After the Time of Troubles, Russia had to abandon an active foreign policy for a long time. However, as the economy was restored and the situation within the country stabilized, the tsarist government began to solve pressing foreign policy problems. The first priority was the return of Smolensk, the most important fortress on the western border, captured by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth during the Time of Troubles. In 1632 - 1634 Russia is dealing with it so-called. Smolensk war. The Russian army, however, turned out to be weak and poorly organized. The siege of Smolensk did not produce results. The Treaty of Polyanovo in 1634 left Smolensk and all the western territories of Russia captured during the Time of Troubles for the Poles.
At the end of the 1640s. A third force intervened in the confrontation between Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: a powerful uprising broke out in Ukraine and Belarus. It was caused by the difficult situation in which the local population found itself. If Ukrainian and Belarusian feudal lords in the 16th - 17th centuries. While the majority accepted the Catholic faith and became Polish, the peasants and townspeople continued to remain faithful to Orthodoxy, their native language, and national customs. In addition to social inequality, they also had to suffer from religious and national oppression, which was extremely strong in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Many tried to flee to the eastern outskirts of the state, to the Dnieper Cossacks. These Cossacks, who retained self-government, carried out border service, protecting the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from attacks by the Crimean Tatars. However, the Polish government strictly controlled the number of Cossacks, including them in special lists - registers. It considered everyone not included in the register as runaways, trying to return them to their owners. Conflicts constantly broke out between the government and the Cossacks. In 1648 they developed into an uprising led by Bohdan Khmelnytsky.
The uprising began with the victories of the Cossacks over the troops of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1648 at the Yellow Waters and at Korsun. After this, the Cossack uprising, supported by the masses, grew into a war of liberation. In 1649, near Zborov, Khmelnytsky’s army defeated the Poles. After this, the Zboriv Treaty was concluded, which significantly expanded the lists of registered Cossacks (from 8 thousand to 40 thousand). The agreement was of a compromise nature and could not reconcile the warring parties. In the same year, the liberation war also engulfed Belarus in addition to Ukraine. In 1651, in the battle of Verestechko, the Ukrainian army was defeated due to the betrayal of the Crimean Khan, an ally of Khmelnytsky. The new Belotserkovsky Treaty, which limited the number of registered Cossacks to 20 thousand, satisfied the rebels even less. Khmelnitsky, who well understood the impossibility of coping with the Poles on his own, repeatedly turned to Russia for support. However, the tsarist government considered the country not ready for war and was slow to take decisive action. Only after, first in 1653, the Zemsky Sobor in Moscow, and then in 1654, the Ukrainian Rada (People's Assembly) in Pereyaslavl spoke out in favor of the reunification of Ukraine and Russia, did another Russian-Polish war begin.
The first actions of the Russian troops were successful: in 1654 they returned Smolensk and captured a significant part of Belarus. However, without bringing this war to an end, in 1656 Russia started a new one with Sweden, trying to break through to the Baltic Sea. The protracted battle on two fronts went on with varying degrees of success. In the end, Russia achieved much less than it expected. According to the Treaty of Kardis with Sweden (1661), Russia returned all the Baltic territories it had captured during the war. It was not possible to achieve complete success in the war with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: according to the Truce of Andrusovo, Russia returned Smolensk, and received Left Bank Ukraine - all the lands east of the Dnieper - and Kyiv on the western Dnieper bank. Right-Bank Ukraine remained under the authority of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
After these wars, Russia’s relations with the Ottoman Empire, which by that time had captured the Northern Black Sea region and was trying to extend its power to the whole of Ukraine, sharply worsened. In 1677, the united Ottoman-Crimean army besieged Chigirin, a Russian fortress in Ukraine. In 1678 it was captured, but the siege of Chigirin weakened the Ottomans and they no longer had enough strength for other military actions. In 1681, an agreement was signed in Bakhchisarai, according to which the Ottomans recognized Russia’s right to its Ukrainian territories. In 1686, Russia concluded an “eternal peace” with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - recent enemies became allies in the fight against the expansion of the Ottoman Empire.
In Russian foreign policy in the 17th century. was three main directions: northwestern, western and southern. For the northwestern direction, Russian-Swedish relations were decisive, Russia’s goal in which was the return of Russian lands, access to the Baltic Sea, taken away by Sweden first during the Livonian War, and then in the Treaty of Stolbovo in 1617.
In the 17th century. Russia's foreign policy in this direction was, perhaps, least active. Only once did the government of Alexei Mikhailovich try to take revenge in the north-west during the Russian-Swedish war of 1656-1661.
During the Russian war with With the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Sweden decided to seize part of the Polish lands in the Baltic and realize the long-standing dream of turning the Baltic Sea into a “Swedish lake”. Such a strengthening of the positions of the ancient enemy did not suit Russia at all, and without finishing the war with Poland, in May 1656 she declared war on Sweden.
Military operations initially developed successfully for Russia. Russian troops captured a number of important fortresses in the Baltic states and besieged Riga. But then the Swedes seized the initiative, and the siege of Riga had to be lifted.
In parallel with military operations Russian diplomacy also intensified. Three months after the start of the war with Sweden, Russia began negotiations on a truce with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This action could have become a major foreign policy success, since the negotiations also discussed the conclusion of an anti-Swedish military alliance. If the negotiations had been successful, Russia would not only have avoided a war on two fronts, not only would have acquired an ally in the war with Sweden and, therefore, would have had a real chance of ousting the Swedes in the Baltic states, but would also have secured the Ukrainian lands of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Unfortunately, this was not achieved. The government of Alexei Mikhailovich and Russian diplomats made a number of miscalculations, did not take into account the specific situation and, as a result, achieved only a truce, which did not last very long.
