Topic 1. Varieties of speech.

Language and speech. Language is a system that naturally arose in human society and is developing, capable of expressing the entire set of human concepts and thoughts and intended primarily for the purposes of communication. Language is a condition of development and a product of human culture.

Speech is specific speaking that occurs over time and is expressed in audio or written form. Speech is usually understood as both the process of speaking itself and the result of this process, that is, both speech activity and speech works recorded in memory or writing.

A general description of speech is usually given through its contrast to language. Language and speech together form a single phenomenon of language. Speech is the embodiment, the realization of language, which reveals itself only in speech and only through it fulfills its communicative purpose. If language is a tool (means of communication), then speech is the type of communication produced by this tool. Speech is material, it is perceived by the senses, while language (a system of signs) includes abstract analogies of speech units. Speech is a sequence of words, it is linear, language introduces hierarchical relationships into this linear sequence, it has a level organization. Speech tends to merge words in the speech stream, while language maintains their separateness. Speech is classified as an object of reality and can be considered from the point of view of its truth or falsity; a true assessment of language is unacceptable. Speech is concrete and unique, language is abstract and reproducible. Speech is mobile, language is stable, speech is endless, the language system is limited to a certain set of components.

The main qualities of cultural speech are:

Speech accuracy. Characterizes speech from the perspective of its content, that is, it characterizes how accurately the speaker describes a given situation, how much his description corresponds to reality.

There is a distinction between substantive and conceptual accuracy. Subject accuracy is based on the connection between speech and reality (said what actually exists). Conceptual accuracy is determined by the connection between speech and thinking (he said what he wanted to say).

Basic conditions that contribute to the creation of accurate speech:

Knowledge of the subject of speech (that is, what is being said);

Knowledge of the language in which communication takes place;

Good speech skills developed by constant communication practice.

Logicality of speech. Characterizes speech in terms of its structure, organization, composition. The general conditions for the logic of speech are, first of all, mastery of the logic of reasoning, as well as knowledge of the language and the communicative capabilities of linguistic means.

Expressiveness of speech. Expressiveness of speech is a feature that helps maintain the interest and attention of the listener.

Conditions on which speech expressiveness depends:

Independence of the speaker's thinking;

Good knowledge of the language and its expressive capabilities;

Speech skills training;

Richness and variety of speech. Achieved through the use of a variety of linguistic means in verbal communication.

Appropriateness of speech. The speech must be appropriate, that is, correspond to the purpose, conditions of communication, composition and mood of the audience.

Classification of varieties of speech. The basis for the classification of varieties of speech can be various factors that make it possible to distinguish external and internal, oral and written forms of speech, dialogic and monologue speech, functional and semantic types of speech.

Communication between people can take place in different forms: a conversation in which the interlocutors are directly involved, communication is oral character; reading various kinds of books, official papers, etc., which have written form. A different number of people connected by different social and personal relationships can take part in communication. Participants in communication can play an active or passive role in it ( polylogue, dialogue and monologue). Depending on the content-semantic and compositional-structural features of the text, the following types of speech are distinguished: description, reasoning, narration.

Varieties of speech according to the form of expression of thought. Speech is not only a way of expressing thoughts, but also a way of forming them. Based on the presence or absence of interlocutors, the following forms of speech are distinguished: internal speech and external speech, and in turn, external speech exists in two forms: oral and written.

Inner speech stands out as an independent specific way of forming and formulating thoughts. Inner speech is characterized by the fact that the process of forming a thought is carried out without its expression, oral or written. The processes that determine it can be carried out both by means of language and by means of internal, individual code, which is the highest form of abstraction of verbal thinking.

If a person intends to speak, he first thinks about his speech. Thinking begins with orientation in the communication situation. Thinking about speech almost always precedes the main forms of human interaction with other people, playing the role of a “draft” of written speech (L.S. Vygotsky). A person cannot do without inner speech, he cannot dream without it, he must learn to think about his statements, because “he who thinks clearly, expresses clearly.”

The problem of inner speech is one of the most complex and still insufficiently studied. Initially, it was believed that internal speech is similar in structure to external speech, the only difference being the absence of a sound reaction, since it is speech “to oneself.” It turned out that this is far from true. Researchers have shown that the process of inner speech involves movements of the tongue and larynx. Research by N.I. Zhinkin proved that internal speech flows at a much higher speed than external speech. Along with words, images can be used in inner speech, that is, the subject of speech may not be named, but presented to oneself in the form of its image, often in the form of an image-scheme.

Expanded external speech exists in two forms: oral and written . In turn, oral speech can be divided into dialogical, monological, and polylogical speech.

If the speech is intended for another person whom you see and hear, use oral form. Genuine oral speech is created at the moment of speaking. Oral speech is improvisation. It is created on the fly, in the process of the act of communication, therefore the main feature of oral speech is its unpreparedness.

Oral speech is designed for the interlocutor’s semantic perception of the spoken speech created at the moment of speaking, therefore, depending on various circumstances and the speech experience of the speaker, oral speech can be smooth, fluid, more or less intermittent. Intermittency is expressed by the presence of involuntary pauses, repetition of individual words, syllables, sounds, “stretching” of sounds like [e] and expressions like

How to say it?..

As if… etc.

If there are few cases of intermittency, and they reflect the speaker’s search for the necessary, optimal means of expressing thoughts for a given speech situation, then their presence does not interfere with the perception of the statement, and sometimes activates the attention of listeners. But, on the other hand, pauses, self-interruptions, and breakdowns of begun constructions may reflect the state of the speaker, his excitement, lack of composure, and lack of knowledge of what to talk about.

Oral speech is characterized by two features: redundancy and laconicism. Redundancy is direct repetitions of words, phrases, sentences, more often repetitions of thoughts, when words that are similar in meaning and correlative in the content of the structure are used. Laconism is brevity, the use of facial expressions, gestures, expressive body movements, and intonation to convey information. The most important feature influencing the emergence of varieties of oral speech is the nature of communication: official/informal. Formal communication can be personal or public. Unofficial - personal only. Listeners to a casual story are full participants in the act of communication: they can interrupt the speaker and ask him questions, which is not typical for the addressee of a public official message. Public communication is divided into two subtypes: mass (radio, television, etc.) and collective (lecture, report, speech at a meeting, etc.) The main difference between them is that with mass communication there is no feedback between speaking and listening. This excludes the speaker from the opportunity to know (see, hear, feel) the reaction of the listeners and respond to it. Another important feature of mass communication is the use of technical means (radio, television, etc.).

