To add brightness to speech, enhance its emotional sound, give it an expressive coloring, and also attract the attention of readers and listeners to words, special means of expressive language are used. Such figures of speech are distinguished by great diversity.
Speech expressive means are divided into several categories: they are phonetic, lexical, and also related to syntax (syntactic), phraseological units (phraseological), tropes (speech figures with the opposite meaning). Expressive means of language are used everywhere, in various areas of human communication: from fiction to scientific journalism and simple everyday communication. Such expressive figures of speech are least often used in the business sphere due to their inappropriateness. As you might guess, means of expression and artistic language go hand in hand: they serve as the best auxiliary means for creating vivid literary images and conveying characters, helping the writer to better characterize the world of his work and more fully realize the intended plot.
Modern philologists do not offer us any clear classification of the expressive means of language into specific groups, but they can be conditionally divided into two types:
- trails;
- stylistic figures.
Tropes are figures of speech or individual words used in a non-literal meaning, using hidden meaning. Such expressive means of language are an important part of conveying the author’s artistic intent. Paths are represented by such individual phrases as metaphor, hyperbole, synecdoche, metonymy, litotes, etc.
Stylistic figures are expressive means used by the author of a work of art in order to convey to readers the greatest degree of feelings and characters of characters and situations. The correct use of stylistic figures allows you to better express the meaning of the text and give it the necessary coloring. Antithesis and anaphora, inversion and gradation, as well as epiphora, parallelism - these are all stylistic figures of speech.
The most commonly used means of expression in the Russian language
Earlier we talked about a wide variety of expressive lexical means of speech that help convey the desired emotional coloring. Let's figure out which means of expressiveness are used most often both in fiction and in everyday speech.
Hyperbole is a figure of speech that is based on the technique of exaggerating something. If the author wants to enhance the expressiveness of the figure being conveyed or to amaze the reader (listener), he uses hyperbole in speech.
Example: fast as lightning; I told you a hundred times!
Metaphor is one of the main figures of language expressiveness, without which the full transfer of properties from one object or living thing to others is unthinkable. Such a trope as a metaphor is somewhat reminiscent of a comparison, but the auxiliary words “as if”, “as if” and the like are not used, while the reader and listener feels their hidden presence.
Example: seething emotions; sunny smile; icy hands.
An epithet is a means of expression that colors even the simplest things and situations in expressive, bright colors.
Example: ruddy dawn; playful waves; languid look.
Please note: you cannot use the first adjective you come across as an epithet. If an existing adjective defines clear properties of an object or phenomenon, it should not be taken as an epithet ( wet asphalt, cold air, etc.)
Antithesis is a technique of expressive speech that is often used by the author to increase the degree of expression and drama of a situation or phenomenon. Also used to show a high degree of difference. Poets often use antithesis.
Example: « You are a prose writer - I am a poet, you are rich - I am very poor" (A.S. Pushkin).
Comparison is one of the stylistic figures, the name of which lies its functionality. We all know that when comparing objects or phenomena, they are directly opposed. In artistic and everyday speech, several techniques are used that help ensure that the comparison is successfully conveyed:
- comparison with the addition of a noun (“storm” haze the sky covers...");
- turnover with the addition of conjunctions of comparative color (The skin of her hands was rough, like the sole of a boot);
- with the inclusion of a subordinate clause (Night fell on the city and in a matter of seconds everything became quiet, as if there was no such liveliness in the squares and streets just an hour ago).
Phraseologism is a figure of speech, one of the most popular means of expression in the Russian language. Compared to other tropes and stylistic figures, phraseological units are not compiled by the author personally, but are used in a ready-made, accepted form.
Example: like a bull in a china shop; make porridge; Play the fool.
Personification is a type of trope that is used when there is a desire to endow inanimate objects and everyday phenomena with human qualities.
Example: it is raining; nature rejoices; the fog is leaving.
In addition to those expressive means that were listed above, there are also a large number of expressive expressions that are not so often used, but are just as important for achieving richness of speech. These include the following means of expression:
- irony;
- litotes;
- sarcasm;
- inversion;
- oxymoron;
- allegory;
- lexical repetition;
- metonymy;
- inversion;
- gradation;
- multi-union;
- anaphora and many other tropes and stylistic figures.
The extent to which a person has mastered the techniques of expressive speech determines his success in society, and in the case of an author of fiction, his popularity as a writer. The absence of expressive phrases in everyday or artistic speech predetermines its wretchedness and the manifestation of little interest in it by readers or listeners.
