What are speech errors? These are any cases of deviation from language norms that are valid. A person without knowledge of these laws can work, live, and build communications with others normally. However, in certain cases, efficiency may suffer. There is a risk of being misunderstood or misunderstood. In these and other cases, you simply need to know what errors exist and how to deal with them.
Correcting speech errors in sentences is not always easy. In order to understand what exactly to pay attention to when composing this or that oral statement or written text, we created this classification. After reading this article, you will find out exactly what shortcomings will need to be corrected when you are faced with such a task.
When classifying speech errors, it would be logical to consider the fundamental criterion to be a unit of the linguistic tier - one whose norms of writing, education, and functioning were violated. The following levels are distinguished: words, phrases, sentences and text. A classification of speech errors was created using this division. This will make it easier to remember their different types.
At the word level
The word is the most important unit of language. It reflects the changes taking place in society. Words not only name a phenomenon or object, but also perform an emotionally expressive function. Therefore, when choosing which of them are appropriate in a particular case, you should pay attention to the stylistic coloring, meaning, compatibility, and usage, since violation of at least one of these criteria can lead to the appearance of a speech error.
Here you can note spelling errors, that is, a violation of spelling patterns existing in the modern Russian language. Their list is known, so we will not dwell on this in detail.
Derivatives at the word level
At the word level, there are also word-formation speech errors, that is, violations of various norms of word formation of the Russian literary language. These include the following types:
- incorrect direct word formation. An example is the use of the word “hare” instead of the correct version “hares”, or a “thoughtful” (instead of “thoughtful”) look and others.
- speech error associated with incorrect reverse word formation. For example, “loga” (from the word “spoon”). Such use is usually typical for children of primary school or preschool age.
- Another type is substitutive word formation, which manifests itself in the replacement of one or another morpheme: “weigh” (from the word “hang”), “throw away”, used instead of “throw away”.
- word-composition, that is, the creation of a derivative unit that cannot be considered as occasional: reviewer, spender.
All these are types of speech errors that relate to word formation.
Word-level grammatical
There are also other types of incorrect uses of words. In the Russian language, in addition to word-formation ones, there are also grammatical and speech errors. You should be able to distinguish them. Grammatical errors are the incorrect formation of various forms, a violation of the properties of the formative system in different parts of speech. These include the following varieties:
- associated with a noun. This may be the formation of the accusative case form of some inanimate noun by analogy with an animate one. For example, “She asked for a breeze” (the accusative form “breeze” should be used). Here we also include the opposite situation - the formation of the accusative case form for an animate noun in the same way as for an inanimate one. Example: “They harnessed two bears to a sleigh” (correct: “two bears”). In addition, when forming case forms, there may be a change in the gender of the noun: “February blue”, “pie with jam”. There are cases when indeclinable names are inclined: “to ride the meter”, “to play the piano”. Some of us sometimes form plural forms for nouns, while they only have singular forms, and vice versa: “a tray of teas.”
- speech errors associated with adjectives. This may be an incorrect choice of short or long forms: “The man was quite full,” “The building was full of people.” This also includes the incorrect formation of degrees of comparison: “Lena was weaker than Lyuda,” “The new ones are becoming more and more militant.”
- Another speech error is an error associated with the verb (forms of its formation). Example: “A man is rushing around the room.”
- speech errors associated with participles and gerunds. Examples: “Looking around, a hunter walked,” “Riding on a bus.”
- confusions associated with the incorrect use of pronoun forms: “I didn’t want to tear myself away from (the book),” “Their contribution to the common cause,” and others.
Lexical at the word level
The next type of errors is lexical, that is, a violation of various lexical norms, lexical-semantic compatibility and word usage norms. They manifest themselves in the fact that compatibility is disrupted (less often in a sentence, most often at the level of a phrase).
This may be the use of a meaning that is unusual for the word. Such a speech error was made in the sentence “All the walls of the room were covered with panels” (the word “covered” cannot be used in this context). Another example: “Luxurious (that is, living in luxury) was the landowner Troekurov.”
It should be noted here that there is a violation of the lexical-semantic compatibility of a certain word: “The sky was bright” (“stand” in the meaning of “to take place” can only be used in relation to the weather), “The rays of the sun lay in the clearing” (correctly: “illuminated the clearing” ). This type of error primarily affects the verb.
In addition, we can highlight the attribution of some figurative meaning to a word that does not have one: “This man’s weary hands claim that he had to work a lot.”
The use of synonyms may also be incorrect. These are speech errors, examples of which look like this: “Mayakovsky uses satire in his work” (instead of “uses”), “With his legs spread wide, the boy looks at the football field on which the players are fighting” (correctly - “fighting”). Here we highlight the confusion of the meanings of paronyms: “His eyebrows rose surprisingly” (instead of “surprisedly”), “This work is a typical image of the fantastic genre (that’s right - “sample”). Let’s supplement the types of speech errors with polysemy, which cannot be removed in the sentence: “Only These lakes live several days a year."