Relaxed informal communication is the main part of a person’s life (at home, in various everyday situations). This is usually done using spoken language. This type of verbal communication is characterized by unpreparedness and spontaneity of communication.

Written speech- this is speech without a direct interlocutor; its motive and intention are completely determined by the writer. And therefore, the entire process of control over a written statement remains within the activity of the writer, without correction on the part of the reader. All information expressed in written speech must be based on a fairly complete use of the detailed grammatical means of the language, since it has almost no extra-linguistic additional means of expression. It does not presuppose either knowledge by the addressee of the communication situation or verbal contact, and does not have the means of facial expressions, gestures, or intonation.

Monologue, dialogue, polylogue. Monologue, dialogic and polylogue speech differ from each other in terms of the structure underlying the speech situation. Differences in the structure and speech situation are determined by the distribution of roles between the participants in the speech act.

Monologue text is the oral or written speech of one person. The speech act is based on a one-way relationship: transmission of information ® receipt of information. A monologue text is a linear chain of sentences and exists in various forms of oral statements, such as the speech of a speaker, lecturer, speeches on radio, television. Monologue speech that has an addressee (public speech) is characterized by such general features as the presence in it of addresses, pronouns and 2nd person verbs, as well as imperative verbs and other forms of expression of will. The speech types of a monologue are determined by its inherent communicative functions (narration, reasoning, description, assessment, confession, self-characterization). A monologue approaches written speech; it is characterized by more complex syntactic structures.

Dialogic the text is an alternation of utterances by two or more participants in a speech act, each participant acts in the process of a speech act either as a speaker or as a listener. The dialogue is based on a two-way relationship (stimulus - response), allowing for various coordinations.

Dialogue is the genetically original and most developed form of direct communication. The specificity of this interaction in communicative terms is that it is based on dialogical unity: the expression of thoughts and their perception, reaction to them. Dialogue consists of interconnected remarks of the interlocutors. The process of two-way communication occurs in a specific situation in which each of the communication participants alternates in the role of speaker (listener). The result of receiving information and its transmission are combinations of remarks that are combined depending on the communication goals of each participant and make up certain statements (for example, a questionnaire, an interview, a questionnaire) and answers (a story, a report, a message), which can also form a whole statement.

Polylogue- this is a form of speech that is characterized by a change in the statements of several speakers and a direct connection of statements with the situation. Polylogue often takes the form of group communication (conversation, meeting, discussion, game, etc.). The parties involved in a polylogue are very vocally active and usually adhere to the principle of responsibility: at any moment, everyone is obliged to be aware of what is being said, and is obliged to ensure the opportunity for others to be aware of what is being said. In a polylogue, there is an accumulation of information brought out by its individual participants. Polylogue is characterized by thematic jumps, complex interaction of replicas, and breaking of dialogic unities. Polylogue participants (two or more than two) see and hear each other. The speaker selects the addressee using a glance, a gesture, or a nod of the head. These signals are recognized by everyone at the same time.

Functional and semantic types of speech. Depending on the content of the composition, different types of speech are distinguished. The type of speech is understood as a speech segment (text) with a specific generalized meaning (an object and its attribute, an object and its action; assessment of an event, phenomenon; cause-and-effect relationships, etc.), which is expressed by certain linguistic means.

Description- this is a verbal depiction of any phenomenon of reality by listing its characteristic features. The description can be everyday, portrait, interior, landscape, scientific and technical, or a description of the state of affairs. Verbs in the description are usually used in the imperfect forms of the present and past tenses. A characteristic feature of description as a type of speech is the static arrangement of objects assigned to a specific moment of speech.

Narration is a story about events and serves to convey the sequence of various events, phenomena, and actions. This sequence is conveyed using perfective verbs that show the unfolding of the narrative. Typically, sentences in a narrative are not very long and do not have a complex structure.

Reasoning- verbal presentation, explanation and confirmation of any idea. Reasoning conveys the development of thoughts and ideas and must necessarily lead to the acquisition of new knowledge about the subject of speech. This type of speech is characterized by the presence of abstract vocabulary and complex sentences that convey the flow of reasoning. Reasoning must contain a premise, a main idea (conclusion) and a conclusion that follows from the entire course of the reasoning.

Speech interaction and speech situation. Researchers identify the following elements of speech communication: speech interaction (utterance, text), speech situation, speech event.

Speech interaction is the process of establishing and maintaining targeted direct or indirect contact between people through language. Speech interaction involves the participation of the following components: addresser (sender of information), addressee (recipient), subject of speech (what is being said), speech act (speaking or writing), means of interaction (statement or text).

The most important role in verbal communication is played by the speech situation, i.e. communication context. Speech situation- these are the specific circumstances in which speech interaction occurs. Examples of speech situations: the need to answer questions, make a report on the results of work, write a letter, talk with a friend, etc. Speech event- This is a specific, complete form of speech communication. A speech event consists of two main components: oral speech and what accompanies it (facial expressions, gestures, etc.)

Speech in interpersonal communication. Interpersonal communication is defined as the interaction between a small number of communicators who are in spatial proximity and are largely accessible to each other, i.e. have the ability to see, hear, and easily provide feedback. This is verbal communication of a small number of people nearby and well known to each other, which has some distinctive features:

1) personal addressing, i.e. individual contact of interlocutors to each other, taking into account mutual interests;

2) spontaneity and ease: the conditions of direct communication do not allow you to plan a conversation in advance;

3) situational nature of speech behavior: the subject of speech is visible or known to the interlocutors, which allows the use of non-verbal means;

4) emotionality (emotional and individual perception by speakers of the topic of conversation, of the interlocutor).

In connection with the listed features in interpersonal communication, in addition to the actual informational and phatic functions, there are also emotive functions (connected with the subjective world of the addresser, with the expression of his experiences, his need to be understood) and conative functions (connected with an attitude towards the addressee, with the desire to influence him) .

When considering speech in interpersonal communication, one cannot ignore the role of the listener, because it can influence the speech behavior of the speaker. In modern social psychological literature, much attention is paid to the analysis of listening styles. Among the most important skills are the techniques of non-reflective, reflective (active) and empathic listening.

