Language norms(norms of a literary language, literary norms) are the rules for the use of linguistic means in a certain period of development of a literary language, i.e. rules of pronunciation, spelling, word usage, grammar. A norm is a pattern of uniform, generally accepted use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences).
In literary language the following are distinguished: types of norms:
- norms of written and oral forms of speech;
- norms of written speech;
- norms of oral speech.
The norms common to oral and written speech include:
- lexical norms;
- grammatical norms;
- stylistic norms.
Special norms of written speech are:
- spelling standards;
- punctuation standards.
Applicable only to oral speech:
- pronunciation standards;
- accent norms;
- intonation norms
Grammar rules - these are the rules for using the forms of different parts of speech, as well as the rules for constructing a sentence.
The most common grammatical errors associated with the use of gender of nouns: * railway rail, *French shampoo, *big callus, *registered parcel post, *patent leather shoes. However rail, shampoo – it is a masculine noun and callus, parcel, shoe - feminine, so you should say: railway rail, French shampoo And big callus, custom parcel, patent leather shoe.
Lexical norms - these are the rules for using words in speech. An error is, for example, the use of the verb * lay down instead of put. Even though the verbs lay down And put have the same meaning put – this is a normative literary word, and lay down- colloquial. The following expressions are an error: * I put the book back in its place *He puts the folder on the table etc. In these sentences you need to use the verb put: I put the books in their place, He puts the folder on the table.
Orthoepic norms
- These are pronunciation norms of oral speech. They are studied by a special section of linguistics - orthoepy (from the Greek.
orthos– “correct” and epos- "speech").
Compliance with pronunciation standards is important for the quality of our speech. Spelling errors * cat á log, *sound ó nit, *means á etc. always interfere with the perception of the content of speech: the listener’s attention is distracted and the statement is not perceived in its entirety
You should consult the Spelling Dictionary about stress in words. The pronunciation of the word is also recorded in spelling and explanatory dictionaries. Pronunciation that corresponds to orthoepic standards facilitates and speeds up the process of communication, therefore the social role of correct pronunciation is very great, especially now in our society, where oral speech has become a means of the widest communication at various meetings, conferences, and forums.
Levels language - main tiers language system its subsystems, each of which is represented by “a collection of relatively homogeneous units” and a set of rules that govern their use and classification. Units of one level of language are capable of entering into syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationships with each other (for example, words, when combined, form phrases and sentences), units of different levels can only enter into one another (for example, phonemes make up the sound shells of morphemes, words are made up of morphemes , from words - sentences).
The following language levels are identified as the main ones:
- phonemic;
- morphemic;
- lexical(verbal);
- syntactic(supply level).
The levels at which two-sided units (having a plan of expression and a plan of content) are distinguished are called higher levels language. Some scientists tend to distinguish only two levels: differential(language is considered as a system of distinctive signs: sounds or written signs that replace them, distinguishing units of the semantic level) and semantic, on which bilateral units are highlighted
In some cases, units of several levels coincide in one sound form. So, in Russian And phoneme, morpheme and word coincide, in Lat. i "go"- phoneme, morpheme, word and sentence
Units of the same level can exist in an abstract, or « Em ical"(for example, background eat s, morph eat s), and specific, or "ethical"(backgrounds, morphs), forms, which is not a basis for identifying additional levels of language: rather, it makes sense to talk about different levels of analysis.
The levels of language are not stages in its development, but the result of division.
Paradigm and syntagm relations are connected by units of varying degrees of complexity. The opposition of these relations reflects the multi-level nature of language. The language system is not homogeneous, but consists of more specific systems - levels, tiers. At each level, only synthetic or paragmatic relationships are possible. Since the relationships between units of the same level are of the same type, the determination of the number of levels depends on the quality of the units and their number. A level is a set of relatively homogeneous units of the same degree of difficulty. They differ in the features of their plans of expression and content; morphemes and lexicon – content, noun sacredness of L.E. – they are formed at the lower level, and the function is at the upper level. Differences between the basic and intermediate levels: basic and minimum levels, i.e. further indivisible units: sentence - minimum statement, lexeme - indivisible and minimum component of the sentence, morpheme - minimum component of the lexeme. Intermediate levels: they do not have such minimal units. An intermediate level unit is an integral, or part of the unit of the nearest main tier. The level of differentiated features precedes the phonetic level. A differentiated sign of a phoneme is deafness, explosiveness. The morphonemic level precedes the morphonological level. A morphoneme is a chain of phonemes alternating in morphs (ru h ka-ru To A). Each level is not monolithic, but consists of microsystems. The fewer units in a tier, the more systematic it is. The more units in a tier, the greater the likelihood of the formation of tiers of microsystems. The phonemic level and differentiated features are the 2 most systemic levels of language. It was here that the idea of a systematic language as a whole arose. But levels with a large number of units showed their character somewhat differently. In a language that is an open dynamic system, systematicity and non-systematicity do not contradict each other. The language system constantly strives for balance, but it is never absolutely correct. We can assume that it is in a state of equilibrium. The language combines strict systematicity with non-systematic periphery. Here lies the source of the language system.