At the level of phrases
When choosing a word, you should take into account not only its meaning in the literary language, but also lexical compatibility. Not all words can be combined. This is determined by their semantics, emotional coloring, stylistic affiliation, grammatical properties, etc. When it is difficult to determine whether certain words can be used together, you should turn to a compatibility dictionary. This will help to avoid errors at the level of phrases, sentences, and also text.
Errors at this level occur when there is a violation of various syntactic connections. For example, agreement: “I want to teach everyone volleyball - this is a good, but at the same time difficult sport” (a good, difficult sport). Controls: “I feel a thirst for glory”, “I am amazed at his strength”, “gain strength”. The connection between the predicate and the subject may be disrupted: “Neither heat nor summer is eternal (the singular form is used instead of the plural form “eternal”). All these are types of speech errors at the level of phrases.
Sentence level errors
At this level we can distinguish syntactic and communicative. Let's take a closer look at these speech errors in Russian.
Sentence-level syntax errors
This may be an unjustified parcellation, a violation of structural boundaries. As an example, we can cite the following sentences with speech errors: “Seryozha went hunting. With dogs,” “I see. My dogs are running around the field. Chasing a hare.” Syntactic errors also include violations in the construction of various homogeneous rows: the choice of different forms in a row of homogeneous members: “She was smoothly combed and rosy-cheeked.” Another variety is their different structural design, for example, as a subordinate clause and as a secondary clause: “I wanted to tell you about the incident with that person and why he did this (correctly “and about his action”). There may also be a mixture of indirect and direct speech: “She said that I would definitely fight (here the same subject is meant - “she”, correctly - “will”). Violation in the subordinate and main clauses of the aspectual-temporal correlation of predicates or homogeneous members: “She goes and said,” “When the girl was sleeping, she had a dream.” And another variation is a separation from the defining word of the subordinate clause: “One of the works is hanging in front of us, which is called “Spring.”
Communication errors at the sentence level
The next section is communicative errors, that is, violation of various norms that regulate the communicative organization of a certain utterance. They are as follows:
- actually communicative (violation of logical stress and word order, leading to false semantic connections): “The boys sat on the boat with the keel up.”
- logical-communicative (violation of such a side of the statement as the conceptual-logical). This may be a substitution of the subject performing the action (“Masha’s eyes and facial contours are captivated by the film”); substitution of the object of action (“I like Pushkin’s poems, especially the theme of love”); the combination of logically incompatible concepts in one row (“He is always serious, of average height, his hair is a little curly at the edges, not touchy”); violation of various clan-species relations (“The tone of angry meetings is not difficult to predict - angry speeches addressed to the regime, as well as calls to close ranks”); a mistake when using cause-and-effect relationships (“But he (that is, Bazarov) calmed down quickly, since he didn’t really believe in nihilism”).
- constructive and communicative, that is, violation of the laws of constructing statements. This may be a poor connection or lack of one between the parts of the statement: “They live in the village, when I visited him, I saw his blue eyes.” This also includes the use of an adverbial phrase without connection with the subject related to it: “Life should be shown as it is, without worsening or embellishing it.” Another type of similar error is the break in the participial phrase: “There is little difference between the questions written on the board.”
- information-communicative, or semantic-communicative. This type is similar to the previous one, but differs in that here the deterioration of communicative properties occurs not due to incorrect, unsuccessful structuring of the utterance, but due to the absence or excess of information in it. This may be the ambiguity of the primary intention of the statement: “We are inextricably linked with the country, with it we have the main blow - a blow to the world.” One can also include his incompleteness here: “I myself adore plants, so I am happy to see that our village becomes so unrecognizable in the summer.” This may be the omission of part of the statement and necessary words, semantic redundancy (word repetitions, tautology, pleonasms, duplication of information), etc.
- stylistic errors, that is, a violation of the unity of the functional style, the use (unjustified) of stylistically marked, emotionally charged means. For example, the use of various colloquial words in literary speech, book expressions in reduced and neutral contexts, expressively colored vocabulary that is unjustified (“A couple of robbers attacked the American embassy”), unsuccessful comparisons, metonymies, metaphors.
At the text level
All errors at this level are of a communicative nature. They can be of the following types:
- logical violations are very common errors at the text level. Here we include a violation of the logic of thought, the absence of connections between sentences, a violation of various cause-and-effect relationships, operations with an object or subject, a violation of genus-species relations.
- grammatical violations. This type of error is also common. Here there may be a violation in different sentences of the aspectual-temporal correlation of various verb forms, as well as a violation of agreement in the number and gender of the predicate and the subject in different sentences.