Non-reflective listening consists of the ability to remain attentively silent and not interfere with the interlocutor’s speech with your remarks. In form, non-reflective listening is the use of short remarks such as “Yes?”, “Continue, this is interesting,” “I understand,” etc.

Reflective (active) listening- This is feedback from the speaker, used to control the accuracy of the perception of what was heard. The main types of reflexive responses are: clarification (“Would you like to repeat it again”); paraphrasing (“In your opinion...”, “If I understand you correctly...”); reflection of feelings “It seems to me that you feel...”); summarizing (“If I sum up what you said...”).

Empathic Listening– understanding the feelings experienced by another person and responding to one’s understanding of these feelings. Empathic listening, unlike reflective listening, is a more intimate type of communication and is the opposite of critical listening.

Speech in social interaction. Speech communication involves communication between people as representatives of certain groups (national, age, status, professional, etc.) taking into account their role position; transmission of information to many people (public speech or media).

In social interaction, the servicing nature of speech activity is expressed: here speech is aimed at organizing the joint activities of people. This determines stricter regulation of speech behavior.

Basic rules of speech in social interaction:

1) the statement must contain as much information as is required to fulfill the current goals of communication; excessive information is sometimes misleading;

2) the statement must be truthful; one cannot say anything for which there is no sufficient basis;

3) the statement must be relevant, i.e. correspond to the subject of conversation;

4) the statement must be clear: it is necessary to avoid unclear expressions and ambiguity.

Speech is crucial in the process of learning and raising children. The child’s speech is almost half egocentric (there are no shades of meaning, the point of view of the interlocutor on the subject of speech is ignored); adults speak and even think socially (“adapt” information to the speech situation, to the level of the interlocutor).

Speech activity is one of the tools for asserting the social status of communication participants. Social and symbolic means of demonstrating social status are forms of address. Let’s compare the addresses: “ladies and gentlemen”, “comrades”, “friends”, “hey you, darling”. A similar function in Russian is performed by the forms of greeting and farewell.

A person’s civil status is clearly indicated by the address “master”, “comrade”, “citizen”.

The method of using speech to improve one’s status can be various kinds of renaming, for example, professions (instead of “garbage man” - “sanitation worker”.

Verbal social-symbolic means also include deliberate imitation of pronunciation (we adapt our language and pronunciation to the language of our partner, if we like it).

When establishing or increasing status, the choice of pronunciation style is important. There are high (the correct use of words and the construction of sentences is emphasized; perceived as a more formal, distanced style) and low (colloquial speech, perceived as informal, friendly); influential and non-influential styles.

Question No.45 . Language and speech. Types and functions of speech.

Language- a system of signs that serves as a means of human communication, mental activity, a way of expressing a person’s self-awareness, transmission from generation to generation and storage of information. Language is a socio-historical phenomenon. Historically, the basis for the emergence of language is labor, the joint activity of people. Language exists and is realized through speech. Speech is the activity of communication through language. Speech is language in action. Speech is a special form of communication between people, during which people exchange thoughts and influence each other. Language is a means of communication between people in the form of words.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SPEECH

Speech is a mental process of transmitting information mediated by language.

Speech is considered as a form, type and means of communication.

Language is a system of conventional signs that have a substantive meaning.

Features of the origin of speech in phylogenesis

It is assumed that speech was originally gestural and the articulation system among primitive people was not developed. Gradually, a person masters objective activities and learns to make tools. A conflict arises between the two functions of the hand: communication and making something. To work together, synchronization of actions is necessary; therefore, gestural communication has become insufficient, because interfered with coordinated work. Gradually, the function of communication is transferred to the articulatory apparatus, its development occurs, and as a result, the articulation of speech arises (dividing a phrase into words, words into letters). The logic of speech development in ontogenesis repeats the development of speech in phylogenesis. The study of archaic languages ​​(tribes) allows one to study the development of speech. One word with several meanings was supplemented with gestures.

Development of speech in ontogenesis

The development of speech in ontogenesis consists of 2 major stages:

1. Pre-speech stage - includes 3 stages: babbling, humming, pipe. The main objectives of this stage are training the articulatory apparatus and the development of phonemic hearing in children.

2. Speech stage. At the speech stage, pseudowords first appear, and, accordingly, the words themselves. Speech develops most intensively at an early age (from 1 to 3 years). Initially, a passive vocabulary is formed (the child understands speech, but does not speak). Further (from 2 to 3 years) an active vocabulary is formed.

Functions of speech

Sometimes the functions of speech in communication and in thinking are distinguished separately. The following functions are distinguished:

1. informational (transmission of information);

2. contact (organization of interaction between people);

3. influence function (influencing the behavior of a communication partner);

4. generalization function (any word generalizes, being a concept);

5. control function (control of the organization of its own activities);

6. signal (any word has a subject meaning and means something).

Any word has a subject component (table, window) and has an affective (emotional) component. “Dry” language (with low emotional load), for example: several words have the same meaning, but the emotional component is different (face, little face, muzzle).

In the process of development, speech was formed as a process that can be active and constructed anew each time, or speech can be a chain of dynamic speech stereotypes. When speaking, a person has a certain speech intention, which can change during verbalization (pronunciation). This change depends on the characteristics of information encoding, i.e. selection of appropriate words that reveal the speech intent.

The relationship between thinking and speech

This problem was considered in the works of Lev Semenovich Vygotsky. In his opinion, the relationship between these processes is unstable and variable throughout their development. In particular, the development of thinking and speech does not occur in parallel and not simultaneously. They have genetically different roots.

Both in onto- and phylogenesis, a pre-speech phase of the development of thinking and a pre-intellectual phase of the development of speech are distinguished.

A child’s thinking, going through the pre-verbal stage of its development (chimpanzee-like age), has a visual and effective form. There is also a pre-intellectual stage in speech development, when the child uses screaming, babbling and even the first words unconsciously. Those. they are used as a means of communication, not as a mechanism for thinking. According to Vygotsky, at the turn of 2 years, the lines of development of thinking and speech begin to intersect and gradually, thinking becomes verbal, and speech is intellectual, conscious.

The merging of thinking and speech gives rise to a completely new form of behavior, characteristic only of humans (purposeful, conscious behavior).

Types of speech

There are 3 types of speech: external, egocentric and internal.