At the same time, Russian diplomats tried to find more allies from among the countries that were not satisfied with the strengthening of Sweden. Such a country, besides the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, was Denmark. As a result of lengthy negotiations, a Russian-Danish military alliance, and Denmark also declared war on Sweden. (Because of this alliance, some historians call the Russian-Swedish war of 1656-1661 the first Northern War, meaning that in 1700-1721 there was a second Northern War, in which Denmark fought with the Swedes on the side of Russia, however, together with two other states.)
While Russia was at war with Sweden The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, taking advantage of the truce, accumulated forces and again began military operations. Faced with the threat of a war on two fronts, Russia hastened to end the war with Sweden and in December 1658 concluded a truce for three years. Its conditions were quite favorable: the entire territory captured by Russian troops went to Russia. But during the truce the balance of power changed dramatically. There was a rapprochement between yesterday's enemies - Sweden and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and in the face of the emerging anti-Russian alliance of these countries, Russia was forced to sign the Peace of Kardis in 1661. Under the terms of this agreement, all territorial acquisitions of Russia again went to Sweden.
The pivot of the western direction Russian foreign policy was relations with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. These relations remained unsettled after the Time of Troubles: the war ended not in peace, but in a truce, under the terms of which the Western Russian lands remained with the Polish-Lithuanian state, and Prince Vladislav did not renounce his claims to the Russian throne. Therefore, the main task of Russia in this direction was first to return the seized territories and recognize Mikhail Fedorovich as the Russian Tsar, and then a new task appeared - to consolidate the part of Ukraine annexed to Russia.
IN 1632 King of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Sigismund III died. In the Polish-Lithuanian state there was no hereditary royalty: the king was elected by the gentry. Therefore, after the death of almost every king, the period of the so-called " queenless", when the country was often torn apart by clashes between various political groups, each of which supported its own candidate for the throne. It was precisely this period that the Russian government decided to take advantage of, enlisting the support of a specially convened Zemsky Sobor (the actual head of which at that time was Patriarch Filaret). Russia announced Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth war, which went down in history as Smolensk War (1632-1634).
Near Smolensk, captured by the Poles During the Time of Troubles, a 30,000-strong army with a huge 150 guns artillery was sent. It was commanded by the hero of the defense of Smolensk in the Time of Troubles, the famous Russian commander of the 17th century. Mikhail Borisovich Shein. At first, military success accompanied him. More than two dozen cities were captured by Russian troops, and finally, Shein’s army besieged the main goal of the campaign - the strongest Smolensk fortress.
The siege lasted eight months, but it was never possible to take Smolensk. Firstly, in the summer of 1633, the Crimean Tatars made a large-scale raid, reaching the center of the country - the Moscow district. The need to organize a rebuff to the khan, on the one hand, did not allow the government to send reinforcements to Shein, and on the other hand, mass desertion began in the regiments near Smolensk among those service people whose estates and estates were located in the south of the country and, therefore, were subject to the Tatar raid. Secondly, among the so-called " dating people", recruited into the army from serfs, peasants and townspeople, riots and mass escapes from the regiments began.
Meanwhile, the situation in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth has also changed. Prince Vladislav was elected to the throne, who immediately began preparing to repel the Russian troops. Vladislav managed to encircle Shein’s army near Smolensk and cut off the supply of food and fodder: the besiegers themselves turned into besieged.
Having held out until February 1634., Shein capitulated. The conditions of surrender were difficult and humiliating: the Poles got all the artillery, banners and convoys. In Moscow they could not forgive Shein for such humiliation, and according to the boyar verdict he was beheaded.
IN June 1634. The Peace of Polyanovsky was concluded, which ended the Smolensk War. Everything that Sheina managed to capture at the beginning of the campaign was returned to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Russia paid a large indemnity, and the only achievement was that Vladislav finally abandoned his long-standing claims to the Moscow throne.
The next increase in Russian activity in the western direction occurred two decades later. Since the late 40s. XVII century The anti-Polish liberation movement of Bohdan Khmelnytsky began in the Ukrainian lands of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This was a convenient moment for revenge for the numerous failures in the western direction of Russian foreign policy. Moreover, it was possible to include into Russia the territory that was once the cradle of Russian statehood. Bohdan Khmelnytsky, elected hetman of Ukraine, realizing the impossibility of standing alone against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, addressed Moscow more than once with a request to accept Ukraine “under the high hand” of the Russian Tsar. In 1653, the Zemsky Sobor decided to incorporate Ukraine into the Russian state. This decision was not as simple as it might seem at first glance, since it meant a big war with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
In May 1654. a huge 100,000-strong Russian army moved west. The main hostilities were to take place on the Belarusian lands of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Auxiliary detachments were sent to Ukraine to Khmelnitsky and to the southwest of Russia to protect the left flank of the active army from a possible attack by the Crimean Tatars. This was an account of the sad experience of the Smolensk War. In addition, unlike the 30s. In the 17th century, southern Russian districts were now protected from the Khan’s raids by powerful defensive lines with dozens of new fortified cities. The Don Cossacks also received orders to defend the southern borders of the country from the Crimeans.
Russian-Polish War 1654-1667. began (as, indeed, many previous wars in the western direction) very successfully. More than 30 cities, including such large fortresses as Smolensk, Polotsk, Vitebsk, were captured by Russian troops on the Belarusian territory of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. But in 1655 g. Sweden also started a war with Poland. Swedish troops captured a huge part of the territory of the Polish-Lithuanian state, and this pushed the Russian government to war with Sweden. Moscow was convinced that Poland had already been drained of blood and, facing the threat of a war on two fronts (with Russia and Sweden), would agree to conclude peace on terms favorable to Russia.