Signs:
· compliance with the structure of the language;
- massive and regular reproducibility in the process of speech activity of the majority of speakers;
- public approval and recognition.
Characteristics of the standards:
1. Resilience and stability. ensure the unity of the national language.
2. General prevalence and universally binding norms.
3. Literary tradition and authority of sources.
4. Cultural and aesthetic perception of the norm.
5. Dynamic nature of norms.
6. Possibility of linguistic pluralism.
Linguistic norms (standards of literary language, literary norms) are the rules for the use of linguistic means in a certain period of development of the literary language, i.e. rules of pronunciation, spelling, word usage, grammar. A norm is a pattern of uniform, generally accepted use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences).
A linguistic phenomenon is considered normative if it is characterized by such features as:
compliance with the structure of the language;
massive and regular reproducibility in the process of speech activity of the majority of speakers;
public approval and recognition.
Linguistic norms were not invented by philologists; they reflect a certain stage in the development of the literary language of the entire people. Language norms cannot be introduced or abolished by decree; they cannot be reformed administratively. The activity of linguists who study language norms is different - they identify, describe and codify language norms, as well as explain and promote them.
The main sources of language norms include:
works of classical writers;
works of modern writers who continue classical traditions;
media publications;
common modern usage;
linguistic research data.
The characteristic features of language norms are:
relative stability;
prevalence;
common use;
universal obligatory;
compliance with the use, custom and capabilities of the language system.
Norms help the literary language maintain its integrity and general intelligibility. They protect the literary language from the flow of dialect speech, social and professional jargon, and vernacular. This allows the literary language to perform one of the most important functions - cultural.
A speech norm is a set of the most stable traditional implementations of the language system, selected and consolidated in the process of public communication.
The normalization of speech is its compliance with the literary and linguistic ideal.
Dynamic development of language and variability of norms
“The language system, being in constant use, is created and modified by the collective efforts of those who use it... New things in speech experience that do not fit into the framework of the language system, but that work and are functionally appropriate, lead to restructuring in it, and each successive state of the language system serves as a basis for comparison during subsequent processing of speech experience. Thus, language develops and changes in the process of speech functioning, and at each stage of this development the language system inevitably contains elements that have not completed the process of change. Therefore, various fluctuations and variations are inevitable in any language.” The constant development of language leads to changes in literary norms. What was the norm in the last century and even 15-20 years ago may become a deviation from it today. So, for example, previously the words snack bar, toy, bakery, everyday, deliberately, decently, creamy, apple, scrambled eggs were pronounced with the sounds [shn]. At the end of the 20th century. such pronunciation as the only (strictly obligatory) norm was preserved only in the words deliberately, scrambled eggs. In the words bakery, along with the traditional pronunciation [shn], the new pronunciation [chn] is recognized as acceptable. In the words everyday, apple, the new pronunciation is recommended as the main option, and the old one is allowed as a possible option. In the word creamy, the pronunciation [shn] is recognized as an acceptable, but outdated option, and in the words snack bar, toy, the new pronunciation [chn] has become the only possible normative option.
This example clearly shows that in the history of a literary language the following are possible:
maintaining the old norm;
competition between two options, in which dictionaries recommend the traditional option;
competition of options, in which dictionaries recommend a new option;
approval of the new option as the only normative one.
In the history of a language, not only orthoepic norms change, but also all other norms.
An example of a change in lexical norm is the words diploma student and applicant. At the beginning of the 20th century. the word diplomant denoted a student completing a thesis work, and the word diplomannik was a colloquial (stylistic) version of the word diplomant. In the literary norm of the 50-60s. a distinction was made in the use of these words: the word diplomat began to be used to call a student during the period of preparation and defense of the thesis (it lost the stylistic connotation of a colloquial word), and the word diplomat began to be used to name the winners of competitions, shows, competitions, marked with a winner’s diploma.