I. External speech- the main means of communication, speaking out loud and for others. External speech is divided into:

1. oral speech - is a verbalization of the speech intent, includes non-verbal components, which makes these types of speech a powerful means of influencing another person (feedback is always present). There are 2 types of oral speech:

a. monologue - the speech of one person for others - it is important to take into account the preparedness of the audience, its psychological characteristics (it is important to interest)

b. dialogue is a verbal exchange between two or more interlocutors.

2. written speech - verbal communication, but with the help of graphics or written texts. Unlike oral speech, written speech is more syntactic (grammatical) and stylistic (internal logic is very important);

3. afferent speech - short emotional statements (wow, wow, etc.).

II. Egocentric speech- speaking out loud, but to oneself

III. Inner speech- a means of thinking, speech within oneself and for oneself. It is customary to distinguish 3 forms of internal speech. In general, inner speech is the use of language outside the process of actual communication.

1. Internal pronunciation is speech to oneself, which preserves the structure of external speech, i.e. it is expanded, but lacks intonation (pronunciation of sounds). A person usually uses internal recitation to solve mental problems in difficult situations;

2. Inner speech itself is a means of thinking in which specific units are used (codes of images and schemes, the objective meaning of a word). The structure of this form of speech differs from the structure of external speech. It is condensed, abstract, automated.

3. Internal programming is the formation and consolidation in specific units of the intention of a speech utterance or any text.

Rubinstein says about the unity of consciousness and speech. Thanks to speech, the individual consciousness of everyone is enriched with the results of experience; observation and knowledge of all people thanks to speech can become the property of everyone. Through speech, the consciousness of one person becomes a given for another.

The main function of consciousness is the reflection of existence. Speech performs this function in the following way: it reflects being, designating it. Speech is a signifying reflection of being. Speech is a form of existence of awareness for another, serving as a means of communication with him, and a form of thinking. Speech, the word are a specific unity of sensory and semantic content. Every word has a semantic content that makes up its meaning. A generalized reflection of the subject content constitutes the meaning of the word. But the meaning of a word is not a passive reflection of the object in itself outside of practical relations between people. The meaning of a word, which generally reflects an object, is included in real effective social relationships between people and is determined through the function of this object in the system of human activity. Formed in social activities, it includes in the process of communication between people. The meaning of a word is the cognitive attitude of a person’s consciousness to an object, mediated by social relations between people.

The carrier of meaning is always a sensory image. But the sensory basis of speech functions only as a carrier of semantic content. The connection between a word and an object is not pre-established by nature, but historical. This connection is indirect - through the generalized semantic content of the word - through a concept or image. In the process of using a word, its meaning is not only realized, but also modified, acquiring in a given specific context a meaning that is different from its meaning. At the same time, the use of a word in different contexts leads to the fact that new content is included in it and, transforming it, is fixed in it so that it enters into the proper meaning of the word and is retained by it even outside the given context.

External speech significantly different from inner speech. Inner speech is different, first of all, in its function and structure. Inner speech is speech to oneself. There are three main types of inner speech:

a) internal pronunciation, “speech to oneself”, preserving the structure of external speech, but devoid of phonation, i.e. pronouncing sounds, and typical for solving mental problems in difficult conditions;

b) internal speech itself, when it acts as a means of thinking, uses specific units and has a specific structure, different from the structure of external speech;

c) internal programming, i.e. formation and consolidation of the intention of a speech utterance in specific units.

In ontogenesis, inner speech is formed in the process of internalization of external speech. Inner speech, unlike external speech, has a special syntax and is characterized by fragmentation, fragmentation, and abbreviation. The transformation of external speech into internal speech occurs according to a certain law: in it, first of all, the subject is reduced and the predicate remains with the parts of the sentence related to it.

The main syntactic characteristic of inner speech is predicativity. Its examples are found in the dialogues of people who know each other well, who understand “without words” what is being discussed in their “conversation.”

Another feature of the semantics of inner speech is agglutination, i.e. a kind of merging of words into one with their significant abbreviation. The resulting word seems to be enriched with a double or even triple meaning, taken separately from each of the two or three words combined in it. So, in the limit, you can reach a word that absorbs the meaning of the whole statement, and it becomes, as L.S. said. Vygotsky, “a concentrated clot of meaning.” To completely translate this meaning into the plane of external speech, it would probably be necessary to use more than one sentence. Inner speech, apparently, consists of words of this kind, completely different in structure and use from the words that we use in our written and spoken speech. Due to the above-mentioned features, such speech can be considered as an internal plane of speech thinking. Inner speech is the process of thinking with “pure meanings”.

Speech is a communicative process of creating, storing, transmitting and receiving information. The speech unit in which information is recorded is text . Text differs from linguistic units (signs and figures) in that it does not have linguistic syntagmatics and paradigmatics. Any text is a sign of previous information (information memory), subsequent information (intention) and the objective and subjective reality that it generally denotes (mental and objective content). The relationship between these three components of a text is called a connection. Connection differs from association (syntagmatics and paradigmatics) primarily in that the division of a text into parts and the connection of texts, in turn, is also a text; it does not form a new unit (as is the case in the language system).

Speech is a communication process that is carried out by a specific person. There are two forms of speech : oral And written .

The written form is secondary in relation to the oral one, since it is its reflection. But the substances of oral and written speech are different. Oral speech is carried out in the form of continuous sound that exists in time. As you know, any moment of time divides oral speech into already spoken and not yet spoken. There can be an infinite number of such moments of speech that divide oral speech into two parts, so the intervals between these moments tend to zero. The material substance of oral speech itself does not contain any sound segments (speech sounds). Discretization of oral speech is carried out thanks to the conscious (mental) activity of a person, during which continuous oral speech is segmented and associated with some linguistic and meaningful ideas.

Contentful information in oral speech is formed continuously. The speaker, as a rule, does not have the opportunity to constantly monitor the organization of oral speech, therefore oral speech is fundamentally unorganized in detail, incomplete and inconsistent. All these shortcomings, as already mentioned, are compensated by the possibility of intonation restructuring, additional intervals, amendments, reinterpretations, reservations, etc. To make oral speech more organized (for example, during public speaking), preliminary preparation is necessary, which is expressed in the formation of mental content, its planning, and the selection of linguistic means for constructing the text.

The written form of speech has a spatial nature. In writing, letters, words and sentences are arranged linearly and stored on paper. Written language can be thought through, revised, and rewritten in a way that spoken language cannot. Therefore, written speech is more organized and standardized.