Peace talks have begun in August 1656, and the main demand of the Russian side was to secure all conquered territories for Russia. However, the Poles did not agree to this, and the Russians, who had already started a war with Sweden, had to hurry, and in October 1656. peace was not concluded, but only a truce. We will probably not be mistaken in calling the beginning of military operations against Sweden during the still ongoing Russian-Polish war, as well as the conclusion of a truce, which did not secure the occupied lands for Russia, as serious mistakes of the Moscow government and Russian diplomacy. And soon they had to pay for these mistakes.
The war with Sweden ended in nothing. And the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, having accumulated strength during the truce, again began military operations. At this second stage, the Russian-Polish war went on for a long time with varying success, but military happiness in battles more and more often leaned towards the side of the Poles and Lithuanians.
The protracted war was exhausting and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, so it is not surprising that already since 1661. peace negotiations began. But they also took on a protracted character: they either resumed or stopped, and neither side made concessions. Finally, a compromise was found, and in January 1667. war is over, but again not by peace, and the Andrusovo truce. It was concluded for thirteen and a half years, Smolensk and Chernigov lands were returned to Russia, Russia received Left Bank Ukraine; Kyiv, located on the right bank of the Dnieper, was also transferred to Russia, but only for two years, and then it had to be returned to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (this last condition was never met - since 1667 Kyiv became a Russian city).
Russian-Polish War 1654-1667. was the last in a long chain of military clashes between the two states. In the 70-80s. XVII century. The onslaught of the Ottoman Empire intensified in the direction of its northern neighbors - Russia, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Austria. Moreover, if the Crimean Tatars usually attacked the Russian borders, the Poles and Austrians had to deal with both them and the powerful Turkish army. In such conditions, Russian-Polish contradictions receded into the background: the situation and the common formidable enemy pushed these countries towards rapprochement.
In May 1686. an “eternal peace” was concluded between Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which secured for Russia everything that it received under the Truce of Andrusovo (and Kyiv too), and Russia took upon itself the obligation to start a war with Turkey. Thus, in 1686. In essence, a Russian-Polish military alliance arose. (In the future, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth will first turn from an equal ally into a junior partner, then Russia will begin to actively interfere in the internal affairs of Poland, and, finally, during the divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth at the end of the 18th century, which occurred with the participation of Russia, this state will not disappear from the political maps of Europe.)
In the southern direction, Russia dealt with the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire (Turkey).
Crimean Khanate- one of the fragments of the collapsed Golden Horde - in the second half XV - early XVI centuries. was an ally first of the Moscow principality, and then of the Russian state. But at the turn of the first and second decades XVI century. the interests of the two states collide on the question of under whose control the territory of the so-called " Fields"- a huge space north of the Black Sea steppes (modern Central Black Earth Region). From that time on, the Crimean Tatars became the main and constant enemy of Russia in the south. Almost every year, Russian districts were subjected to large and small raids of the Crimean hordes, and the main line on which the Russian army met enemy, was Oka. By the 17th century, the Crimean Khanate became a vassal of the Ottoman Empire, Turkey controlled the lower reaches of the Don and Dnieper, and Russia’s advance to the south now meant a clash with this enemy.
Beginning since the 20s XVII century. Tatar raids were carried out more and more damage n. Along three main routes - the Muravskaya, Izyumskaya and Kalmiusskaya roads - the Crimean Tatars invaded Russia. The main purpose of these raids, often carried out by order of the Turkish Sultan, was to capture captives and livestock. According to historians, for the first half of the 17th century. At least 150-200 thousand Russian people were taken away. And how many people died under the Tatar sabers, how many times Russian villages, towns and cities burned - this has not yet been calculated even approximately.
However, some especially large raids had not only predatory, but also political goals (or at least political consequences). As we already know, the massive invasions of 1632 and 1633 At first they made it difficult for the Russian army to gather and advance to Smolensk, and then, when the Tatars broke through especially far into Russian territory, they led to mass desertion and unrest in the regiments. Russia's defeat in the Smolensk War was largely explained by the fact that military operations in the western direction began with unprotected southern borders, and, therefore, the right flank and rear of the operating army were vulnerable. Thus, without setting up a powerful barrier in the southern direction, one could not count on successful actions in the western direction. This, perhaps, the main lesson of the defeat in the Smolensk War was recognized by the Russian government, which immediately began practical action.
In the 30-50s. XVII century. on the southern and southeastern borders of the European part of Russia, a gigantic system of defensive lines was created - “devils”, consisting of earthen ramparts with palisades and ditches, forest fences, small wooden fortresses with removable garrisons of several dozen people and fortified cities with a permanent population and garrisons.
Southbound such a fortified line was the Belgorod line, erected in 1635-1653. This powerful system of defensive structures, which protected 600 kilometers of the southern border of Russia, began in the west in the Dnieper region, and in the east it went beyond modern Michurinsk (Tambov region). Thereby all main routes were blocked invasions of the Crimean Tatars.
Belgorod line was the most powerful and an extended defensive line. Its length with all bends was about 800 kilometers, and more than two dozen fortified cities became strongholds of defense, most of which were erected during the construction of the border. (In particular, on the territory of the modern Voronezh region, cities such as Olshansk, Ostrogozhsk, Korotoyak, Uryv, Kostensk and Orlov-gorodok were built. Voronezh, which arose as early as in 1585., also became a fortress of the Belgorod Line.) In addition to this defensive line, the Tambov, Simbirsk and Zakamsk “features” were also erected.