Metaphor(Greek metaphora - transfer) – a type of trail formed by principle of similarity; one of the means of enhancing the figurativeness and expressiveness of speech. The first attempts at scientific interpretation of mathematics date back to antiquity (the doctrine of the so-called dhvani in Indian poetics, the judgments of Aristotle, Cicero, Quintilian, etc.). Subsequently, a revival of interest in metallurgy arose already in the 19th century. due to development will compare. linguistics and poetics. Some authors are primarily interested in the genesis and evolution of M. (the works of A. A. Potebnya, A. Bizet, K. Werner, etc.), others - the “statics” of this phenomenon, its internal. structure and functions.M. is based on the ability of a word to undergo a kind of doubling (multiplication) in speech, denoting functions. So, in the phrase: “The crew... was... like... thick-cheeked convex watermelon , placed on wheels... The watermelon was filled with chintz pillows..., stuffed with bags of bread, rolls...” (N.V. Gogol, “Dead Souls”) - the word “watermelon” (in the second case) means simultaneously two items: “crew” (only in this context) and “watermelon”. The role of the first and second objects can be any figuratively assimilated facts of reality - phenomena of inanimate nature, plants, animals, people, their internals. world. Paired into “subject pairs”, they form combinations characterized by great diversity.
Basic types M.: 1) inanimate - inanimate (about the month: “hanging behind the woman’s hut crust of bread ...", mystery); 2) alive - alive (about a girl: “a nimble and thin snake”, M. Gorky); 3) living – non-living (about muscles: “cast iron”); 4) nonliving – living (“wave ridges”). More complex are those based on synesthesia, that is, bringing together phenomena perceived by different senses (“to the colors on the canvas”, etc.). The objective similarity between objects, which makes it possible to create m., most often consists of such properties as: 1) color - “trees in winter silver” (A. S. Pushkin); 2) form – “blade of the month” (M. A. Sholokhov), “ring” (about a snake); 3) size (often in combination with other properties) - “crumb”, “bug” (about a child), “filled his nose with tobacco from both entrances” (Gogol; about large nostrils); 4) density - “gas” (about light fabric), “milk” (about thick fog), cf. also “bronze of muscles” (V.V. Mayakovsky); 5) dynamism - “a heap of fat body crushed by sleep” (Gorky), “idol” (about a motionless person), cf. “lightning”, “give lightning” (about a telegram). A common property in the first object (image object) may be. both constant and variable; in the second (means of likening) - only constant. Often objects in M. are compared several times at the same time. signs: “a thick macaron glitters on an epaulette - generality” (Gogol; color and shape).
Metonymy(Greek metonymia - renaming) – a type of trail based on contiguity principle. Like metaphor, M. is a word that, in order to enhance the figurativeness and expressiveness of speech, simultaneously denotes two (or more) phenomena that are actually connected with each other. Thus, in the phrase “Everything flags
will come to visit us” (A.S. Pushkin, “The Bronze Horseman”) the word “flags” means: ships with the flags of various states, the merchants and sailors sailing on them, as well as these flags themselves, - thus preserving. and its usual meaning.
Several can be distinguished. types of metonymic subject pairs. 1) The whole is a part, i.e. synecdoche; the subject as a whole is denoted by k.-l. a striking detail (it becomes a representative of this item). Wed. about man: “no human foot has set foot here”; “Hey, beard! and how to get from here to Plyushkin?..." (N.V. Gogol); about the royal gendarmes - “And you, blue uniforms...” (M. Yu. Lermontov); “a detachment of two hundred sabers” (cavalry). 2) Thing – material. About dishes: “It’s not like eating on silver, I ate on gold” (A. S. Griboyedov); about the pipe: “The amber in his mouth was smoking” (Pushkin). 3) Content – containing. “I ate three plates” (I. A. Krylov); about wood in the stove: “The flooded stove is cracking” (Pushkin); “No, my Moscow did not go to him with a guilty head” (Pushkin). 4) The carrier of the property is the property. Instead of a thing, a person is indicated. internal its property, which is, as it were, abstracted from its bearer and objectified. About brave people: “The city takes courage” (last); in addresses: “my joy” (about a person who brings joy). 5) The product of the action is the producer of the action. “A man... Belinsky and Gogol will carry away from the market” (N. A. Nekrasov). 6) Product of action - place of production. Wed. in Gogol - Captain Kopeikin in the St. Petersburg reception room “huddled... in a corner so as not to push with his elbow... some America or India - a gilded, you know, porcelain vase of sorts” (M. with its immediate “decoding”). 7) Action is an instrument of action. “For the violent raid he doomed their villages and fields to swords and fires” (i.e., destruction and burning; Pushkin).