Written speech plays an important role in the speech culture of mankind, the creation of grammars, dictionaries, and classical texts. All this is related to the needs of written speech. The mental culture of humanity is, first of all, a written culture. It is in the text that the content is expressed, about which we can say: it is true or false. Therefore, thanks to written texts, science arose. Thanks to written speech, oral speech is modified and changed.

There are two main types of oral and written forms of speech : monologue And dialogue .

A monologue is a speech created by one participant in communication (the communicator) to capture a certain mental content. The monologue is addressed either to oneself (as the addressee) to remember certain content, or to some other communicator (addressee), separated from the speaker by time or distance. The monologue itself is created as a result of the internal motivation of the communicant himself, without focusing on the direct motivation of others.

Dialogue is the communication of two persons making a message to each other sequentially. Each previous remark in the dialogue on the part of the addresser (I participant in the communication) motivates the subsequent statement of the addressee (II participant in the dialogical communication). Thus, texts created by one participant in the dialogue are motivated by texts created by another participant in the dialogue. It is no coincidence that linguistic expressions such as questions and problematic situations are used in dialogue. Therefore, the solution to a problem situation in a monologue is very often built on the structure of the dialogue.

The third type of interindividual communication is called - polylogue (when several people are involved in communication). However, it is impossible to speak to several people at the same time, since this violates the very conditions of communication: the perception of information by the communicating parties and the reaction to the information. Therefore, in real communication, polylogue is divided into successive groups of dialogues: the communicator first communicates with one addressee, then with the second, third, etc. It is also possible for several people to pronounce a certain text in a choral manner, but in this case the choir acts as the equivalent of the creator of a monologue.

In speech science, the following are distinguished: types of speech : speaking, listening (listening), reading and writing. Speaking and listening are oral forms of speech, while reading and writing are written forms. Speaking and writing are considered active types of speech, while listening and reading (especially silent reading) are considered passive. This characteristic is based on observation of the external aspects of speech.

Specialists in language methodology, following the rule: when mastering educational actions, you need to go from simple to complex, from easy to difficult, came to the conclusion that when studying types of speech you need to go from passive types to active ones, from written to oral (since written language can be recorded on paper, and only memorize the spoken word, which is more difficult). In this regard, the following sequence was recommended in the study of types of speech: reading - listening - writing - speaking.

However, studying the internal aspects of types of speech gives a different picture. The internal mechanisms of speech include

§ construction of mental content (in order to

talk, you need to know what to talk about);

§ planning of presentation;

§ choice of language means.

In their most strict and complete form, these mechanisms are presented in speaking. In listening, these mechanisms undergo restructuring. For example, the speaker states the content that he has in his mind. He does not construct this content in the process of presentation, he reproduces it. The listener must correlate the mental content offered to him in the presentation with the knowledge that is contained in his mind. At the same time, this knowledge is restructured and transformed into new knowledge. This process is much more complex than the process of presenting existing content. In the process of presentation, the speaker does not plan its content; it is already contained in this content. The listener must build motivation for the information offered to him. He must constantly anticipate the plan for subsequent presentation and comprehend it motivationally. Trying to understand why he needs new content. Anticipation, therefore, is a more complex process than the reproduction of pre-planning. The speaker uses the linguistic means to which he is accustomed. And the listener has his own typical set of linguistic means that he used before. In the process of perception, he needs to translate the language means of the speaker (teacher) and their content into his own language means and their content. This process is more complex than the process of using the most typical linguistic means for one’s speech. Thus, the process of listening, from the point of view of the internal mechanisms of speech, is much more complex than the process of speaking.

The process of reading is somewhat reminiscent of the process of listening. However, it greatly simplifies the process. Firstly, listening, like speaking, is done once, but you can read the text several times. Secondly, the reader can further comprehend the content of what he is reading by using additional literature, reference books, etc. Thirdly, the content of what is being read and its plan are already contained in the perceived written text. Uncertainties in this perception can be compensated for with the help of additional materials. Finally, the uniqueness of the language of the text being read can also be mastered by repeated reading of reference books and dictionaries. In any case, reading allows for the possibility of slower and repeated perception, in other words, reading is a much simpler process for the learner than listening.

Writing in general is similar to speaking, but with the help of written signs. It allows for repeated reflection on the content of the text, its slow production, the possibility of corrections, etc. However, in general, written text, from the point of view of its internal mechanisms, is more complex than speaking. A written text requires a clearer and stricter logic of presentation, and therefore more thorough thinking about the content of the text and its planning. As for the language of written text, it differs sharply from the language of oral speech in its normalization, selection and correlation with a certain style of speech. All this makes writing a much more complex type of speech than speaking.

An analysis of the internal mechanisms of four types of speech shows that they are all based on speaking mechanisms, which are only restructured in other types of speech. In other words, speaking acts as an invariant of other types of speech, their control mechanism. Therefore, training must begin with mastering the processes of speaking, and speaking must accompany any other type of speech. The conclusion follows from this: all types of speech are interconnected and complement each other; in the process of mastering one type of speech, you need to use other types of speech. Only at the final stage of training, when a certain type of speech is brought to perfection, the process of mastering a type of speech is accompanied by the use of the same type of speech.

Speaking, as the most universal type of speech, helps control any other type of speech. It is possible to check whether the content of the listened text has been correctly mastered only with the help of the student’s story, that is, with the help of speaking. You can also check your reading results by speaking. In turn, mastering what is written helps build speaking more meaningfully and logically. But in general, from a didactic (educational) point of view, the simplest type of speech is reading, then listening, speaking and writing.

Chapter 2. Types of texts

Narration is a statement of the time sequence of events. It can be prospective (that is, outlining an event from beginning to end) and retrospective (outlining events according to their memories). Eventfulness is described mainly by verbs or verbal nouns, adjectives and adverbs. Therefore, there are quite a lot of verbs in narrative texts. An example of a narrative is the message about an approaching snowstorm in “The Captain’s Daughter” by A.S. Pushkin:

The coachman galloped off; but he kept looking to the east. The horses ran together. Meanwhile, the wind became stronger hour by hour. The cloud turned into a white cloud, which rose heavily, grew and gradually covered the sky. It began to snow lightly and suddenly began to fall in flakes. The wind howled; there was a snowstorm. In an instant, the dark sky mixed with the snowy sea. Everything has disappeared.