- information and communication disorders. These include constructive and information-semantic insufficiency, that is, the omission of part of a statement in the text; constructive and information-semantic redundancy (in other words, an excess of meaning and a clutter of structures); inconsistency with the constructive specifications of the semantics of statements; unsuccessful use of pronouns as a means of communication; pleonasms, tautology, repetitions.
Stylistic errors in the text
Stylistic violations existing at the text level can be viewed in a similar way. It should be noted that we also attribute to them the monotony and poverty of syntactic constructions, since texts such as: “The boy was dressed very simply. He was dressed in a jacket lined with cotton wool. His feet were wearing moth-eaten socks” - do not indicate syntactic violations, but about the inability to express thoughts in a variety of ways. At the text level, speech disorders are more complex than at the utterance level, although in the latter they are “isomorphic.” As a rule, text errors are syncretic in nature, that is, they incorrectly use the constructive, lexical, and logical aspects of a speech unit. This is natural, since the text is more difficult to construct. At the same time, we need to retain in our memory the previous statements, as well as the semantics of the entire text and the general idea, creating its continuation and completion.
The ability to find flaws in the text, as well as correcting speech errors, are important tasks that every school graduate faces. After all, in order to write a good Unified State Exam in the Russian language, you need to learn to identify all of the above types of errors and try to avoid them if possible.
The word is an important element of our daily life and, in particular, speech. This unit can rightfully be called extremely diverse and voluminous. With its help, we not only give names to phenomena and objects, but also convey our thoughts and feelings. By remembering the main ones, you can avoid them in the future and make your communication style cleaner.
When we decide what word to say, there are several aspects to consider. These primarily include stylistic coloring, appropriateness of use and level of compatibility with other components of the sentence. If you break even one of these rules, the likelihood of saying something wrong increases significantly.
We monitor the value
Examples of speech errors are often associated with the fact that the speaker does not understand the meaning of a word and uses it in a situation that is not suitable for this. Thus, in the phrase “the fire grew more and more intense,” the verb was used incorrectly. It has two meanings.
The first of them is “to heat up, to heat up to a high temperature,” and the second is “to get excited.” In this situation, it would be much more logical to use the word “flare up.” It just conveys the meaning that the author tried to put into the phrase.
Irrelevance
Speakers often use significant and function words without taking into account their semantics. You often see these in the media. Examples of them can be from the category “thanks to the tornado, several thousand people died.” The preposition with which this phrase begins must be used only in those situations when we want to talk about what caused a desirable, rather than destructive, result.
The nature of this error is hidden in the semantic abstraction of the word from the verb that gave impetus to its appearance. In the above case, instead of “due to” you need to say “as a result”, “due to” or “as a result”.
In any field of activity, speech errors are inevitable. Examples from life are often associated with the choice of words-concepts that have different bases of division. That is, we are talking about a combination of concrete and abstract vocabulary in one context. Thus, phrases in the style of “we will ensure a complete cure for drug addicts and other diseases” are often found. If we talk about an illness, we need to use its name, and not talk about the people who suffer from it. In this situation, it would be correct to use the word “drug addiction.”
At every step we are surrounded by speech and examples of them can be so ingrained in our lives that we may not even notice that we are speaking incorrectly. Such cases include the incorrect use of paronyms. Many people are confused about the concepts of “addressee” (the one to whom we are writing a letter) and “addressee” (sender, author). To avoid embarrassment, you just need to remember the meaning of such problematic words.
Incompatible
Another eternal problem for many people is that they do not watch the phrases they pronounce. After all, when we choose a suitable word, it is necessary to monitor not only its literary meaning. Not all structures can be harmoniously connected to each other. To maintain speech balance, it is necessary to take into account semantics, stylistics, grammatical features of words and more.
You can come across a variety of sentences with speech errors. Examples might be something like this: “A good father needs to be a role model for his children.” In this case, the word “example” must be used.
Synonyms, homonyms, paronyms
Speech errors on television are often associated with the incorrect use of synonyms. Examples are often associated with the wrong choice of the emotional connotation of the word and the scope of its use: “The general director made a mistake and immediately began to correct it.” The neutral word “error” would be much better suited for this situation, instead of the chosen jargon.
Homonyms also often become the cause of incorrect statements. If you do not take them out of context, the meaning of such words will be quite clear. But there are times when they are used in a situation that is absolutely inappropriate for this. Having heard the sentence “The crew is in excellent condition now,” we will not be able to understand who or what we are talking about: the crew or the cart. In this situation, additional context is indispensable.
Types of speech errors (we will look at examples a little later) are often associated with the fact that speakers incorrectly use ambiguous words. To avoid such missteps, it is necessary to monitor how acceptable a certain word is for a particular situation.