The word applicant was used to designate those who graduated from high school and those who entered university, since both of these concepts in many cases refer to the same person. In the middle of the 20th century. For those graduating from high school, the word graduate was assigned, and the word applicant in this meaning fell out of use.
Grammar norms also change in the language. In the literature of the 19th century. and in colloquial speech of that time the words dahlia, hall, piano were used - these were feminine words. In modern Russian, the norm is to use these words as masculine words - dahlia, hall, piano.
An example of a change in stylistic norms is the entry into the literary language of dialectal and colloquial words, for example, bully, whiner, background, pandemonium, hype.
Each new generation relies on existing texts, stable figures of speech, and ways of expressing thoughts. From the language of these texts, it selects the most appropriate words and figures of speech, takes what is relevant for itself from what was developed by previous generations, bringing in its own to express new ideas, ideas, a new vision of the world. Naturally, new generations are abandoning what seems archaic, not in tune with the new manner of formulating thoughts, conveying their feelings, attitudes towards people and events. Sometimes they return to archaic forms, giving them new content, new angles of understanding.
In every historical era, the norm is a complex phenomenon and exists in rather difficult conditions.
Types of norms.
In literary language, the following types of norms are distinguished:
- 1) norms of written and oral forms of speech;
- 2) norms of written speech;
- 3) norms of oral speech.
The norms common to oral and written speech include:
lexical norms;
grammatical norms;
stylistic norms.
Special norms of written speech are:
spelling standards;
punctuation standards.
Applicable only to oral speech:
pronunciation standards;
accent norms;
intonation norms.
Norms common to oral and written speech relate to linguistic content and text construction. Lexical norms, or norms of word use, are norms that determine the correct choice of a word from a number of units that are close to it in meaning or form, as well as its use in the meanings that it has in the literary language.
Lexical norms are reflected in explanatory dictionaries, dictionaries of foreign words, terminological dictionaries and reference books.
Compliance with lexical norms is the most important condition for the accuracy of speech and its correctness.
Their violation leads to lexical errors of various types (examples of errors from the essays of applicants):
incorrect choice of a word from a number of units, including confusion of paronyms, inaccurate choice of a synonym, incorrect choice of a unit of the semantic field (bone type of thinking, analyze the life activity of writers, Nikolaev aggression, Russia experienced many incidents in domestic and foreign policy in those years);
violation of the norms of lexical compatibility (a herd of hares, under the yoke of humanity, a secret curtain, ingrained foundations, has gone through all stages of human development);
the contradiction between the speaker’s intention and the emotional and evaluative connotations of the word (Pushkin correctly chose the path of life and followed it, leaving indelible traces; He made an enormous contribution to the development of Russia);
the use of anachronisms (Lomonosov entered the institute, Raskolnikov studied at the university);
a mixture of linguistic and cultural realities (Lomonosov lived hundreds of miles from the capital);
incorrect use of phraseological units (Youth was flowing out of him; We must bring him out into fresh water).
Grammatical norms are divided into word-formation, morphological and syntactic.
Morphological norms require the correct formation of grammatical forms of words of different parts of speech (forms of gender, number, short forms and degrees of comparison of adjectives, etc.). A typical violation of morphological norms is the use of a word in a non-existent or inflectional form that does not correspond to the context (analyzed image, reigning order, victory over fascism, called Plyushkin a hole). Sometimes you can hear the following phrases: railway rail, imported shampoo, registered parcel post, patent leather shoes. There is a morphological error in these phrases - the gender of the nouns is incorrectly formed.
Orthoepic norms include norms of pronunciation, stress and intonation of oral speech. Pronunciation norms of the Russian language are determined primarily by the following phonetic factors:
Stunning of voiced consonants at the end of words: du [p], hle [p].
Reduction of unstressed vowels (changes in sound quality)
Assimilation is the likening of consonants in terms of voicedness and deafness at the junction of morphemes: only voiced consonants are pronounced before voiced consonants, only voiceless ones are pronounced before deaf ones: furnish - about [p] put, run away - [z] run, fry - and [g]arit.
Loss of some sounds in combinations of consonants: stn, zdn, stl, lnts: holiday - pra [zn] ik, sun - so [nc] e.