The text is replete with verbs that describe the sequence of events: galloped; looked, ran, stood, turned, rose, grew, lay down, walked, fell, howled; became, mixed up, disappeared.

Description is a presentation of objects, their properties, states or qualities. Descriptions are often used by creators of artistic or scientific texts. An example is the description of Oblomov’s portrait in the novel of the same name by I.A. Goncharov:

Ilya Ilyich’s complexion was neither ruddy, nor dark, nor positively pale, but indifferent or seemed so, perhaps because Oblomov was somehow flabby beyond his years: perhaps from lack of exercise or air, or perhaps and another. In general, his body, judging by the matte, too white color of his neck, small plump arms, soft shoulders, seemed too pampered for a man.

The text is replete with adjectives describing Ilya Ilyich’s appearance: neither ruddy, nor dark, nor pale, indifferent, matte, white, small, plump, soft, pampered.

And here is a description of the interior of Oblomov’s room:

The room where Ilya Ilyich was lying seemed at first glance to be beautifully decorated. There was a red bureau, two sofas upholstered in silk, beautiful screens with embroidered birds and fruits unprecedented in nature. There were silk curtains, carpets, several paintings, bronze, porcelain and many beautiful little things.

The text contains many nouns: room, view, bureau, color, sofa, matter, screens, in nature, birds, fruits, curtains, carpets, paintings, bronze, porcelain, little things. All these nouns name objects that have in common the fact that they are in the same room.

Reasoning- This is a presentation of some thoughts that are interconnected by logical relationships. Reasoning texts, as a rule, contain complex sentences with subordinating conjunctions and allied words. Such a presentation (reasoning) contains generalization, analysis, comparison and logical conclusions. Exemplary examples of reasoning are the maxims of L.N. Tolstoy:

All happy families are alike, each unhappy family is unhappy in its own way (Anna Karenina).

No matter how hard people tried, having gathered several hundred thousand in one small place, to disfigure the land on which they huddled, no matter how hard they stoned the ground so that nothing would grow on it, no matter how they cleared away all the growing grass, no matter how much they smoked coal and oil. , just as they did not trim the trees and did not drive out all the animals and birds - spring was spring even in the city (Resurrection).

In this text, the enumeration of the actions of unreasonable people is covered by a general maxim - a hymn to life.

Belief- a text that sets out the final conclusion of numerous life experiences and difficult thoughts. The persuasion text is constructed as a sequence of exemplary classical statements that sum up scattered life observations. An example of persuasion is the classic text from N. Ostrovsky’s novel “How the Steel Was Tempered”:

The most precious thing a person has is life. It is given to him only once, and he needs to live it in such a way that there is no excruciating pain for the years spent aimlessly, so that the shame for a mean and petty past does not burn, and so that, when dying, he can say: “My whole life was given to the most beautiful thing in the world - the fight for the liberation of humanity!

3. Basic requirements for speech: correctness, accuracy, expressiveness, appropriateness of the use of linguistic means.

4. Functional speech styles and their features.

5. Conversational style of speech, its main features, scope of use.

The specific process of using verbal signs for the purposes of communication, formulating thoughts, and assessing various life manifestations is called speech. Speech- this is language in action. Speech is closely connected with a person’s personality and especially with his thinking. It reflects individual, age, gender, intellectual and professional characteristics.

There are many types of speech activity. The speech could be:

1) External or internal. In external speech, a person is faced with different understandings of the meanings of words by different people, so misunderstandings and misunderstandings often arise. Inner speech (talk to oneself) is absolutely understandable to a person. Communicating with others is harder than communicating with yourself.

2) Oral or written. Writing is recorded speech.

3) Passive (reading, listening) or active (speaking, writing).

4) Monological or dialogical.

Also, speech can be fast or slow, short or long, understandable, distinct or chaotic, emotionally expressive or monotonous, natural or mannered, quiet or loud, bright or inexpressive, intelligent or vulgar, literate or illiterate, etc.

Sometimes, even without knowing the meaning of words, we can understand what is being said from the context or based on grammar.

Let's test our knowledge of the language and understanding of its internal structural connections, and the ability to think logically.

Exercise. 30 words, alternately write down a word and its antonym. Words and correct answers to them:

1) Anger (kindness)

2) Master (servant, slave)

3) Sluggishness (agility, dexterity, agility)

4) Shame (honor, glory, honor)

5) Rival (partner, colleague, like-minded person)

6) Black (white)

7) Jump (stand)

8) Beautiful (ugly, ugly, ugly)

9) Virgin land (arable land, arable land, cultivated land)

10) Humanity (cruelty, misanthropy)

11) Laughter (crying)

12) Attack (defense, defense)

13) Storm (quiet, calm)

14) Boredom (fun)

15) Trouble (joy)

16) Top (base, sole)

17) Dim (bright)

18) Love (hate)

19) Land (sea, water)

20) Culture (ignorance)

21) Woman (man)

22) Child (old man)

23) Find (loss)

24) Hope (despair)

25) Frost (heat, heat)

26) Work (rest, idleness)

27) Smooth (rough)

28) Take (give)

29) Praise (abuse, swearing, criticism)

30) Adagio (allegro, presto, scherzo).

Count the number of correct answers. An accurately guessed antonym is worth 1 point. Words that are approximately correct (for example, “shame - pride” instead of “honor, glory”) are worth half a point. With good or satisfactory knowledge of the language and the ability to think logically, the result will be approximately 25-30 points.

By a person’s speech, one can determine the characteristics of his thinking. It is interesting to explore these characteristics of inner speech.

Speech- a specifically human kind of linguistic activity that ensures the communication of people and their socio-historical development.

Speech situation- a complex combination of external circumstances and internal psychological reactions that encourage interlocutors to exchange information. To make a speech effective, some principles must be followed:

The principle of speech etiquette (speak to the listener as an equal partner, respect the listener’s opinion, be interested in interacting with the listener).

There are the following signs (components) of a speech situation:

participants: addressee, addressee, audience;

subject of speech;

circumstances: place, time, other significant conditions;

communication channel– method of communication – oral or written speech, conventional signs, etc. are used;

code: language, dialect, style;

speech genre, for example, scientific report, conversation;

event;

target- what could be, in the opinion of the participants, the result of speech in a given situation;

speech effectiveness assessment, for example, whether the listeners were interested in the report. (slide)

A speech situation is determined by circumstances that force a person to say something - to participate in speech activity, while acting through speech in more or less strict accordance with the characteristics that determine the situation. The entire complex complex of situational features can be reduced to the following components: who - to whom - about what - where - when - why - why.