Context plays a big role in this. It is with its help that you can understand the meaning of many words. Example - “she was singing so loud.” Without additional explanation, it is difficult to understand whether the heroine was carried away by the action she was performing or simply gained momentum.
Too much or too little
Examples of speech errors are also often associated with lexical incompleteness of the statement. This is an omission in a sentence of a word that logically should be there. Such a blunder is present in the proposal “not to publish statements on the pages of newspapers and television that could cause an aggressive reaction.” One gets the impression that the author is speaking “on the pages of television.”
New and old
Many types of speech errors with examples are associated with the use of inappropriate new ones and Often, authors unsuccessfully fit them into the context or come up with their own, inappropriate forms. Thus, in the sentence “More than twenty thousand rubles have been allocated this year,” the author’s neologism “pothole repair” means “pothole repair,” which is impossible to understand without additional context.
Archaisms are words that have gone out of use. You also need to be careful with their use. Some insert them into texts that require the use of neutral vocabulary rather than outdated ones. “Currently there is a cleanup day at school” - this is a case when it would be better to say “now” to make the text more logical in style.
Foreign words
Examples of speech errors also often appear due to the incorrect use of words that came to our country from abroad. Many people manage to throw around beautiful phrases of this origin, without even fully understanding their meaning and semantic nuances.
“My purchasing plan is limited due to the fact that I earn little.” This is a case where it was necessary to use a simpler formulation like the phrase “executes more slowly.”
Problems with vocabulary
Speech errors in literature, examples of which can be found in many books, are often associated with the wrong choice of vocabulary. These may be dialectisms, vernaculars, jargons and phraseological units that are not entirely suitable for a particular text. When choosing words from these groups, you need to monitor how harmoniously they fit into the overall context. You also need to adhere to one specific style of presentation in the narrative. If we want to say “I met a neighbor at the entrance,” we don’t need to call her a “scavenger” (dialectical).
In the sentence “I bought a thin TV,” it is better to use the neutral word “thin” or “bad” instead of vernacular, depending on what meaning you give to the text. Otherwise, the recipient of your speech may misunderstand what exactly you are saying.
The professional jargon “steering wheel” is appropriate in a driver’s dialogue, but not in the seller’s description of the interior of a new car model: “The chairs and steering wheel are upholstered in natural leather.” Phraseologisms also cause a lot of difficulties in correct use: “This man is constantly throwing pearls before swine.” This expression means “to invent, to lie,” but without additional context it can be interpreted literally.
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Modern linguists approach the definition of the concept of “speech error” in different ways: by a speech error they understand an unsuccessfully chosen word, an incorrectly constructed sentence, a distorted form of a word, and in general any case of deviation from current language norms.
The most complete definition of speech errors and shortcomings is given in the works of Doctor of Sciences Professor Taisa Alekseevna Ladyzhenskaya, a leading specialist in the field of rhetoric and speech culture. By her definition, speech error- “this is a violation of the requirements correctness speech" and speech impediment– “this is a violation of recommendations related to the concept good speech, that is, rich, precise and expressive.” In other words, if you can’t say (write) like that, it’s a speech error, but if you can say (write) like that, in principle, it’s possible, but it will be inaccurate, meager, and inexpressive—it’s a speech defect.
Test yourself: you may find that you make (or don’t make, which is very encouraging!) mistakes in oral and written speech.
TO speech errors T.A. Ladyzhenskaya includes the following:
- Misunderstanding of the meaning of a word, using a word in a meaning that is unusual for it. (He back started to command! Right : again, again. The fire is getting bigger got excited, was burning. Right: flared up.)
- Mixing aspectual and tense forms of the verb. (In water jumping rats , ran Lapwings - time mixing. Right: jumping, running or jumped, ran. When arrived December, the weather is harsh changes – mixing of species . Right : or came, changed, or comes, changes.)
- Poor use of pronouns resulting in unclear or ambiguous speech ( When the boy said goodbye to his father, he did not cry. It is unclear who did not cry, the boy or the father: say He You can talk about both. Right: Saying goodbye to his father, boy didn't cry. Or like this: When the boy said goodbye to his father, he did not cry(this is if we want to say that the father cried).
- Unjustified use of colloquial and dialect words. (Kolya walked behind. Right: behind, behind.)
- Confusion of paronymic words. (I was told to stay home, but I across refused. Right: flatly refused . This man is leading festive life. Right: I'm celebrating life.)
- Pronominal doubling of the subject. (Olya - She was the youngest in the family. Correct: Olya was the youngest in the family.)
TO speech impediments all experts include the following:
1. Violation of the order of words in a sentence. ( The dog helped people dig snow with its paws and muzzle. A narrow strip only connects the island with the shore.)
2. Using an extra word. (He will come in the month of January. Better this way: He will come in January. All guests received memorable souvenirs. Needed: All guests received souvenirs. Souvenir already means " memorable gift».)