While the Belgorod Line was being built, Tatar raids continued. However, in 1637, an unprecedented event occurred that led to a temporary lull in Tatar attacks - the Don Cossacks took the Turkish fortress of Azov located at the mouth of the Don. The Cossacks appealed to the Russian government to annex Azov to Russia and send an army to help. However, this would mean a war with the Ottoman Empire, for which Russia did not have the strength. The “Azov sitting” of the Cossacks lasted for about five years. They held on bravely, repelling all attempts to knock them out of the fortress. But they could not hold the city on their own, and, having received a refusal from Moscow for help, in 1642 the Cossacks, having destroyed the fortifications, left Azov.
After this, the Tatars again increase pressure to the southern borders of Russia, and in 1644 and 1645. the raids reached a scale reminiscent of the years of the Smolensk War. The Tatars took advantage of the fact that the fortifications of the Belgorod line were built in separate sections, between which there were unprotected passages. But as construction was completed, the line turned into a continuous chain of defensive structures, and with the completion of work in 1653, the possibility of Tatars appearing in the southern Russian districts became minimal. The south of the country was now well protected, and therefore the Russian government entered the war for Ukraine with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, without fear of repeating the tragedy of the Smolensk War.
During the Russian-Polish War of 1654-1667. For the first time in the history of Russian-Crimean relations, Russia managed to strike at the territory of the Khanate. In the spring of 1660, an 8,000-strong army on four hundred sailing and rowing ships built near Kozlov (modern Michurinsk) and Lebedyan moved down the Don. In 1662, this flotilla under the command of governor Ya. T. Khitrovo broke through the Turkish fortresses at the mouth of the Don, entered the Sea of Azov and attacked the Crimean Khanate. This sabotage was intended to keep some of the Tatars from raiding Ukraine, where Russian troops were operating at that time.
Then heading south there was a 10-year lull , during which, under the protection of the Belgorod line, the settlement and development of the border southern Russian districts with their fertile black earth lands was actively underway. But in 1673 the situation has changed dramatically: the Russian-Turkish war of 1673-1681 began.
In the spring of 1673. By order of the Turkish Sultan, the Crimean Khan threw tens of thousands of Tatars into Russian lands (“the whole Crimea,” as the documents of that time put it). The Tatars managed to “break the line” in one of the areas and break through to nearby counties. Soon, fearing encirclement, the khan led the horde away, but over the next three years the Tatars continuously and persistently harassed the Russian garrisons on the Belgorod line.
While the Tatars probed the defenses in southern Russia, Russian troops in 1673-1676. They operated in the lower reaches of the Don and the Azov region against Turkish garrisons and Tatar detachments, but were not successful.
Military actions in 1673-1676. took place without a formal declaration of war. Only in 1677 The Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia. In the summer of this year, a huge Turkish army, reinforced by detachments of Tatars, moved to Ukraine and besieged the Chigirin fortress, which was defended by a garrison of Russians and Ukrainians. The Russian army, led by the major military leader of that time, Prince Grigory Grigorievich Romodanovsky, moved to help the besieged. In the battle of Chigirin, Russian troops completely defeated and drove back the enemy.
Next summer The Turks again besieged the fortress and this time took it. However, the Ottomans were unable to inflict a decisive defeat on the Russian troops. This ended the active clashes between the armies of Russia and the Ottoman Empire. But in 1679-1681. The raids of the Crimean Tatars resumed again.
In January 1681. The Bakhchisaray Truce was concluded for 20 years, the main result of which was the recognition of Russia's rights to Left Bank Ukraine and Kyiv. However, not even a quarter of the truce period had passed before Russia declared war on Turkey.
During these years the Ottoman Empire led (and quite successfully) wars with its northern neighbors - Austria and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, as well as its ancient enemy - Venice. In order to successfully resist Turkish aggression, in 1684 these countries united in a military anti-Turkish alliance, the so-called “Holy League”. Having signed the “eternal peace” with Poland in 1686, Russia, under the terms of the treaty, joined this coalition and in the same year declared war on the Ottoman Empire.
Russia's specific contribution The fight against Turkey involved two Crimean campaigns, undertaken under the command of Princess Sophia’s favorite, Prince Vasily Vasilyevich Golitsyn in 1687 and 1689. The purpose of these military actions was to strike at the Crimean Khanate. However, it was not possible to achieve this goal: both times the Russian troops, suffering huge losses, were forced to retreat without reaching the territory of the peninsula. Almost a century remained before the liquidation of the centuries-old enemy of the Russians, the Crimean Khanate.
The Time of Troubles caused irreparable damage to the Russian state. It took many years to restore the previous level of prosperity. The economic development of Russia in the 17th century began in the 20s, when the territories of the Volga region, Southern Siberia, and the Northern Black Sea region were developed. The time has come to rewrite history in a new way and re-delineate the boundaries of Russian lands. The culture of Russia in the 17th century slowly changed its priorities - church dogmas became a thing of the past, and the values of worldly life and man himself became relevant.
Russian politics in the 17th century
The table shows the main directions of the state's foreign policy. In the 17th century, for the first time after many years of war and chaos, Russia was able to declare itself as a strong and self-sufficient state.
The country's foreign policy relations with other states began to develop in a new way. During the Great Troubles, Russia lost territories in the north and northwest; in the south, constant raids by the Crimean khans devastated fertile lands. The unification of Russian lands, the strengthening of central power, the restoration of the economy and trade are the main tasks that Russia set for itself in the 17th century.
Socio-economic development
The country's economy was formed in difficult conditions of confrontation between archaic feudal-serf relations with the class of the emerging bourgeoisie. The policy of complete enslavement of the peasants formed the basis of the social development of Russia. In 1649, the “fixed summer” was abolished, the search for fugitive peasants was declared indefinite, which finally deprived the farmers of the few rights that they had inherited from their ancestors.