Correct, beautiful speech is characterized by the following properties: : accuracy, logic, purity, expressiveness, richness (variety) and relevance.

1. Even in ancient times, accuracy was recognized as the main advantage of speech.

The ability to speak and write well and the ability to think correctly are interconnected. “He who thinks clearly, speaks clearly,” is a well-known aphorism. V. G. Belinsky noted: “The word reflects the thought: if the thought is incomprehensible, the word is also incomprehensible.”

Accuracy is associated with knowledge of the subject of speech, the meaning of words, i.e. with the culture of speech as a whole.

Speech Accuracy- this is mainly the correspondence of words to the designated objects (phenomena) of reality or the correspondence between the generally accepted meaning of a word and its application in speech.

Accuracy as a quality of speech is associated primarily with the lexical level in the language system, which means that accuracy of speech can be understood as compliance with the norms of word usage in speech, if such norms are recognized.

Two types of accuracy should be distinguished: substantive accuracy and conceptual accuracy.

The first type of accuracy is created by the extralinguistic (extralinguistic) connection between speech and reality. It consists in the correspondence of the content of speech to the range of objects and phenomena of reality that are reflected by speech. The speech must clearly present the phenomena of life, objects and events of reality that are being spoken about. In this regard, a person must know well what he is talking about.

There is also conceptual accuracy - the correspondence of the content of speech to the system of concepts that is designated in it. According to L.N. Tolstoy: “A word is an expression of thought, therefore the word must correspond to what it expresses.”

The main conditions contributing to the creation of accurate speech are:

1) knowledge of the subject of speech;

2) knowledge of the language, its system, capabilities;

3) the ability to correlate knowledge of a subject with knowledge of the language system and its capabilities in a specific act of communication.

2. The next quality of speech is logic.

Logic may be violated even with the strict use of words. In order to achieve logical speech, it is necessary to achieve semantic consistency of parts in one statement and the same consistency of statements in the whole text.

Logicity is associated primarily with the syntactic organization of both the statement and the text. There are two types of logic:

1) conceptual logic;

2) subject logic.

The essence of substantive logic is in the correspondence of semantic connections and relationships between language units in speech and the connections and relationships of objects and phenomena in reality. Conceptual logic is a reflection of the structure of logical thought and its logical development in the semantic connections of language elements in speech.

Condition of logic:

1) mastery of the logic of reasoning - “the norms or principles of correct reasoning in search of a new truth.” Before learning to speak and write logically, a person must learn to think logically;

2) knowledge of linguistic means that contribute to the organization of semantic coherence and consistency of elements of speech structure.

3. Expressiveness of speech such features of its structure are called that support the attention and interest of the listener or reader, i.e. speech that has these features will be called expressive.

Expressiveness depends on different conditions. Among them are:

1) independence of thinking. Stereotypical thinking and stereotyped feeling do not allow the shoots of expressiveness to emerge;

3) good knowledge of the language and its expressive capabilities;

4) knowledge of the properties and characteristics of language styles: artistic, scientific, business, journalistic, colloquial. Style leaves its mark on the means of language;

5) systematic and conscious training of speech skills. A person needs to learn to control his speech, to note expressive and stereotyped moments.

The expressive means of language primarily include tropes and figures, as well as in general all units of language at all levels, starting with sounds and ending with syntax and styles. One sound may be more expressive than the entire text.

Intonation is very important to create expressiveness.

4. Richness of speech is one of the main communicative qualities of speech.

The richness of speech is ensured by the active stock of linguistic means of each person, i.e., the stock of words, their meanings, the stock of typical intonations, etc.

Lexical richness manifests itself if the speech does not use repetition of the same words that do not carry a special communicative task. This is possible provided that you have a large active vocabulary.

5. Another communicative quality of speech is its appropriateness.

Relevance is such an organization of language means that makes speech meet the goals and conditions of communication. Appropriate speech corresponds to the topic of the conversation, its logical and emotional content, and is designed for a specific audience.

There are several types of relevance:

1) stylistic relevance;

2) contextual;

3) situational;

4) personal-psychological.

Stylistic appropriateness regulates the appropriateness of a single word, phrase, or construction. Colloquial speech, for example, is characterized by syntactic constructions - stereotypes: “Where was the string bag here?”, “Moscow station, how can I get there?”

In addition to appropriateness, at certain linguistic levels, appropriateness in certain speech situations is distinguished.

Styles- these are varieties of language due to differences in areas of communication and the main functions of language.

There are five spheres of communication (they are also called language situations): everyday life, science, law, politics, art. As for the main functions of language, there are three of them: communication, message, influence.

Depending on speech situations and language functions, the following are distinguished: variety of styles: SHEETS

Conversational style (everyday sphere, communication function, less often - messages);

Scientific (field of science, message function);

Official business (sphere of law, message function);

Journalistic (the sphere of politics and art, functions of communication and influence);

Artistic (sphere of art, function of emotional impact).

Characteristics of speech styles

Conversational style serves primarily for direct communication with the people around us. It is characterized by ease and unpreparedness of speech. It often uses colloquial words (young instead of newlyweds, start instead of start, now instead of now, etc.), words with a figurative meaning (window - in the meaning of ‘break’). Words in a colloquial style often not only name objects, actions, signs, but also contain their assessment: good fellow, dodgy, careless, smart, clever, cheerful. The syntax of the conversational style is characterized by the use of simple sentences. Incomplete sentences are widely represented in it, since colloquial speech is most often a dialogue.

Scientific style– this is the style of scientific works, articles, textbooks, lectures, reviews. They contain information about various phenomena of the world around us. In the field of vocabulary, the scientific style is characterized primarily by the presence of special vocabulary and terms (declension, conjugation, theorem, bisector, logarithm, etc.). Words are used, as a rule, in their direct meanings, since scientific speech does not allow ambiguity and must be extremely accurate.