3. Failure to distinguish shades of meaning of synonyms or words with similar meanings. (The team lost and the goalkeeper was returning home with sad head. You need this: ... with drooping head. Yesterday I was sadly. Had sad.)
4. Violation of word compatibility (Soldiers fulfilled the oath. The oath cannot be fulfilled, but it can be take an oath, be true to your oath, A execute Can promise, task, order, order.)
5. Unjustified repetition of the same word within a sentence or in adjacent sentences. ( Birds birds are about to touch the water. Better this way: Birds rushed low and low over the river, it seemed that They are about to touch the water.) Note, however, that repetition is not always an indicator of a speech defect. It can enhance the author’s thought and give it a special emotional coloring. Compare: There is a certain level of happiness in life, from which we count, just as we count from sea level. (D.S. Likhachev)
6. The use of nearby or closely related words, or tautology. (This happening with me happened in summer. Better this way: case happened. The watchman was watching at night and slept during the day. It is better to replace one of two words: or the watchman was working or he was guarding. Today hunt something reluctance. Suggest your options for editing this sentence.)
Types of speech errorsSpeech errors- this is a violation of the laws of use of language units in speech, as well as shortcomings in the formation of syntactic structures.
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Types of speech impediments |
Examples |
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1. Using a word in a meaning that is unusual for it |
My brother became a diplomat at an international performing arts competition |
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2. Failure to distinguish shades of meaning introduced into a word by a prefix or suffix |
Economical electrical appliances are now being produced - they consume little electricity |
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3. Violation of lexical compatibility |
To bring joy, to give care |
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4. Using an extra word (pleonasm) |
Surround, old veterans |
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5. Use nearby (or close) words with the same root (tautology) |
The teacher teaches students, the following picture shows |
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6. Poor use of personal and demonstrative pronouns |
The girl took the plate, walked up to the dog and put it on the floor |
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7. Violation of aspectual-temporal correlation of verb forms |
The bird was lying on the grass and trembling all over |
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8. Repeating the same word |
The author is trying to show us the difference between the Motherland and native places. Love for the Motherland begins with its culture. |
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9. Use of a word (or expression) of a different stylistic coloring |
This novel is truly one of Tolstoy's best novels. |
Types of grammatical errors
Grammatical errors are a violation of the norms of word and form formation, as well as the norms of syntactic connections between words in a phrase and sentence.
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Types of grammatical errors |
Examples |
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Derivational |
Erroneous word formation |
Borrowed, back and ridiculed |
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Morphological |
1. Errors in the formation of noun forms |
Our engineer, a lot of banana and tangerine, light tulle |
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2. Errors in the formation of adjective forms |
More beautiful, brightest, sweetest |
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3. Errors in the formation of pronoun forms |
All the work in their house, left the reception |
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4. Errors in the formation of verb forms |
I dare, vacuum it, burn it out |
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Syntactic |
1. Violation of agreement 2. Impaired control 3. Disruption of connection between subject and predicate 4. Errors in constructing sentences with participles 5. Errors in constructing sentences with participial phrases 6. Errors in constructing sentences with homogeneous members 7. Errors in constructing complex sentences 8. Displacement of direct and indirect speech |
It was the famous deputy Sergeeva. I don't have the slightest idea about what happened. Twenty-one people came to the meeting. Opening the window, it started to rain The sea roared dully, agitated by the storm that had begun in the morning. The class teacher talked about the progress of the graduates, their behavior and why they study so poorly. |
Types of logical errors
Logical errors are a violation of the sequence (logic) of presentation.
Logical errors consist of violating the rules of logical thinking. This type of error includes the following shortcomings in the content of the work:
1) violation of the sequence of utterances;
2) lack of connection between parts and sentences;
3) unjustified repetition of a previously expressed thought;
4) fragmentation of one micro-theme by another micro-theme;
5) disproportionality of parts of the statement;
6) lack of necessary parts;
7) rearrangement of parts of the text (if it is not due to the assignment for presentation);
8) unjustified substitution of the person from whom the story is told (for example, first from the first, then from the third person).
Logical errors (L)– associated with a violation of the logical correctness of speech. They arise as a result of a violation of the laws of logic, committed both within one sentence, judgment, and at the level of the entire text.
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CLASSIFICATION OF ERRORS CORRECTED AND TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT WHEN EVALUATING A STUDENT’S WORK
Sherstobitova I.A., Associate Professor, Department of Humanitarian Education, St. Petersburg APPO
Belokurova S.P., methodologist of the IMC Krasnogvardeisky district of St. Petersburg
Gvozdinskaya L.G., head Center for Humanitarian Education of St. Petersburg APPO
Speech errors (P)– these are errors not in the construction of a sentence, not in the structure of a linguistic unit, but in its use, most often in the use of a word, i.e. a violation of lexical norms. This is pleonasm, tautology, speech cliches, inappropriate use of colloquial vocabulary, dialectisms, jargon; expressive means, non-discrimination of paronyms. Errors in the use of homonyms, antonyms, synonyms, polysemy not eliminated by the context.