Multi-Union(from the Greek polysyndeton - multi-union), - special the use of conjunctions in stylistics. purposes; such a construction of a phrase in which all homogeneous members of the sentence are connected by conjunctions, while usually only the last two homogeneous members are connected by a conjunction. P. is often associated with anaphora and usually emphasizes internal. enumerable connection:
AND
more insidious than the northern night,
AND
more intoxicated than golden ai,
AND
gypsy love in short
Your caresses were terrible... (A. Blok).
P. also enhances the perception of the unity of the events described: “And finally, they screamed at him, and laid him down, and the whole thing was over” (Yu. Tynyanov).
Fine-expressive language means of fiction include:
Epithet- an artistic and figurative definition of an object or phenomenon.
Example: sadness - "inexpressible" eyes - "huge" May - "solar", fingers - "the finest"(O. Mandel-shtam “Inexpressible sadness...")
Hyperbola- artistic exaggeration.
Example: The earth was shaking— like our breasts; Horses, people, and volleys mixed in a heap thousands of guns Merged into a long howl... (M.Yu. Lermontov “Borodino”)
Litotes- artistic understatement (“reverse hyperbole”).
Example: “The youngest son was as tall as a finger..."(A.A. Akh-matova. “Lullaby”).
Trails- words or phrases used not in a literal, but in a figurative meaning. The trails include allegory, allusion, metaphor, metonymy, personification, periphrase, symbol, symphora, synecdoche, comparison, euphemism.
Allegory- allegory, depiction of an abstract idea through a concrete, clearly represented image. The allegory is unambiguous and directly points to a strictly defined concept.
Example: fox- cunning wolf- cruelty, donkey - stupidity (in fables); gloomy Albion- England (A.S. Pushkin “When you squeeze your hand again...”).
Allusion- one of the tropes that consists in using a transparent hint of some well-known everyday, literary or historical fact instead of mentioning this fact itself.
Example: A. S. Pushkin’s mention of the Patriotic War of 1812:
Why? be responsible: for whether,
What's on the ruins of burning Moscow
We did not recognize the arrogant will
The one under whom you trembled?
(“To the slanderers of Russia”)
Metaphor- this is a hidden comparison based on some characteristics common to the compared objects or phenomena.
Example: The east is burning with a new dawn(A.S. Pushkin “Poltava”).
Personification- endowing objects and phenomena of non-living nature with the features of a living being (most often a person).
Example: “The night thickened, flew nearby, grabbed those jumping by the cloaks and, tearing them off their shoulders, exposed the deceptions(M. A. Bulgakov “The Master and Margarita”).
Metonymy- a poetic trope consisting of replacing one word or concept with another that has a causal connection with the first.
Example: There is a Museum of Ethnography in this city
Over the Neva, wide as the Nile,
(N. S. Gumilyov “Abyssinia”)
Synecdoche- one of the tropes that is built on the relationship of quantity; more instead of less or vice versa.
Example: Say: how soon will we Warsaw Will the proud man prescribe his own law? (A. S. Pushkin “Borodin Anniversary”)
Periphrase- a trope that is built on the principle of expanded metonymy and consists of replacing a word or phrase with a descriptive figure of speech, which indicates the characteristics of an object not directly named.
Example: in the poem by A. A. Akhmatova “The dark-skinned youth wandered through the alleys...” using periphrasis, A. S. Pushkin himself is depicted:
Here lay his cocked hat and the disheveled volume of Guys.
Euphemism- replacement of a rude, indecent or intimate word or statement with others that transparently hint at the true meaning (close to periphrasis in stylistic organization).
Example: woman in an interesting position instead of pregnant, recovered instead of getting fat, borrowed instead he stole it, etc.
Symbol- hidden comparison, in which the object being compared is not named, but is implied to a certain extent
variability (multiple meanings). A symbol only points to some reality, but is not compared with it unambiguously and directly; this contains the fundamental difference between a symbol and a metaphor, with which it is often confused.
Example: I'm just a cloud full of fire(K.D. Balmont “I do not know wisdom”). The only point of contact between the poet and the cloud is “fleetingness.”