Formal business style serves a wide area of ​​legal, administrative, diplomatic relations. Its main purpose is information, message. This style is used when writing various documents, instructions, charters, etc. The words in it are used in their literal meaning to avoid their misinterpretation. The vocabulary of this style contains many words and stable combinations assigned specifically to this style: petition, statement, resolution, order, protocol, appeal, sue, initiate a case; We, the undersigned. Frequent in the syntax of this style are impersonal sentences with the meaning of necessity, order (it is necessary to urgently prepare, measures should be taken, etc.).

Journalistic style- this is the style of newspapers, speeches on current socio-political topics. The most common genres of journalism include an editorial, correspondence, essay, speech at a rally, meeting, etc. Works of journalism usually have two tasks: firstly, communication, information about certain social phenomena or acts and, secondly, an open assessment of the issues presented in order to actively influence the listener or reader in order to attract the interlocutor to support the position that the author takes and defends.

The vocabulary of this style contains many words and phraseological units of a socio-political nature: progressive humanity, the struggle for peace, advanced ideas.

Art style used in works of art to draw a picture, depict an object or event, or convey to the reader the author’s emotions. Expressions of artistic style are distinguished by imagery, clarity, and emotionality. Characteristic linguistic means and styles include words with a specific meaning, words in figurative use, emotional-evaluative words, words with the meaning of a characteristic, object or action, words with the meaning of comparison, juxtaposition; verbs of the perfect form with the prefix for-, denoting the beginning of an action, figurative use of forms of tense and moods (Akim will fall in love with this Dunyasha!), emotionally charged sentences: Suddenly something broke through in the still air, the wind blew strongly and with a noise , whistling, whirled across the steppe. Immediately the grass and last year's weeds began to murmur, and dust swirled on the road, ran across the steppe and, carrying with it straw, dragonflies and feathers, rose to the sky in a black spinning column and fogged the sun (A. Chekhov).

The language of fiction represents the most complete expression of the national language. In works of fiction, the artist of words enjoys almost unlimited freedom in choosing linguistic means to create the most convincing, memorable images for an aesthetic impact on the reader. Therefore, the language of fiction is capable of incorporating all the richness of the literary and popular language.

Conversational style used for direct everyday communication in various fields of activity: everyday life, informal professional and others. True, there is one peculiarity: in everyday life, the conversational style has oral and written forms, but in the professional sphere - only oral. Compare: colloquial lexical units - reading room, teacher, spur and neutral ones - reading room, teacher, crib. In professional written speech, colloquial vocabulary is unacceptable.

Colloquial speech– speech is uncodified, it is characterized by unpreparedness, improvisation, specificity, and informality. Conversational style does not always require strict logic and consistency of presentation. But it is characterized by imagery, emotionality of expressions, a subjective-evaluative nature, arbitrariness, simplicity, and even a certain familiarity of tone.

The following genres are distinguished in conversational style: friendly conversation, private conversation, note, private letter, personal diary.

In terms of language, colloquial speech is distinguished by an abundance of emotionally charged, expressive vocabulary, so-called condensate words (vecherka - “Evening Moscow”) and doublet words (freezer - evaporator in the refrigerator). It is characterized by appeals, diminutive words, and free word order in sentences. At the same time, sentences that are simpler in construction are more often used than in other styles: incompleteness and incompleteness constitute their feature, which is possible due to the transparency of the speech situation (for example: Where are you going? - To the tenth.; Well, what? - Passed!). They often contain subtext, irony, and humor. Colloquial speech contains many phraseological units, comparisons, proverbs, and sayings. It gravitates towards constant updating and rethinking of linguistic means, the emergence of new forms and meanings.

Academician L.V. Shcherba called colloquial speech “the forge in which verbal innovations are forged.” Colloquial speech enriches book styles with lively, fresh words and phrases. In turn, book speech has a certain effect on spoken speech: it disciplines it, gives it a more standardized character.

One more feature of the conversational style should be noted: knowledge of speech etiquette, both written and oral, is of great importance for it. In addition, for oral conversational speech it is very important to take into account the specifics of extra-linguistic factors: facial expressions, gestures, tone, environment. This is a general characteristic of the colloquial style.

Abstract compiled by Anastasia Oorzhak

Language is a system of conventional symbols with the help of which combinations of sounds are transmitted that have certain meanings and meanings for people.

There are languages

- natural;
- artificial - developed by people to solve certain problems. They are correct and systematic, and easy to study. Examples: deaf language, road sign language, Morse code, programming languages ​​(machine languages), Esperanto.

Languages ​​can also be divided according to the form of denoting signs into:
— sound;
- pictorial - they use symbols to replace objects and qualities.

At the same time, there are 2 more types of writing:
- letter-by-letter - each sound or combination of sounds is assigned a specific sign, which can then be easily voiced;
- hieroglyphic writing - words and objects are replaced by images.

(In psychology, it is believed that the unit of language is the word.)

People often talk about verbal and non-verbal communication.

Verbal communication is about words.

In nonverbal communication, actions, facial patterns, and gestures can serve as a denoting form. All of them are directed towards vision.

Many argue, saying that non-verbal communication is not a language, because... there is a direct transmission of the emotional state. However, when an actor on stage pretends that he is sobbing, but in fact he is calm, we can talk about language.

There are many ways to convey information without words - for example, symbolic languages, or languages ​​of symbols. In them, the thing that replaces another is a symbol.

Colors can be used as symbols. For example, black is the color of grief and mourning; yellow flowers - for separation. Yellow color is associated with withering, while “golden” has positive semantics.

Symbolism of quantity - for example, it is customary for us to give an odd number of flowers.

Signs: a black cat is a symbol of failure.

Symbolic language varies from one culture to another. The language of symbols and gestures is not codified (there are no dictionaries for them).

Speech is the process of communication between people using one language or another.

In most cases, this is precisely the communication between people. Although animals and computers also have something similar. To all of them we can apply a more communicative concept – “communication”.

Types of speech are related to the forms of signs used and to whom the speech is directed.

1. oral / written speech

Oral speech always presupposes an interlocutor and unfolds in a certain context perceived by both interlocutors. In oral speech, a gesture can replace an entire sentence (For example, at a tram stop: “It’s coming!”). The emotionality of oral speech is much higher.

Expressive speech is the most emotional (interjections, exclamations, obscene words). It is the least developed and most strongly connected to the context.

2. external / internal speech
(external is directed at others, internal is directed at oneself - “I am like another.”
First a person learns to communicate with others, and then with himself.)