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CLASSIFICATION OF ERRORS CORRECTED AND TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT WHEN EVALUATING A STUDENT’S WORK
Sherstobitova I.A., Associate Professor, Department of Humanitarian Education, St. Petersburg APPO
Belokurova S.P., methodologist of the IMC Krasnogvardeisky district of St. Petersburg
Gvozdinskaya L.G., head Center for Humanitarian Education of St. Petersburg APPO
Grammatical errors (G)- these are errors in the structure of a linguistic unit: words, phrases or sentences, i.e. a violation of any grammatical norm - word formation, morphological, syntactic.
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CLASSIFICATION OF ERRORS CORRECTED AND TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT WHEN EVALUATING A STUDENT’S WORK
Sherstobitova I.A., Associate Professor, Department of Humanitarian Education, St. Petersburg APPO
Belokurova S.P., methodologist of the IMC Krasnogvardeisky district of St. Petersburg
Gvozdinskaya L.G., head Center for Humanitarian Education of St. Petersburg APPO
Factual errors (F)– a type of non-linguistic error, which consists in the fact that the writer cites facts that contradict reality, gives incorrect information about factual circumstances, both related and not related to the analyzed text (background knowledge).
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Ethical errors (E)– violation of the system of values and rules of ethics in the work: statements that degrade human dignity, expressing an arrogant and cynical attitude towards the human person, hostility, manifestations of verbal aggression, slang words and phrases.
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Word- the most important unit of language, the most diverse and voluminous. It is the word that reflects all the changes taking place in the life of society. The word not only names an object or phenomenon, but also performs an emotional and expressive function.
And when choosing words, we must pay attention to their meaning, stylistic coloring, usage, and compatibility with other words. Since violation of at least one of these criteria can lead to a speech error.
The main causes of speech errors:
Outdated words.
Words of foreign origin.
Dialectisms.
Colloquial and colloquial words.
Professional jargon.
Phraseologisms.
Clichés and cliches.
1. Misunderstanding of the meaning of the word.
1.1. Using a word in a meaning that is unusual for it.
Example: The fire grew hotter and hotter. The error lies in the wrong choice of word:
Inflame - 1. Heat to a very high temperature, become hot. 2. (trans.) To become very excited, to become overwhelmed by some strong feeling.
Flare up - start to burn strongly or well, evenly.
1.2. The use of significant and function words without taking into account their semantics.
Example: Thanks to a fire that broke out from a fire, a large area of forest burned down.
In modern Russian, the preposition thanks retains a certain semantic connection with the verb to thank and is usually used only in cases where the reasons that cause a desired result are spoken of: thanks to someone’s help, support. The error arises due to the semantic distraction of the preposition from the original verb to thank. In this sentence, the preposition thanks should be replaced with one of the following: because of, as a result, as a result.
1.3. Selection of words-concepts with different bases of division (concrete and abstract vocabulary).
Example: We offer complete cure for alcoholics and other diseases.
If we are talking about diseases, then the word alcoholics should be replaced with alcoholism. An alcoholic is someone who suffers from alcoholism. Alcoholism is a painful addiction to drinking alcoholic beverages.
1.4. Incorrect use of paronyms.
Example: A person leads a festive life. I'm in an idle mood today.
Idle and festive are very similar words, with the same root. But they have different meanings: festive – an adjective for holiday (celebratory dinner, festive mood); idle - not filled, not busy with business, work (idle life). To restore the meaning of the statements in the example, you need to swap the words.
2. Lexical compatibility. When choosing a word, you should take into account not only the meaning that is inherent in it in the literary language, but also lexical compatibility. Not all words can be combined with each other. The boundaries of lexical compatibility are determined by the semantics of words, their stylistic affiliation, emotional coloring, grammatical properties, etc.
Example:
A good leader must set an example for his subordinates in everything.
You can show an example, but not a sample. And you can be a role model, for example.
Example:
Their strong friendship, tempered by life's trials, was noticed by many.
The word friendship is combined with the adjective strong - strong friendship.
What should be distinguished from a speech error is the deliberate combination of seemingly incompatible words: a living corpse, an ordinary miracle... In this case, we have one of the types of tropes - an oxymoron.
In difficult cases, when it is difficult to determine whether certain words can be used together, it is necessary to use a compatibility dictionary.
3.Use of synonyms.