Anaphora (unity of principle)- this is the repetition of similar sounds, words, syntactic and rhythmic repetitions at the beginning of adjacent verses, stanzas (in poetic works) or closely spaced phrases in a paragraph or at the beginning of adjacent paragraphs (in prose).
Example: Kohl love so crazy Kohl threaten, so seriously, Kohl scold, so rashly, Kohl chop, just like that! (A.K. Tolstoy “If you love, you go crazy...”)
Multi-Union- such a construction of a stanza, episode, verse, paragraph, when all the main logically significant phrases (segments) included in it are connected by the same conjunction:
Example: And the wind, and the rain, and the darkness
Above the cold desert of water. (I. A. Bunin “Loneliness”)
Gradation- gradual, consistent strengthening or weakening of images, comparisons, epithets and other means of artistic expression.
Example: No one will give us deliverance, Neither God, nor king, nor hero...
(E. Pothier “Internationale”)
Oxymoron (or oxymoron)- a contrasting combination of words with opposite meanings in order to create an ethical effect.
Example: “I love lush nature fading..."(A.S. Pushkin “Autumn”).
Alliteration- a technique of sound writing that gives lines of verse or parts of prose a special sound through the repetition of certain consonant sounds.
Example: “Katya, Katya,” they are cutting out the horseshoes for my race...” In I. Selvinsky’s poem “The Black-Eyed Cossack Woman,” the repetition of the sound “k” imitates the clatter of hooves.
Antiphrasis- the use of a word or expression in a sense opposite to its semantics, most often ironic.
Example: ...He sang faded color of life"Almost at eighteen years old. (A. S. Pushkin “Eugene Onegin”)
Stylization- this is a technique that consists in the fact that the author deliberately imitates the style, manner, poetics of some other famous work or group of works.
Example: in the poem “Tsarskoye Selo Statue” A. S. Pushkin resorts to stylization of ancient poetry:
Having dropped the urn with water, the maiden broke it on a cliff. The virgin sits sadly, idle holding a shard. Miracle! The water does not dry up, pouring out from the broken urn, the Virgin sits eternally sad over the eternal stream.
Anthology- the use of words and expressions in the work in their direct, immediate, everyday meaning. This is neutral, “prosaic” speech.
Example: Winter. What should we do in the village? I meet a Servant bringing me a cup of tea in the morning with questions: is it warm? Has the snowstorm subsided? (A.S. Pushkin “Winter. What should we do in the village?..”)
Antithesis- artistic contrast of images, concepts, positions, situations, etc.
Example: here is a fragment of the historical song “Choice of Er-mak as Ataman”:
Unclear falcons flew together - They gathered and gathered Good fellows...
Our language is a holistic and logically correct system. Its smallest unit is sound, its smallest meaningful unit is morpheme. Words, which are considered the basic unit of language, are made up of morphemes. They can be considered from the point of view of their sound, as well as from the point of view of structure, as or as members of a sentence.
Each of the named linguistic units corresponds to a certain linguistic layer, tier. Sound is a unit of phonetics, a morpheme is a unit of morphemics, a word is a unit of vocabulary, parts of speech are a unit of morphology, and sentences are a unit of syntax. Morphology and syntax together make up grammar.
At the level of vocabulary, tropes are distinguished - special turns of speech that give it special expressiveness. Similar means at the syntax level are figures of speech. As we see, everything in the language system is interconnected and interdependent.
Lexical means
Let us dwell on the most striking linguistic means. Let's start with the lexical level of the language, which - recall - is based on words and their lexical meanings.
Synonyms
Synonyms are words of the same part of speech that are close in their lexical meanings. For example, beautiful – wonderful.
Some words or combinations of words acquire a close meaning only in a certain context, in a certain linguistic environment. This context synonyms.
Consider the sentence: “ Day was August, sultry, painfully boring" . Words August , sultry, painfully boring are not synonyms. However, in this context, when characterizing a summer day, they acquire a similar meaning, acting as contextual synonyms.
Antonyms
Antonyms are words of the same part of speech with opposite lexical meaning: tall - low, high - low, giant - dwarf.
Like synonyms, antonyms can be contextual, that is, acquire the opposite meaning in a certain context. Words wolf And sheep, for example, are not antonyms out of context. However, in A.N. Ostrovsky’s play “Wolves and Sheep” two types of people are depicted - human “predators” (“wolves”) and their victims (“sheep”). It turns out that in the title of the work the words wolves And sheep, acquiring the opposite meaning, become contextual antonyms.