The peasants were completely dependent on the feudal lord, cultivated his land with their own equipment and paid him quitrent. It was corvee that characterized the rural way of life, which formed the basis of the domestic policy pursued by Russia in the 17th century. Socio-economic development was subject to the laws of absolutism, which strengthened significantly, especially after the adoption of the Council Code in 1649.
By the age of 20, handicraft production was being revived in Russia, new production enterprises were being introduced - manufactories. The new Trade Charter streamlined the rules of trade relations and stimulated the development of commerce.
Strengthening royal power
As many as two chapters of the new code of the Russian Empire legislatively protect the rights and prestige of the royal power in the country. Gradually, all power is concentrated in the hands of one ruler - the king. Zemsky Sobors, which previously decided the most important political issues, quickly lost their position. Their privileges and power are now given to the Boyar Duma. Relative stability in the economy and politics ensures the strengthening of the autocratic system, even without the support of all segments of the population. To support domestic policy, a centralized government apparatus is being formed.
Orders
The role of representatives of the royal authorities in certain regions was to carry out orders. By the 17th century they had already been formed, but in these institutions there was no clear distinction between the legislative and executive levers of power. During the period of unrest, the activities of the orders were invisible and ineffective.
The principles of urban planning and architecture are changing. A style appears that is characteristic only of Russia - Moscow Baroque, civil society began to build from stone.
Schools developed in which officials of government institutions were trained, and at the end of the century the Slavic-Greek-Latin School appeared - the first higher educational institution that Russia opened in the 17th century.
The socio-economic development of the state and the revival of culture in Russia at that time slowly but surely led the country to new reforms and a different political system.
For many years, Russian foreign policy in the 17th century was guided by several key goals. The first Romanovs sought to return as much of the East Slavic lands as possible, taken by Poland, and to gain access to the Baltic (which was controlled by Sweden). It was also during this period that the first wars against Turkey began. This confrontation was at an initial stage and reached its climax in the next century. Other regions where Russia sought to maintain its interests were the Caucasus and the Far East.
Troubles and war with Poland
The 17th century began tragically for Russia. The Rurik dynasty that ruled the country was ended. The brother-in-law of Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich, Boris Godunov, came to power. His rights to the throne remained controversial and numerous opponents of the monarch took advantage of this. In 1604, an army under the command of the impostor False Dmitry invaded Russia from Poland. The contender for the throne found every support in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This episode began the Russian-Polish War, which ended only in 1618.
The conflict between two long-time neighbors had deep historical roots. Therefore, the entire foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century was based on confrontation with Poland. The rivalry resulted in a series of wars. The first of them, in the 17th century, turned out to be unsuccessful for Russia. Although False Dmitry was overthrown and killed, the Poles later occupied Moscow on their own and controlled the Kremlin from 1610 to 1612.
Only the people's militia, assembled by national heroes Kuzma Minin and Dmitry Pozharsky, managed to expel the interventionists. Then a Zemsky Council was held, at which Mikhail Romanov was elected the legitimate king. The new dynasty stabilized the situation in the country. Nevertheless, many border lands remained in the hands of the Poles, including Smolensk. Therefore, all further Russian foreign policy in the 17th century was aimed at the return of original Russian cities.
Loss of the Baltic coast
Even Vasily Shuisky, fighting against the Poles, entered into an alliance with Sweden. In the Battle of Klushino in 1610, this coalition was defeated. Russia found itself paralyzed. The Swedes took advantage of the current situation and began to capture its cities near their border. They took control of Ivangorod, Korela, Yam, Gdov, Koporye and, finally, Novgorod.
Swedish expansion stopped under the walls of Pskov and Tikhvin. The sieges of these fortresses ended in a fiasco for the Scandinavians. Then the Russian army drove them out of their lands, although some of the fortresses remained in the hands of foreigners. The war with Sweden ended in 1617 with the signing of the Stolbovsky Peace Treaty. According to it, Russia lost access to the Baltic Sea and paid its neighbor a large indemnity of 20 thousand rubles. At the same time, the Swedes returned Novgorod. The consequence of the Stolbovo Peace was that Russian foreign policy in the 17th century acquired another important goal. Having recovered from the horrors of the Time of Troubles, the country began the struggle to return to the shores of the Baltic.
Smolensk War
During the reign of Mikhail Fedorovich (1613 - 1645) there was only one major armed conflict with another country. It turned out to be the Smolensk War (1632 - 1634) against Poland. This campaign was led by commanders Mikhail Shein, Semyon Prozorovsky and Artemy Izmailov.
Before the war, Moscow diplomats tried to win over Sweden and the Ottoman Empire to their side. The anti-Polish coalition never came together. As a result, I had to fight alone. Nevertheless, Russia's foreign policy goals in the 17th century remained the same. The key task (return of Smolensk) was not completed. The months-long siege of the city ended with the surrender of Shein. The parties ended the war with the Peace of Polyanovsky. The Polish king Vladislav IV returned Trubchevsk and Serpeisk to Russia, and also renounced his claims to the Russian throne (preserved since the Time of Troubles). For the Romanovs it was an intermediate success. Further struggle was postponed to the future.
Conflict with Persia
Mikhail Fedorovich's heir, Alexey, was more active than his father in the international arena. And although his main interests were in the west, he had to face challenges in other regions. So, in 1651, a conflict broke out with Persia.
