related words, as well as establish the origin of certain words.
Deviations from the morphological principle of spellings in the Russian language are insignificant: these are phonetic, traditional (historical) and differentiating spellings.
The phonetic principle is the writing of morphemes in accordance with their sounds. Based on the phonetic principle:
- spelling of prefixes in z/s (bes-/without-, -voz/vos-, from/is-, raz-/ras-, niz-/nis-, through-/through-); cf.: avoid, experience - go out, spend; tear, dilute, develop, blur - waste, color, bloom;
- spelling in the root zor-/zar-; Wed: dawn - dawn glow;
- replacing and with ы after prefixes ending in a consonant: game - play, but play.
Some spellings (fused, semi-fused, separate) are explained by tradition; cf.: swinging, but in installments; one at a time, but one at a time.
The listed techniques regulate the use of letters within a word and determine the spelling of an individual word. But for writing, in particular Russian, this is not enough. The vocabulary of the language is constantly updated with new words. Thus, Russian orthography as a system consists of several groups of rules that determine: 1) the use of letters within words and morphemes; 2) use of uppercase and lowercase letters; 3) continuous, semi-continuous and separate spellings.
Spelling patterns in a word can be found by identifying features (signs). Spelling patterns occur in different parts of a word, between parts of a word, and between words.
Despite the fact that everyone can get an education in our country, the problem of literacy of the population remains relevant even now, and, therefore, it is impossible to do without spelling.
Many people with “limping” literacy may have a question: why do we need spelling? , because once upon a time they could do without spelling rules?
Despite the protests of some “ignoramuses,” it is necessary to know the basic principles of Russian spelling. After all, the meaning and accuracy of conveying thoughts depends on the correct spelling of a word. Spelling rules are the key to correctly expressing and understanding other people's thoughts. Thanks to the rules of spelling, we can correctly understand the meaning of words, correctly convey the meaning of written information, and avoid errors in pronunciation or spelling of words that can change the entire meaning of a sentence. In addition, knowledge of spelling allows you to become a literate and cultured person, and you cannot do without literacy in life. Not only does ignorance of the basic rules make a person a big ignorant, but it’s also unlikely that anyone will like to read a text with errors and think about what the author wanted to say.
What is spelling?
The word “spelling” consists of two words of ancient Greek origin – “orthos” - correct, “grapho” - I write. In other words, the word "spelling" means "spelling."
History of Russian spelling
Modern Russian orthography is based on the Old Church Slavonic alphabet - Cyrillic. To facilitate Christian preaching among the South Slavic population, the Greek missionary Cyril came up with a new alphabet, the basis of which was Greek graphics supplemented by letters taken from other languages and adapted to the sounds of the Old Bulgarian language. The popularity of the Cyrillic alphabet was so high that this alphabet was used not only for oral communication, manuscripts were published in Cyrillic and books were printed.
The Cyrillic alphabet in its original form existed until the 18th century, until, by order of Peter I, a new alphabet was invented - the civil one. Its distinctive feature was the simplicity of writing and the absence of some letters that have doubles in the Cyrillic alphabet. Despite such changes, the civil alphabet still retained some doublet signs, which were removed as a result of the reform of Russian orthography in 1917, aimed at changing the letter system of the language.
Russian spelling underwent changes several more times. And in 1956, a new set of rules of Russian spelling and punctuation appeared, which are still relevant today.
Principles of Russian spelling
The orthography of the Russian language is based on a combination of several principles - morphological, the essence of which is the unity of spelling of parts of the word (roots, suffixes, endings and prefixes), and traditional, preserved from the Old Church Slavonic language. So, for example, we know that after the letters “zh” and “sh” the letter “i” is always written. And the words “good” and “passed” are written according to the morphological principle of spelling.
In addition, the phonetic principle of spelling also works in spelling - I write as I hear.
I would like to note that in order to be considered a spelling expert, you need to know more than 100 rules, a large number of exception words, as well as the correct spelling of dictionary words. In addition, the already complex spelling system of Russian vocabulary is constantly being replenished with words borrowed from foreign languages, the spelling of which causes additional spelling difficulties.
It is clear that it is simply impossible to learn all the words of the Russian language. However, you need to know where to look for answers to questions about the spelling of certain words.
Historical significance of spelling
Everyone decides for himself whether he needs spelling or not. Looking for an answer to the question " Why is spelling needed? ?”, we should not forget that Russian orthography is not only a method that facilitates written speech, but also centuries-old traditions of writing not only the Russian language, but also other existing languages. With the change in speech culture, spelling also changes. For example, our modern written language would hardly have been understood in Russia 100 years ago and would have been mistaken for a foreign language.
"Modern" spelling
Some people may object that why do we need spelling? , if any computer application can handle spelling perfectly, where there is a built-in automatic check?
One can object to such statements: when typing, the program highlights some spelling errors, but misses lexical ones. Therefore, the “work” of such applications still needs to be checked.
Why is spelling needed?
So, why do we need spelling? ? Spelling is more than just spelling. This word carries a deeper meaning. Spelling, as the basis of written speech, allowing the transfer of information between different generations, over the course of historical time allows society to learn from old mistakes, allows not only to read, but also to pass on the best literary works to future generations, and also prevents society from returning to using only oral speech. Spelling is the linguistic heritage of any existing culture, so every native speaker must know the basic rules of spelling in order to correctly convey information to those who will use it.