Synonyms enrich the language and make our speech figurative. Synonyms may have different functional and stylistic connotations. Thus, the words error, miscalculation, oversight, error are stylistically neutral and commonly used; hole, overlay - colloquial; gaffe – colloquial; blooper - professional slang. Using one of the synonyms without taking into account its stylistic coloring can lead to a speech error.
Example: Having made a mistake, the plant director immediately began to correct it.
When using synonyms, the ability of each of them to be more or less selectively combined with other words is often not taken into account.
Differing in shades of lexical meaning, synonyms can express different degrees of manifestation of a characteristic or action. But, even denoting the same thing, being interchangeable in some cases, in others synonyms cannot be replaced - this leads to a speech error.
Example: Yesterday I was sad.
The synonym sad is quite suitable here: Yesterday I was sad. But in two-part sentences these synonyms are interchangeable. I look sadly at our generation...
4. Use of homonyms.
Thanks to the context, homonyms are usually understood correctly. But still, in certain speech situations, homonyms cannot be understood unambiguously.
Example:
The crew is in excellent condition.
Is the crew a cart or a team? The word crew itself is used correctly. But to reveal the meaning of this word, it is necessary to expand the context.
Very often, ambiguity is caused by the use in speech (especially oral) of homophones (sounding the same, but spelled differently) and homoforms (words that have the same sound and spelling in certain forms). So, when choosing words for a phrase, we must pay attention to the context, which in some speech situations is designed to reveal the meaning of the words.
5. Use of polysemantic words.
When including polysemantic words in our speech, we must be very careful, we must monitor whether the meaning that we wanted to reveal in this speech situation is clear. When using polysemous words (as well as when using homonyms), context is very important. It is thanks to the context that one or another meaning of a word is clear. And if the context meets its requirements (a semantically complete segment of speech that allows one to establish the meanings of the words or phrases included in it), then each word in the sentence is understandable. But it also happens differently.
Example:
He's already sung.
It’s not clear: either he started singing and got carried away; or, after singing for a while, he began to sing freely, easily.
6. Verbosity.
The following types of verbosity occur:
1. Pleonasm (from the Greek pleonasmos - excess, excessiveness) - the use in speech of words that are close in meaning and therefore logically redundant.
Example:
All guests received memorable souvenirs.
A souvenir is a keepsake, so memorable is an extra word in this sentence. A variety of pleonasms are expressions such as very huge, very tiny, very beautiful, etc. Adjectives denoting a characteristic in its extremely strong or extremely weak manifestation do not need to specify the degree of the characteristic.
2. Using unnecessary words. Superfluous not because their inherent lexical meaning is expressed in other words, but because they are simply not needed in this text.
Example:
Then, on April 11, the Druzhba bookstore will take care of this so that you can smile.
3. Tautology (from the Greek tauto - the same logos - word) - repetition of words with the same root or identical morphemes. Not only students’ essays, but also newspapers and magazines are replete with tautological errors.
Example:
Business leaders are business-minded.
4. Splitting the predicate. This is the replacement of a verbal predicate with a synonymous verbal-nominal combination: fight - fight, clean - clean.
Example:
The students decided to clean up the school yard.
7. Lexical incompleteness of the statement.
This error is the opposite of verbosity. An incomplete statement consists of missing a necessary word in the sentence.
Example:
The advantage of Kuprin is that there is nothing superfluous.
Kuprin may have nothing superfluous, but this sentence is missing (and not even just one) word. Or: “... do not allow statements on the pages of the press and television that could incite ethnic hatred.” So it turns out – “television page”.
When choosing a word, it is necessary to take into account not only its semantics, lexical, stylistic and logical compatibility, but also its scope. The use of words that have a limited sphere of distribution (lexical new formations, obsolete words, words of foreign language origin, professionalisms, jargon, dialectisms) should always be motivated by the conditions of the context.
8. New words.
Poorly formed neologisms are speech errors.
Example: And last year, 23 thousand rubles were spent on pothole repairs after the spring thaw.
And only the context helps to understand: “pothole repair” is the repair of holes.
Outdated words.
Archaisms - words that name existing realities, but for some reason have been forced out of active use by synonymous lexical units - must correspond to the style of the text, otherwise they are completely inappropriate.
Example:
Today there was an open day at the university.
Here the obsolete word now (today, now, currently) is completely inappropriate.
Among the words that have fallen out of active use, historicisms also stand out. Historicisms are words that have fallen out of use due to the disappearance of the concepts they denote: armyak, camisole, bursa, oprichnik, etc. Errors in the use of historicisms are often associated with ignorance of their lexical meaning.
Example:
The peasants cannot stand their hard life and go to the main governor of the city.
Governor is the head of a region (for example, a province in Tsarist Russia, a state in the USA). Consequently, the chief governor is an absurdity; moreover, there could only be one governor in the province, and his assistant was called the vice-governor.