Russian foreign policy in the 17th century, in short, began to come into contact with many states with which the Rurikovichs had not yet dealt. In the Caucasus, such a new country turned out to be Persia. The troops of her dynasty, the Safavids, attacked the lands controlled by the Russian kingdom. The main struggle was for Dagestan and the Caspian Sea. The trips ended in nothing. Alexey Mikhailovich did not want the conflict to escalate. He sent an embassy to Shah Abbas II and in 1653 the war was stopped and the status quo was restored on the border. Nevertheless, the Caspian issue persisted. Later, Peter I led the offensive here in the 18th century.
Annexation of Smolensk, Left Bank Ukraine and Kyiv
The main success of Alexei Mikhailovich in foreign policy was the next war with Poland (1654 - 1667). The first stage of the campaign resulted in the unconditional defeat of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Zaporozhye and Moscow troops entered Ukraine and thus actually reunited the lands of the Eastern Slavs.
In 1656, a temporary Truce of Vilna was concluded between the parties. It was caused by the Swedish invasion of Poland and the simultaneous outbreak of war between the Swedes and Russians. In 1660, the Poles tried to carry out a counteroffensive, but it ended in failure. The war finally ended in 1667 after the signing of the Truce of Andrusovo. According to that agreement, the Smolensk region, Kyiv and the entire Left Bank Ukraine were annexed to Moscow. Thus, Alexey Mikhailovich successfully completed the task to which Russian foreign policy was subordinated in the 17th century. The short truce could still be interrupted by war again, so the conflict required further negotiations, which ended under Princess Sophia.
Fight with Sweden
As mentioned above, having achieved success in Ukraine, Alexey Mikhailovich decided to try his luck in the Baltic. The long-gestating revenge war with Sweden began in 1656. She turned out to be two years old. The fighting spanned Livonia, Finland, Ingria and Karelia.
Russia's foreign policy of the 17th and 18th centuries, in short, aimed at access to the Western seas, since this would allow for the establishment of better ties with Europe. This is exactly what Alexey Mikhailovich wanted to achieve. In 1658, the Truce of Valiesar was concluded, according to which Russia retained part of the lands in Livonia. However, three years later, Moscow diplomats had to agree to restore the previous borders in order to avoid a war on two fronts against Sweden and Poland at the same time. This order was consolidated by the Treaty of Kardis. The Baltic ports were never obtained.
War with Turkey
At the end of the Russian-Polish confrontation, the Ottoman Empire intervened in it, which sought to conquer Right Bank Ukraine. In the spring of 1672, an army of 300,000 invaded. She defeated the Poles. Subsequently, the Turks and Crimean Tatars also fought against Russia. In particular, the Belgorod defensive line was attacked.
The main directions of Russian foreign policy in the 17th century in many ways turned out to be a logical prologue to the foreign policy of the 18th century. This pattern is especially evident in the example of the struggle for hegemony in the Black Sea. During the era of Alexei Mikhailovich and his son Fyodor, the Turks last tried to expand their possessions in Ukraine. That war ended in 1681. Türkiye and Russia drew borders along the Dnieper. The Zaporozhye Sich was also declared independent from Moscow.
Eternal peace with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
The entire domestic and foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century depended heavily on relations with Poland. Periods of war and peace influenced the economy, social situation and the mood of the population. Relations between the two powers were finally settled in 1682. That spring, the countries concluded Eternal Peace.
The articles of the agreement stipulated the division of the Hetmanate. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth abandoned the protectorate that had existed over the Zaporozhye Sich for a long time. The provisions of the Andrusovo Truce were confirmed. Kyiv was recognized as an “eternal” part of Russia - for this Moscow paid compensation in the amount of 146 thousand rubles. Subsequently, the agreement allowed the formation of an anti-Swedish coalition during the Northern War. Also thanks to the Perpetual Peace, Russia and Poland joined forces with the rest of Europe in the fight against the Ottoman Empire.
Treaty of Nerchinsk
Even during the time of Ivan the Terrible, Russia began the colonization of Siberia. Gradually, brave peasants, Cossacks, hunters and industrialists moved further and further to the east. In the 17th century they reached the Pacific Ocean. Here, the objectives of Russian foreign policy in the 17th century were to establish friendly relations with China.
For a long time, the border between the two states was not marked, which led to various incidents and conflicts. To stop misunderstandings, a delegation of diplomats led by Fyodor Golovin went to the Far East. Russian and Chinese representatives met in Nerchinsk. In 1689, they signed an agreement according to which the border between the powers was established along the banks of the Argun River. Russia lost the Amur region and Albazin. The agreement turned out to be a diplomatic defeat for the government of Sofia Alekseevna.
Crimean campaigns
After reconciliation with Poland, Russian foreign policy at the end of the 17th century was directed towards the Black Sea and Turkey. For a long time, the country was haunted by the raids of the Crimean Khanate, a state that was in vassal relations with the Ottoman Empire. The campaign against a dangerous neighbor was led by Prince Vasily Golitsyn, the favorite of Princess Sofia Alekseevna.
In total, two Crimean campaigns took place (in 1687 and 1689). They weren't particularly successful. Golitsyn did not capture other people's fortresses. Nevertheless, Russia diverted significant forces of the Crimeans and Turks, which helped its European allies in the general anti-Ottoman war. Thanks to this, the Romanovs significantly increased their international prestige.
Azov campaigns
Sofya Alekseevna was deprived of power by her younger brother Peter, who grew up and did not want to share powers with the regent. The young tsar continued Golitsyn's work. His first military experience was connected precisely with the confrontation with Turkey.