Dialectisms
Dialecticisms are words that are used only in certain areas. For example, in the southern regions of Russia beet has another name - beetroot. In some areas the wolf is called the biryuk. Växa(squirrel), hut(house), towel(towel) - all these are dialecticisms. In literary works, dialectisms are most often used to create local color.
Neologisms
Neologisms are new words that have recently entered the language: smartphone, browser, multimedia and so on.
Outdated words
In linguistics, words that have fallen out of active use are considered obsolete. Obsolete words are divided into two groups - archaisms and historicisms.
Archaisms– these are outdated names of objects that still exist today. Other names, for example, used to have eyes and a mouth. They were named accordingly eyes And mouth.
Historicisms– words that have fallen out of use due to the disappearance of the concepts and phenomena they denote from everyday use. Oprichnina, corvee, boyar, chain mail– objects and phenomena called such words do not exist in modern life, which means that these are historic words.
Phraseologisms
Phraseologisms are adjacent to lexical linguistic means - stable combinations of words reproduced equally by all native speakers. Like snow fell on your head, play spillikins, neither fish nor fowl, work carelessly, turn up your nose, turn your head... There are so many phraseological units in the Russian language and what aspects of life they do not characterize!
Trails
Tropes are figures of speech based on playing with the meaning of a word and giving speech special expressiveness. Let's look at the most popular trails.
Metaphor
Metaphor is the transfer of properties from one object to another based on some similarity, the use of a word in a figurative meaning. Metaphor is sometimes called a hidden comparison - and for good reason. Let's look at examples.
Cheeks are burning. The word is used in a figurative meaning are burning. Cheeks seem to be on fire - that’s what hidden comparisons are like.
Sunset bonfire. The word is used in a figurative meaning bonfire. The sunset is compared to a fire, but the comparison is hidden. This is a metaphor.
Expanded metaphor
With the help of metaphor, a detailed image is often created - in this case, not one word, but several, appears in a figurative meaning. Such a metaphor is called expanded.
Here is an example, lines from Vladimir Soloukhin:
“The Earth is a cosmic body, and we are astronauts making a very long flight around the Sun, together with the Sun across the infinite Universe.”
The first metaphor is Earth is a cosmic body- gives birth to the second - we, people - astronauts.
As a result, a whole detailed image is created - human cosmonauts make a long flight around the sun on an Earth ship.
Epithet
Epithet– colorful artistic definition. Of course, epithets are most often adjectives. Moreover, the adjectives are colorful, emotional and evaluative. For example, in the phrase golden ring word golden is not an epithet, it is a common definition characterizing the material from which the ring is made. But in the phrase gold hair, golden soul - gold, golden- epithets.
However, other cases are also possible. Sometimes a noun plays the role of an epithet. For example, frost-voivode. Voivode in this case, application is a type of definition, which means it may well be an epithet.
Often epithets are emotional, colorful adverbs, for example, funny in a phrase walks merrily.
Constant epithets
Constant epithets are found in folklore and oral folk art. Remember: in folk songs, fairy tales, epics, the good fellow is always kind, the maiden is red, the wolf is gray, and the earth is damp. All these are constant epithets.
Comparison
Likening one object or phenomenon to another. Most often it is expressed in comparative phrases with conjunctions as, as if, exactly, as if or comparative clauses. But there are other forms of comparison. For example, the comparative degree of an adjective and adverb or the so-called instrumental comparison. Let's look at examples.
Time flies, like a bird(comparative turnover).
Brother is older than me(comparative turnover).
I younger than brother(comparative degree of the adjective young).
Squirms snake. (creative comparison).
Personification
Endowing inanimate objects or phenomena with the properties and qualities of living things: the sun is laughing, spring has come.
Metonymy
Metonymy is the replacement of one concept with another based on contiguity. What does it mean? Surely in geometry lessons you studied adjacent angles - angles that have one common side. Concepts can also be related - for example, school and students.
Let's look at examples:
School went out on a cleanup day.
Kiss plate ate.
The essence of metonymy in the first example is that instead of the word students the word is used school la. In the second example we use the word plate instead of the name of what is on the plate ( soup, porridge or something similar), that is, we use metonymy.
Synecdoche
Synecdoche is similar to metonymy and is considered a type of it. This trope also consists of replacement - but the replacement must be quantitative. Most often, the plural is replaced by the singular and vice versa.