Compliance with spelling norms is an important part of speech culture, because their violation creates in listeners an unpleasant impression of the speech and the speaker himself, and distracts from the perception of the content of the speech. Orthoepic norms are recorded in orthoepic dictionaries of the Russian language and dictionaries of accents.
Stress norms (accentological norms)
Accentology studies the functions of stress. Stress is the emphasis on one of the syllables in a word using various phonetic means (raising the tone, strengthening the voice, loudness, duration). The peculiarity of the stress is its diversity and mobility. The diversity is manifested in the fact that in different words the stress falls on different syllables: invent - invent. The mobility of stress is revealed in the fact that in one word, when its form changes, the stress can move from one syllable to another: earth (I. p) - earth (V. p)
Pronouncing dictionary.
The spelling dictionary fixes the norms of pronunciation and stress.
This dictionary mainly includes the following words:
pronunciation that cannot be clearly established based on their written form;
having movable stress in grammatical forms;
forming some grammatical forms in non-standard ways;
words that experience fluctuations in stress throughout the entire system of forms or in individual forms.
The dictionary introduces a scale of normativity: some options are considered equal, in other cases one of the options is considered basic and the other acceptable. The dictionary also gives marks indicating the variant of pronunciation of the word in poetic and professional speech.
The following main phenomena are reflected in pronunciation notes:
softening of consonants, i.e. soft pronunciation of consonants under the influence of subsequent soft consonants, for example: review, - and;
changes occurring in consonant clusters, such as pronunciation of stn as [sn] (local);
possible pronunciation of one consonant sound (hard or soft) in place of two identical letters, for example: apparatus, - a [n]; effect, - a [f b];
firm pronunciation of consonants followed by the vowel e in place of spelling combinations with e in words of foreign origin, for example hotel, - I [te];
lack of reduction in words of foreign origin, i.e. pronunciation of unstressed vowel sounds in place of the letters o, e, a, which does not correspond to the rules of reading, for example: bonton, - a [bo]; nocturne, - a [faculty. But];
features in the pronunciation of consonants associated with syllable separation in words with side stress, for example, head of the laboratory [zaf/l], neskl. m, f.
linguistic speech stylistic literary
A linguistic norm is a historically determined set of commonly used linguistic means, as well as the rules for their selection and use, recognized by society as most suitable in a specific historical period. A norm is one of the essential properties of a language, ensuring its functioning and historical continuity due to its inherent stability, although not excluding the variability of linguistic means and noticeable historical variability, since the norm is designed, on the one hand, to preserve speech traditions, and on the other, to satisfy current and the changing needs of society. A special case of a language norm is a literary norm.
The main sources of language norms include:
Works of classical writers;
Works by contemporary writers who continue classical traditions;
Media publications;
Common modern usage;
Data from linguistic research.
The characteristic features of language norms are:
Relative stability;
Prevalence;
Common usage;
General obligatory;
Conformity to the use, custom and capabilities of the language system.
In literary language, the following types of norms are distinguished:
1) norms of written and oral forms of speech;
2) norms of written speech;
3) norms of oral speech.
1) The norms common to oral and written speech include:
*lexical norms;
*grammatical norms;
*stylistic norms.
2) Special norms of written speech are:
*spelling standards;
*punctuation standards.
3) Applicable only to oral speech:
*pronunciation standards;
*accent norms;
*intonation norms.
Orthoepic norms.
Orthoepic norms include norms of pronunciation, stress and intonation. Compliance with spelling norms is an important part of speech culture, because their violation creates in listeners an unpleasant impression of the speech and the speaker himself, and distracts from the perception of the content of the speech. Orthoepic norms are recorded in orthoepic dictionaries of the Russian language and dictionaries of accents. Intonation norms are described in “Russian Grammar” and Russian language textbooks.
Morphological norms.
Morphological norms require the correct formation of grammatical forms of words of different parts of speech (forms of gender, number, short forms and degrees of comparison of adjectives, etc.). A typical violation of morphological norms is the use of a word in a non-existent or inflectional form that does not correspond to the context (analyzed image, reigning order, victory over fascism, called Plyushkin a hole). Sometimes you can hear the following phrases: railway rail, imported shampoo, registered parcel post, patent leather shoes. There is a morphological error in these phrases - the gender of the nouns is incorrectly formed.
Syntactic norms.