In 1695 and 1696 Peter led two campaigns against Azov. On the second attempt, the Turkish fortress was captured. Nearby, the monarch ordered the founding of Taganrog. For his success near Azov, voivode Alexey Shein received the title of generalissimo. So, two directions of Russian foreign policy in the 17th century (southern and “Polish”) were marked by success. Now Peter turned his attention to the Baltic. In 1700 he started the Northern War against Sweden, which immortalized his name. But that was already the history of the 18th century.
Results
The 17th century for Russia was rich in foreign policy events (both successes and failures). The result of the Time of Troubles at the beginning of the century was the loss of many territories, including the Baltic coast and the Smolensk region. The reigning Romanov dynasty set about correcting the mistakes of its predecessors.
The peculiarities of Russian foreign policy in the 17th century turned out to be such that the greatest success awaited it in the Polish direction. Not only was Smolensk returned, but also Kyiv and Left Bank Ukraine. Thus, Moscow for the first time began to control all the key lands of the Old Russian state.
The results in two other directions were more contradictory: the Baltic and the Black Sea. In the north, an attempt at revenge with Sweden failed, and this task fell on the shoulders of Peter I, who entered the new 18th century with his country. The same situation occurred with the southern seas. And if at the end of the 17th century Peter occupied Azov, then later he lost it, and the task of expansion in this region was completed only under Catherine II. Finally, under the first Romanovs, the colonization of Siberia continued, and the first contacts with China were established in the Far East.
18. Foreign policy of the Russian state in the 17th century.
Foreign policy objectives:
By the middle of the 17th century. Russia, having restored its economy, can focus on solving foreign policy problems. In the northwest, the primary concern was regaining access to the Baltic Sea. In the west, the task was to return the Smolensk, Chernigov and Novgorod-Seversky lands lost during the Polish-Lithuanian intervention. The solution to this problem has become more acute due to the struggle of the Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples for reunification with Russia. In the south of Russia, it was constantly necessary to repel the incessant raids of the Crimean Khan, a vassal of powerful Turkey.
After the restoration of statehood, Russia for a long time overcame the foreign policy manifestations of the Troubles. In 1614, the Swedes besieged Pskov, and in 1617-1618, Prince Vladislav undertook a large campaign against Moscow. Russia managed to repel the Poles and Swedes, but peace with its neighbors had to be paid for with territorial concessions: the coast of the Gulf of Finland and Karelia were ceded to Sweden; The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth retained Smolensk and Chernigov.
In 1632, a new Russian-Polish war broke out, which did not give a decisive advantage to either side. In 1632, the Zemsky Sobor decided to return Smolensk, lost after the turmoil. The task was made easier by the death of the Polish king Sigismund III and the election of a new monarch. A Russian army of 30 thousand besieged Smolensk. The siege ended in major failure. True, the new Polish king Wladislav was unable to build on his success. Voevoda B.I. Shein, who led the unsuccessful eight-month siege of Smolensk and surrendered banners, convoys and guns, was executed.
In 1634, a peace treaty was signed near the city of Vyazma on the Polyanovka River. Poland retained the Smolensk, Chernigov and Novogorod-Seversky lands. Vladislav, who took the Polish throne, renounced the Russian throne, to which he had been invited by the Seven Boyars during the Time of Troubles, and recognized Mikhail Fedorovich as tsar.
Nevertheless, Vladislav finally renounced his claims to the Moscow throne and recognized Mikhail Fedorovich as the legitimate tsar.
The Russians get involved in the Russo-Polish War from 1654 to 1667. cause:
The issue of Western Russian lands became more acute. After the unification of Lithuania and Poland under the Union of Lublin in 1569, the Polish gentry considered Western Rus' their possession and pursued a policy of Polishing the local population and converting them to the Catholic faith.
In the struggle against Polishization, Russians created their own associations, Orthodox brotherhoods, which arose in Lvov, Lutsk, Kyiv and other cities. Printing houses and schools were built under the brotherhoods. The ideological centers of Western Russian Orthodoxy became the Mogila Academy and the Kiev Pechersk Monastery (founded in 1632 by Peter Mogila).
Social and national contradictions, strengthened by religious oppression, caused mass protests by the population of Ukraine and Belarus. The largest: Bogd. Khmelnitsky.
In 1648, the Zaporizhian Cossacks, under the leadership of Bogdan Khmelnytsky, managed to defeat the Poles twice. In the spring of 1648, B. Khmelnitsky’s army set out from the Zaporozhye Sich and soon, in a general battle near Korsun, their main forces were completely defeated. In December 1648, his troops solemnly entered Kyiv.
Gathering troops. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth moved its troops against the army of B. Khmelnitsky. In the summer of 1649, near Zborov (Prykarpattya), B. Khmelnytsky defeated the Polish army, which was saved from final death only thanks to the betrayal of the Crimean Khan. The Polish government was forced to conclude the Peace of Zborov. According to this agreement, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth recognized B. Khmelnytsky as hetman of Ukraine. Three voivodeships were transferred under his autonomous rule: Kiev, Chernigov and Bratsdavskoe.
The Peace of Zborov turned out to be a temporary truce. In 1650, hostilities resumed. As a result, cat. - V. In the summer of 1651, Khmelnytsky lost to the Poles near Berestechko. Signed to the Beloperkovsky Peace under the rule of B. Khmelnitsky, there was only one voivodeship left - Kiev. The war resumed. In the spring of 1652, Khmelnitsky completely defeated the Polish army near Batog (on the Southern Bug River). However, Russian help was required to finally liberate Ukraine from the rule of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The decision to provide assistance to the hetman was made by the Zemsky Sobor in 1653.