Let's look at examples of synecdoche.
“From here we will threaten Swede… “- thinks Tsar Peter in A.S. Pushkin’s poem “The Bronze Horseman”. Of course, this meant more than one Swede, A Swedes- that is, the singular number is used instead of the plural.
And here is a line from Pushkin’s “Eugene Onegin”: "We all look at Napoleons". It is known that the French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte was alone. The poet uses synecdoche - uses the plural instead of the singular.
Hyperbola
Hyperbole is excessive exaggeration. “At one hundred and forty suns the sunset glowed”, writes V. Mayakovsky. And Gogolsky had trousers “as wide as the Black Sea.”
Litotes
Litotes is the opposite trope of hyperbole, an excessive understatement: a boy with a finger, a man with a nail.
Irony
Irony is hidden mockery. At the same time, we put into our words a meaning that is directly opposite to the true one. “Get off, smart one, your head is delusional”, - such a question in Krylov’s fable is addressed to the Donkey, who is considered the embodiment of stupidity.
Periphrase
We have already considered paths based on the replacement of concepts. At metonymy one word is replaced by another according to the contiguity of concepts, when synecdoche The singular number is replaced by the plural or vice versa.
A paraphrase is also a replacement - a word is replaced by several words, a whole descriptive phrase. For example, instead of the word “animals” we say or write “our little brothers.” Instead of the word "lion" - king of beasts.
Syntactic means
Syntactic means are those linguistic means that are associated with a sentence or phrase. Syntactic means are sometimes called grammatical, since syntax, along with morphology, is part of grammar. Let's look at some syntactic means.
Homogeneous members of the sentence
These are members of a sentence that answer the same question, refer to the same word, are one member of a sentence and, in addition, are pronounced with a special intonation of enumeration.
Grew in the garden roses, daisies,bells . — This sentence is complicated by homogeneous subjects.
Introductory words
These are words that more often express an attitude towards what is being communicated, indicate the source of the message or the way the thought is expressed. Let's analyze the examples.
Fortunately, snow.
Unfortunately, snow.
Maybe, snow.
According to a friend, snow.
So, snow.
The above sentences convey the same information (snow), but it is expressed with different feelings (fortunately, unfortunately) with uncertainty (maybe), indicating the source of the message (according to a friend) and the way to formulate thoughts (So).
Dialogue
A conversation between two or more people. Let us recall, as an example, a dialogue from a poem by Korney Chukovsky:
- Who's talking?
- Elephant.
- Where?
- From a camel...
Question-and-answer form of presentation
This is the name for constructing a text in the form of questions and answers to them. "What's wrong with a piercing gaze?" — the author asks the question. And he answers to himself: “Everything is bad!”
Separate members of the sentence
Secondary members of a sentence, which are distinguished by commas (or dashes) in writing, and by pauses in speech.
The pilot talks about his adventures, smiling at the listeners (a sentence with a separate circumstance, expressed by an adverbial phrase).
The children went out into the clearing, illuminated by the sun (a sentence with a separate circumstance expressed by a participial phrase).
Without a brother his first listener and admirer, he would hardly have achieved such results.(offer with a separate widespread application).
Nobody, except her sister, didn't know about it(sentence with a separate addition).
I'll come early at six o'clock in the morning (sentence with a separate clarifying circumstance of time).
Figures of speech
At the syntax level, special constructions are distinguished that give expressiveness to speech. They are called figures of speech, as well as stylistic figures. These are antithesis, gradation, inversion, parcellation, anaphora, epiphora, rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal, etc. Let's look at some of the stylistic figures.
Antithesis
In Russian, antithesis is called opposition. An example of this is the proverb: “Learning is light, but ignorance is darkness.”
Inversion
Inversion is the reverse order of words. As you know, each member of a sentence has its own “legitimate” place, its own position. So, the subject must come before the predicate, and the definition must come before the word being defined. Certain positions are assigned to adverbial and complementary elements. When the order of words in a sentence is violated, we can talk about inversion.
Using inversion, writers and poets achieve the desired sound of a phrase. Remember the poem "Sail". Without inversion, his first lines would sound like this: “A lonely sail whitens in the blue fog of the sea”. The poet used inversion and the lines sounded amazing:
The lonely sail turns white
In the blue sea fog...
Gradation
Gradation is the arrangement of words (usually homogeneous members, in ascending or descending order of their meanings). Let's look at examples: "This optical illusion, hallucination, mirage« (a hallucination is more than an optical illusion, and a mirage is more than an optical illusion). Gradation can be either ascending or descending.