Syntactic norms prescribe the correct construction of basic syntactic units - phrases and sentences. These norms include rules for word agreement and syntactic control, relating parts of a sentence to each other using the grammatical forms of words so that the sentence is a literate and meaningful statement. Violation of syntactic norms is found in the following examples: while reading it, a question arises; The poem is characterized by a synthesis of lyrical and epic principles; Having married his brother, none of the children were born alive.
Speech etiquette. Specifics of Russian speech etiquette.
Speech etiquette is a system of rules of speech behavior and stable formulas of polite communication.
Possession of speech etiquette contributes to the acquisition of authority, generates trust and respect. Knowing the rules of speech etiquette and observing them allows a person to feel confident and at ease, and not experience awkwardness or difficulties in communication.
Strict adherence to speech etiquette in business communication leaves clients and partners with a favorable impression of the organization and maintains its positive reputation.
Speech etiquette has national specifics. Each nation has created its own system of rules of speech behavior. In Russian society, such qualities as tact, courtesy, tolerance, goodwill, and restraint are of particular value.
The importance of these qualities is reflected in numerous Russian proverbs and sayings that characterize ethical standards of communication. Some proverbs indicate the need to listen carefully to your interlocutor: A smart person does not speak, an ignorant person does not allow him to speak. Tongue - one, ear - two, say once, listen twice. Other proverbs point out typical mistakes in constructing a conversation: Answers when he is not asked. Grandfather talks about chicken, and grandmother talks about duck. You listen, and we will remain silent. A deaf man listens to a mute man speak. Many proverbs warn about the danger of an empty, idle or offensive word: All a person’s troubles come from his tongue. Cows are caught by the horns, people by the tongue. A word is an arrow; if you release it, it will not return. What is unspoken can be expressed, what has been said cannot be returned. It's better to understate than to overtell. It buzzes from morning to evening, but there is nothing to listen to.
*Tactfulness is an ethical norm that requires the speaker to understand the interlocutor, avoid inappropriate questions, and discuss topics that may be unpleasant for him.
*Carefulness consists in the ability to anticipate possible questions and wishes of the interlocutor, the willingness to inform him in detail on all topics relevant to the conversation.
*Tolerance means being calm about possible differences of opinion and avoiding harsh criticism of the views of your interlocutor. You should respect the opinions of other people and try to understand why they have this or that point of view. Closely related to such a character quality as tolerance is self-control - the ability to calmly respond to unexpected or tactless questions and statements from an interlocutor.
*Goodwill is necessary both in relation to the interlocutor and in the entire structure of the conversation: in its content and form, in intonation and choice of words.
Functional styles. Scientific style.
Functional speech styles are styles used in one or another area of human communication; a type of literary language that performs a specific function in communication.
To avoid confusion with linguistic styles, functional styles are sometimes called linguistic genres, functional varieties of language. Each functional style has its own characteristics of using a general literary norm; it can exist both in written and oral form. There are five main types of functional speech styles, differing in the conditions and goals of communication in some area of social activity: scientific, official business, journalistic, colloquial, artistic.
Official business style.
Official business style is a functional style of speech, the environment of verbal communication in the field of official relations: in the field of legal relations and management. This area covers international relations, law, economics, the military industry, advertising, communication in official institutions, and government activities.
Business style is used for communication and information in an official setting (the sphere of legislation, office work, administrative and legal activities). This style is used for drawing up documents: laws, orders, regulations, characteristics, protocols, receipts, certificates. The scope of application of the official business style is law, the author is a lawyer, lawyer, diplomat, or just a citizen. Works in this style are addressed to the state, citizens of the state, institutions, employees, etc., with the aim of establishing administrative-legal relations.
This style exists more often in written speech; the type of speech is predominantly reasoning. The type of speech is most often a monologue, the type of communication is public.
Style features - imperativeness (due character), accuracy, not allowing two interpretations, standardization (strict composition of the text, precise selection of facts and ways of presenting them), lack of emotionality.
The main function of the official business style is informational (transfer of information). It is characterized by the presence of speech cliches, a generally accepted form of presentation, a standard presentation of the material, the widespread use of terminology and nomenclature names, the presence of complex unabridged words, abbreviations, verbal nouns, and the predominance of direct word order.