On October 1, 1653, war was declared on Poland. An embassy headed by boyar Buturlin left for Ukraine. On January 8, 1654, a Rada (Council) was held in the city of Pereyaslavl (now Pereyaslav-Khmelnipky). Ukraine was accepted into the Russian state. Russia recognized the election of the hetman, the local court and other authorities that emerged during the liberation war. The tsarist government confirmed the class rights of the Ukrainian nobility. Ukraine received the right to establish diplomatic relations with all countries except Poland and Turkey,
In the upper reaches of the Seversky Donets and Oskol (Kharkov, Sumy, Izyum, Akhtyrka, etc.) Sloboda Ukraine was formed.
The war that began the following year was initially successful for Russia; Russian troops occupied Belarus and Lithuania. Then the situation changed; After the death of Khmelnitsky, the new hetman Vygovsky betrayed the alliance with Russia. Having exhausted their strength due to a heavy war, Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth concluded a truce in 1667. Smolensk, Kyiv and all of Left Bank Ukraine went to Russia; Having recognized the power of the tsar, the Ukrainian Cossacks retained their self-government, they elected their hetmans and had tax benefits.
The reunification of Left Bank Ukraine with Russia was an important factor in strengthening Russian statehood. Thanks to reunification with Ukraine, Russia managed to return the Smolensk and Chernigov lands, which made it possible to begin the fight for the Baltic coast. In addition, a favorable prospect opened up for expanding Russia’s ties with other Slavic peoples and Western states.
The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth did not recognize the reunification of Ukraine with Russia. The Russian-Polish war became inevitable. The war was marked by the success of Russian and Ukrainian troops. Russian troops occupied Smolensk, Belarus, Lithuania; Bohdan Khmelnytsky - Lublin, a number of cities in Galipia and Volyn.
Taking advantage of Poland's failures, Sweden opened military operations against it. The Swedes took Warsaw and Krakow. Poland stood on the brink of destruction. In conditions of kinglessness after the death of King Jan Casimir, Alexei Mikhailovich, counting on the royal throne, declared war on Sweden (1656-1658). A Russian-Polish truce was concluded. Russian troops took Dinaburg (Daugavpils), Dorpat (Tartu), besieged Riga, and defeated the Swedes near Gdov (1657). However, all the successes of Russia were crossed out by the betrayal of the Ukrainian hetman I. Vygovsky, who replaced B. Khmelnytsky, who died in 1657.
I. Vygovsky entered into a secret alliance with Poland against Russia.
In 1658, a Russian-Swedish truce was concluded for three years, and in 1661 - the Kardis (near Tartu) peace. Russia was returning the territories it had conquered during the war. The Baltic remained with Sweden. The problem of access to the Baltic Sea remained the top priority and most important task of foreign policy.
Ukraine experienced dramatic events. Hetman I. Vygovsky, in alliance with Poland and Crimea, defeated the tsarist troops near Konogon (1659). The population of Ukraine did not support the traitor. The new hetman Yuri Khmelnitsky made peace with Moscow, but he too soon (1660) went over to the side of the king. And again, both Zaporozhye and the Left Bank of Ukraine did not support anti-Russian actions. In 1662, Yuri 122 Khmelnytsky renounced the hetmanship and became a monk. The hetman of the Left Bank was the Zaporozhye Koshevoy Ataman I. Bryukhovetsky, who also sought the separation of Ukraine from Russia (killed by the Cossacks in 1668).
The Right Bank had its own hetman - P. Doroshenko, who was ready to succumb to the Turkish Sultan in order to get rid of both Russia and Poland. These years in Ukraine became a time of ruin (“ruins”) and strife.
The grueling, protracted Russian-Polish war ended in 1667 with the conclusion of the Andrusovo (near Smolensk) truce for thirteen and a half years. Russia abandoned Belarus, but retained Smolensk and Left Bank Ukraine. Kyiv, located on the right bank of the Dnieper, was transferred to Russia for two years (after the completion of this period it was never returned). Zaporozhye came under the joint control of Ukraine and Poland.
In the 17th century, the tsarist government allowed Kalmyks who migrated from Central Asia and asked for Russian citizenship to settle the lower Volga.
Throughout the 17th century, the problem of the South was acute. The Crimean Khanate did not stop devastating raids on Russian lands. During the first half of the 17th century, two hundred thousand Russian captives were captured and taken away for sale into slavery. These invasions were especially unpunished and harmful during the Time of Troubles. Having repelled the intervention of the Poles and Swedes, Russia began to strengthen the southern border. The garrisons on the Tula abatis line were increased, and in 1635 the construction of a new Belgorod line began. Fortress cities were built: Kozlov, Tambov, Verkhniy and Nizhny Lomov, Orel was restored, Efremov was rebuilt. The main burden of the border service fell on the Cossacks.
A military clash between Russia and the Crimean Khanate was brewing: in 1677-1681, the Crimean Tatars, in alliance with the Turks, invaded Ukraine. After fierce battles, Russian troops managed to stop the enemy, but the threat of Tatar raids remained.
In 1686 - eternal peace. By cat. Russians are fighting the Turks, because they interfere in the affairs of Ukraine. And grew up. Change of directions to the South - 1695, 97. Azovsk hikes.
According to Klyuchevsky, the most difficult matter in Russian foreign policy in the 17th century was the issue in the western direction. This question is intertwined with many issues, starting with the union of the Polish and Lithuanian principalities into the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
Thus, in the western direction, Russia fought wars not only for territories lost during the period of unrest, but also for lands that were once part of Kievan Rus.
In the 17th century, Russia established very close trade and diplomatic relations with the countries of Western Europe. Rus' has never suffered from the disease of national isolation. Until the middle of the 15th century, there was an intense cultural exchange between Russians and Greeks, Bulgarians, and Serbs.