Parcellation
Sometimes, to enhance expressiveness, the boundaries of a sentence are deliberately violated, that is, parcellation is used. It consists of fragmenting a phrase, which results in the formation of incomplete sentences (that is, constructions whose meaning is unclear outside the context). An example of parcellation can be considered a newspaper headline: “The process has begun. “Backward” (“The process has gone backward,” this is what the phrase looked like before fragmentation).
Lesson-workshop in Russian language for 11th grade
"Means of artistic expression."
Goals:
Systematization and generalization of work with the taskAT 8 (preparation for the Unified State Exam)
Development of logical thinking, the ability to prove one’s point of view and defend it.
Developing communication skills and the ability to work in groups.
Task No. 1.
Students are divided into multi-level groups of 4 people.
As they work, students take turns commenting on the text, finding all the tropes and figures of speech.
Each student must take part in text analysis.
If someone has difficulties, the others help the student understand the topic.
All members of the group must produce the same work, the same grade is given to everyone.
The work uses the memo “Tropes and Figures of Speech”
The following text is suggested for work:
SAD JOY...
The city was sleeping. Silence stopped the hectic, chaotic molecular movement. The darkness was palpably viscous, and even the standard joyful New Year's illumination did not help illuminate this impenetrability.
And he walked, ran, flew... Where? For what? What's there? He did not know. Yes, it was not so important! The main thing is that they were waiting for him there.
A series of dull, monotonous school days suddenly turned into festive fireworks, into the sweet agony of waiting for each new day, when one day SHE entered the class... She entered. She sat down next to her and, dashingly clicking a pink bubble inflated from chewing gum, said “Hello” with a smile. This simple word turned his whole dull life upside down! Small, boyishly angular, fragile, with huge eyes the color of the sky and a red explosion of unruly small curls on her head, she instantly drove the entire male population of the class crazy. The school buzzed every time this amazing creature rushed along the long corridor like a fiery torch.
He understood that the chances were zero, but his heart and reason were clearly not in harmony! It rustled in a crazy whisper, moving the balls in his soul with hope... And he took a risk. The note, hard-won during sleepless nights, ended up in her notebook. Time stood still. It froze. Disappeared. He waited. The days dragged on with thick raspberry syrup. Two. Five. Ten... Hope dies last. And he waited.
The night call woke him up, ending her long, wonderful kiss. “I’m at the hospital, come.” The whisper of rustling leaves, the grinding of a strong, fragile, rainbow-colored ice crust underfoot simply tore my brain. There was a throb in her throat: “She feels bad. She needs me. She called me."
And he walked. He ran. Flew. Without understanding the road. not noticing the cold and uninvited peas of tears on the cheeks. My heart was breaking with a thousand emotions. Where? Why?... There... Then...
5. Summing up.
6. Homework.
Create your own text by analogy with the completed work, complicating it as much as possible.
THEORETICAL MATERIALS TO HELP.
1. Antonyms - different words related to the same part of speech, but opposite in meaning (good - evil, powerful - powerless). The contrast of antonyms in speech is a clear source of speech expression, establishing the emotionality of speech: he was weak in body, but strong in spirit.
2. Contextual (or contextual) antonyms - these are words that are not contrasted in meaning in language and are antonyms only in the text: Mind and heart - ice and fire - this is the main thing that distinguished this hero.
3.Hyperbole – a figurative expression that exaggerates an action, object, or phenomenon. Used to enhance the artistic impression: Snow was falling from the sky in pounds.
4. Litota – artistic understatement: a little man. Used to enhance artistic impression.
5.Synonyms - these are words related to the same part of speech, expressing the same concept, but at the same time differing in shades of meaning: Falling in love - love, buddy - friend.
6. Contextual (or contextual) synonyms – words that are synonymous only in this text: Lomonosov – genius – beloved child of nature. (V. Belinsky)
7. Stylistic synonyms - differ in stylistic coloring, sphere of use: grinned - giggled - laughed - neighed.
8. Syntactic synonyms - parallel syntactic constructions that have different structures, but coincide in meaning: start preparing lessons - start preparing lessons.
9.Metaphor - a hidden comparison based on the similarity between distant phenomena and objects. The basis of any metaphor is an unnamed comparison of some objects with others that have a common feature.