What is Spelling?
Spelling– this is (from the Greek orthos - straight, correct + grapho - I write) (spelling) a system of rules:
1) about writing words and their significant parts,
2) about continuous, hyphenated and separate spellings of words,
3) about the use of uppercase and lowercase letters,
4) about transferring words from one line to another. Morphological principle of spelling.
1. The principle of spelling that underlies Russian writing and lies in the fact that morphemes common to related words retain a single style in writing, despite differences in pronunciation (non-positional alternations in morphemes are transmitted). Wed. unity of writing; a) roots; house [house], home [d ^ m]ashny, brownie [dъm]ova;
b) prefixes: signature [po]pis, sign [pt]write;
c) suffixes: brownie [-ov-], brownie (-^ in-];
d) at the end: on the river [-e], on the river [-b]. This principle of graphically uniform writing of morphemes is implemented in form formation and word formation. Deviations from it are phonetic and traditional spellings (See the corresponding dictionary entries, as well as differentiating spellings).
2. The principle of graphically uniform design of spellings of words belonging to certain grammatical categories. These include:
a) writing feminine nouns with final sibilants: daughter, thing, rye, mouse. Writing a soft sign at the end of “those words” does not have a phonetic meaning, but serves as an indicator of grammatical gender and graphically unites all feminine nouns with final consonants (both non-sibilant and sibilant) in one type of the 3rd declension (cf. the unity of case forms in named words and such as new, notebook, blizzard, shadow, swamp, burning, bed, etc.);
b) writing an infinitive with a final sibilant: protect, guard, cut, achieve. And in this case, the soft sign is not a sign of softness, but serves as a formal sign of the indefinite form of the verb, and its writing creates graphic uniformity in the design of the infinitive (cf. the presence of a soft sign in the majority of verbs in the indefinite form:
take, believe, write, etc.);
c) writing the imperative form with a final sibilant: multiply, appoint, comfort. Also here, writing a soft sign serves the purposes of morphology: it serves as a graphic indicator of the form of the imperative mood, which creates a uniform external design of the imperative (cf. writing a soft sign for all verbs in the form of the imperative mood with final soft consonants: correct, throw away, measure out, discard , mark, etc.).
Russian spelling has more than two hundred years of history. After the reform of Russian graphics, carried out in 1708 by the decree of Peter I on the introduction of a civil font, issues of spelling began to be associated with general questions about the ways of development of the Russian literary language and by the middle of the 18th century. acquired social significance. The first who began to specifically study them was V.K. Trediakovsky, who proclaimed in his treatise “A conversation between a foreign person and a Russian about ancient and new spelling and everything that belongs to this matter” (1748) the need for a phonetic principle in Russian spelling , as most consistent with the interests of the masses. This proposal, which contradicted the already established system of Russian writing, could not succeed.
Spelling issues were reflected in “Russian Grammar” by M. V. Lomonosov (1755). The spelling norms he proposed, based on a combination of the phonetic principle with the morphological one, were not approved by the highest state institution and did not receive the force of law. The establishment of spelling norms on a morphological basis is associated with the publication of the “Russian Grammar” of the Academy of Sciences (1802,1803,1819) and the “Dictionary of the Russian Academy” (1789-1794). However, the spelling norms of that time were not stable, and throughout almost the entire 19th century there was significant spelling inconsistency both in official documents and in the works of writers.
An exceptionally important milestone in the history of Russian spelling was the capital work of Academician J. K. Grot “Controversial Issues of Russian Spelling from Peter the Great to the Present” (editions of 1873, 1876 and 1885) and his book “Russian Spelling” (1885), which represented is a practical guide for school and print. The set of spelling rules compiled by Grot played an important role in establishing spelling standards, however, despite the fact that it was recommended as academic, it did not completely destroy the inconsistency that existed at that time and did not simplify Russian spelling. The special spelling commission created in 1904 at the Academy of Sciences also failed to do this. The resolution on spelling reform, adopted at a broad meeting of the Academy of Sciences on May 11, 1917, had no practical significance, since it remained optional for schools and the press. Only by decrees of the Soviet government of December 23, 1917. and October 10, 1918, which approved the said resolution, the reformed spelling was recognized as mandatory for all citizens.
Spelling reform 1917-1918 significantly simplified our writing, but did not touch upon many particular issues of spelling, which served as a source of inconsistency in writing practice. In 1930, an attempt was made to carry out a radical reform in the field of spelling, but the draft of such a reform, drawn up by a special commission under the Main Science of the Narkompros, introduced a breakdown in Russian spelling that was not caused by a genuine need of life and could not be scientifically justified.
Since the mid-30s, work began to compile a complete set of spelling and punctuation rules in order to streamline and unify our spelling. The result of long-term work was published and approved by the USSR Academy of Sciences, the USSR Ministry of Higher Education and the RSFSR Ministry of Education in 1956.
“Rules of Russian spelling and punctuation”, valid to the present day. However, the task of completely eliminating inconsistency in writing, the task of possibly simplifying it, had not yet received its solution, and in 1962 it was formed at the Institute of the Russian Language of the USSR Academy of Sciences. The spelling commission, which is working to further improve Russian writing.
You can check the spelling of words in Russian on the website Textology.ru