10. Words of foreign origin.
Now many people have an addiction to foreign words, sometimes without even knowing their exact meaning. Sometimes the context does not accept a foreign word.
Example:
The work of the conference is limited due to the lack of leading specialists.
Limit - set a limit on something, limit it. The foreign word limit in this sentence should be replaced with the words: goes slower, stopped, etc.
11.Dialectisms.
Dialectisms are words or stable combinations that are not included in the lexical system of the literary language and belong to one or more dialects of the Russian national language. Dialectisms are justified in artistic or journalistic speech to create speech characteristics of heroes. The unmotivated use of dialectisms indicates insufficient knowledge of the norms of the literary language.
Example:
A scavenger came to see me and sat there the whole evening.
Shaberka is a neighbor. The use of dialectism in this sentence is not justified either by the style of the text or by the purpose of the statement.
12. Colloquial and colloquial words.
Colloquial words are included in the lexical system of the literary language, but are used mainly in oral speech, mainly in the sphere of everyday communication. Colloquial speech is a word, grammatical form or turn of phrase, predominantly of oral speech, used in a literary language, usually for the purpose of a reduced, rough characterization of the subject of speech, as well as simple casual speech containing such words, forms and turns. Colloquial and vernacular vocabulary, in contrast to dialect (regional), is used in the speech of the entire people.
Example:
I have a very thin jacket.
Thin (colloquial) – holey, spoiled (thin boot). Errors occur in cases where the use of colloquial and colloquial words is not motivated by context.
13. Professional jargon.
Professionalisms act as colloquial equivalents of terms accepted in a certain professional group: typo - a mistake in the speech of journalists; steering wheel - in the speech of drivers, a steering wheel.
But the unmotivated transfer of professionalism into general literary speech is undesirable. Such professionalisms as sewing, tailoring, listening and others spoil literary speech.
In terms of limited use and the nature of expression (jocular, reduced, etc.), professionalisms are similar to jargons and are an integral part of jargons - peculiar social dialects characteristic of professional or age groups of people (jargon of athletes, sailors, hunters, students, schoolchildren). Jargon is everyday vocabulary and phraseology, endowed with reduced expression and characterized by socially limited use.
Example:
I wanted to invite guests to the holiday, but the hut doesn’t allow it.
Khibara is a house.
14. Phraseologisms.
It must be remembered that phraseological units always have a figurative meaning. Decorating our speech, making it more lively, imaginative, bright, beautiful, phraseological units also give us a lot of trouble - if they are used incorrectly, speech errors appear.
1. Errors in learning the meaning of phraseological units.
1) There is a danger of literal understanding of phraseological units, which can be perceived as free associations of words.
2) Errors may be associated with a change in the meaning of a phraseological unit.
Example:
Khlestakov throws pearls before swine all the time, but everyone believes him.
Here the phraseology “throwing pearls before swine”, meaning “to talk about something in vain or to prove something to someone who is not able to understand it,” is used incorrectly – in the meaning of “inventing, weaving fables.”
2. Errors in mastering the form of phraseological units.
1) Grammatical modification of a phraseological unit.
Example:
I'm used to giving myself full reports.
The form of the number has been changed here. There is a phraseological unit to give account.
Example: He constantly sits with his hands folded. Phraseologisms like folded arms, headlong, headlong retain in their composition the old form of the perfective participle with the suffix -a (-я).
Some phraseological units use short forms of adjectives; replacing them with full forms is erroneous.
2) Lexical modification of a phraseological unit.
Example:
It's time for you to take charge of your mind.
Most phraseological units are impenetrable: an additional unit cannot be introduced into the phraseological unit.
Example:
Well, at least hit the wall!
Omitting a phraseological unit component is also a speech error.
Example:
Everything returns to normal!..
There is a phraseological unit that goes round and round. Substitution of a word is not allowed.
3. Changing the lexical compatibility of phraseological units.
Example:
These and other questions play a big role in the development of this still young science.
There has been a mixture of two stable expressions: it plays a role and it matters. You could say this: questions matter... or questions matter a lot.
15. Clichés and cliches.
Officeisms are words and expressions, the use of which is assigned to the official business style, but in other styles of speech they are inappropriate, they are cliches.
Example:
There is a lack of spare parts.
Stamps are hackneyed expressions with a faded lexical meaning and erased expressiveness. Words, phrases and even whole sentences become cliches, which appear as new, stylistically expressive means of speech, but as a result of too frequent use they lose their original imagery.
Example:
A forest of hands went up during the vote.
A type of stamps are universal words. These are words that are used in the most general and vague meanings: question, task, raise, provide, etc. Usually, universal words are accompanied by standard prefixes: work - everyday, level - high, support - warm. There are numerous journalistic cliches (field workers, a city on the Volga), and literary cliches (an exciting image, an angry protest).