There were, are and, I hope, there will always be more good people in the world than bad and evil people, otherwise there would be disharmony in the world, it would become warped... capsize and sink. Epithet, personification, oxymoron, antithesis can be considered as a type of metaphor.
10. Expanded metaphor – a detailed transfer of the properties of one object, phenomenon or aspect of existence to another according to the principle of similarity or contrast. The metaphor is particularly expressive. Possessing unlimited possibilities in bringing together a wide variety of objects or phenomena, metaphor allows you to rethink the subject in a new way, to reveal and expose its inner nature. Sometimes it is an expression of the author’s individual vision of the world.
11.Metonymy – transfer of values (renaming) according to the contiguity of phenomena. The most common transfer cases:
a) from a person to his any external signs: Is lunch soon? - asked the guest, turning to the quilted vest;
b) from the institution to its inhabitants: The entire boarding house recognized the superiority of D.I. Pisareva;
12.Synecdoche - a technique by which the whole is expressed through its part (something smaller included in something larger) A type of metonymy. “Hey, beard! How do you get from here to Plyushkin?”
13.Oxymoron - a combination of words with contrasting meanings that create a new concept or idea. Most often, an oxymoron conveys the author’s attitude towards an object or phenomenon: The sad fun continued...
14. Personification – one of the types of metaphor when a characteristic is transferred from a living object to an inanimate one. When personified, the described object is externally used by a person: The trees, bending towards me, extended their thin arms.
15.Comparison - one of the means of expressive language that helps the author express his point of view, create entire artistic pictures, and give a description of objects. Comparisons are usually added by conjunctions: as, as if, as if, exactly, etc. but serves to figuratively describe the most diverse characteristics of objects, qualities, and actions. For example, a comparison helps to give an accurate description of color: His eyes are black as night.
16.Phraseological units – these are almost always vivid expressions. Therefore, they are an important expressive means of language, used by writers as ready-made figurative definitions, comparisons, as emotional and graphic characteristics of heroes, the surrounding reality, etc.: people like my hero have a spark of God.
17.Epithet – a word that highlights in an object or phenomenon any of its properties, qualities or characteristics. An epithet is an artistic definition, i.e. colorful, figurative, which emphasizes some of its distinctive properties in the word being defined. Any meaningful word can serve as an epithet if it acts as an artistic, figurative definition of another:
1) noun: chatty magpie.
2) adjective: fatal hours.
3) Adverb and participle: eagerly peers; listens frozen; but most often epithets are expressed using adjectives used in a figurative meaning: half-asleep, tender, loving gazes.
SYNTACTIC MEANS OF EXPRESSION.
1.Anaphora - This is the repetition of individual words or phrases at the beginning of a sentence. Used to enhance the expressed thought, image, phenomenon: How to talk about the beauty of the sky? How to tell about the feelings overwhelming the soul at this moment?
2. Antithesis - a stylistic device that consists of a sharp contrast of concepts, characters, images, creating the effect of sharp contrast. It helps to better convey, depict contradictions, and contrast phenomena. Serves as a way to express the author’s view of the described phenomena, images, etc.
3. Gradation - a stylistic figure that involves the consistent intensification or, conversely, weakening of comparisons, images, epithets, metaphors and other expressive means of artistic speech: For the sake of your child, for the sake of the family, for the sake of the people, for the sake of humanity - take care of the world!
4 Inversion – reverse word order in a sentence. In direct order, the subject precedes the predicate, the agreed definition comes before the word being defined, the inconsistent definition comes after it, the object after the control word, the adverbial modifier comes before the verb: Modern youth quickly realized the falsity of this truth. And with inversion, words are arranged in a different order than established by grammatical rules. This is a strong expressive means used in emotional, excited speech: My beloved homeland, my native land, should we take care of you!
5.Parcellation is a technique of dividing a phrase into parts or even into individual words. Its goal is to give the speech intonation expression by abruptly pronouncing it: The poet suddenly stood up. He turned pale.
6.Repeat - conscious use of the same word or combination of words in order to strengthen the meaning of this image, concept, etc.: Pushkin was a sufferer, a sufferer in the full sense of the word.
7. Rhetorical questions and rhetorical exclamations – a special means of creating emotionality in speech and expressing the author’s position.
What summer, what summer? Yes, this is just witchcraft!
8. Syntactic parallelism – identical construction of several adjacent sentences. With its help, the author strives to highlight and emphasize the idea expressed: Mother is an earthly miracle. Mother is a sacred word.