Peculiarities:
1) compactness;
2) standard arrangement of material;
3) widespread use of terminology;
4) frequent use of verbal nouns, complex conjunctions, as well as various stable phrases;
5) the narrative nature of the presentation, the use of nominative sentences with listing;
6) direct word order in a sentence as the predominant principle of its construction;
7) a tendency to use complex sentences that reflect the logical subordination of some facts to others;
8) almost complete absence of emotionally expressive speech means;
9) weak individualization of style.
Journalistic style.
Journalistic style- functional style of speech, which is used in the following genres: article, essay, report, feuilleton, interview, pamphlet, oratory.
The journalistic style serves to influence people through the media (newspapers, magazines, television, posters, booklets). It is characterized by the presence of socio-political vocabulary, logic, emotionality, evaluativeness, and appeal. In addition to neutral, it widely uses high, solemn vocabulary and phraseology, emotionally charged words, the use of short sentences, chopped prose, verbless phrases, rhetorical questions, exclamations, repetitions, etc. The linguistic features of this style are affected by the breadth of topics: there is a need to include special vocabulary that requires explanation. On the other hand, a number of topics are in the center of public attention, and vocabulary related to these topics takes on a journalistic connotation. Among such topics, we should highlight politics, economics, education, healthcare, criminology, and military topics.
The journalistic style is characterized by the use of evaluative vocabulary that has a strong emotional connotation.
This style is used in the sphere of political-ideological, social and cultural relations. The information is intended not only for a narrow circle of specialists, but for broad sections of society, and the impact is aimed not only at the mind, but also at the feelings of the recipient.
Functions of journalistic style:
*Informational - the desire to inform people about the latest news as soon as possible
*Influencing - the desire to influence people's opinions
Speech task:
*influence mass consciousness
*call to action
*provide information
The vocabulary has a pronounced emotional and expressive coloring and includes colloquial, colloquial and slang elements. Vocabulary characteristic of the journalistic style can be used in other styles: official business, scientific. But in a journalistic style, it acquires a special function - to create a picture of events and convey to the addressee the journalist’s impressions of these events.
In literary language, the following types of norms are distinguished:
– norms of written and oral forms of speech;
– norms of written speech;
- norms of oral speech.
To the norms general for oral and written speech, include:
– lexical norms;
– grammatical norms;
– stylistic norms.
Special norms of written speech are:
– spelling standards;
– punctuation standards.
Only for oral speech applicable:
- pronunciation standards;
– stress norms;
– intonation norms.
Norms common to oral and written speech relate to linguistic content and text construction.
Lexical norms, or norms of word usage, are norms that determine the correctness of choosing a word from a number of units that are close to it in meaning or form, as well as its use in the meanings that it has in the literary language. Lexical norms are reflected in explanatory dictionaries, dictionaries of foreign words, terminological dictionaries and reference books. Compliance with lexical norms is the most important condition for the accuracy of speech and its correctness. Their violation leads to lexical errors of various types (examples of errors from the essays of applicants):
incorrect choice of a word from a number of units, including confusion of paronyms, inaccurate choice of a synonym, incorrect choice of a unit of the semantic field ( bone type of thinking, analyze the life activity of writers, Nikolaev aggression, Russia experienced many incidents in domestic and foreign policy in those years);
violation of lexical compatibility norms ( a herd of hares, under the yoke of humanity, a secret curtain, ingrained foundations, went through all stages of human development);
the contradiction between the speaker’s intention and the emotional and evaluative connotations of the word ( Pushkin correctly chose the path of life and walked along it, leaving indelible traces; He made an incredible contribution to the development of Russia);
use of anachronisms ( Lomonosov entered the institute; Raskolnikov studied at the university); a mixture of linguistic and cultural realities (Lomonosov lived hundreds of miles from the capital);
incorrect use of phraseological units ( Youth was flowing out of him; We need to take him out to fresh water.).
Grammar rules are divided into word-formation, morphological and syntactic. Grammatical norms are described in "Russian Grammar" (M., 1980, vol. 1-2), prepared by the Academy of Sciences, in Russian language textbooks and grammatical reference books.
Word formation norms determine the order of combining parts of a word and forming new words. A word-formation error is the use of non-existent derived words instead of existing derived words with a different affix, for example, character description, salesmanship, hopelessness, the writer’s works are distinguished by depth and truthfulness.
Morphological norms require the correct formation of grammatical forms of words of different parts of speech (forms of gender, number, short forms and degrees of comparison of adjectives, etc.). A typical violation of morphological norms is the use of a word in a non-existent or inflectional form that does not correspond to the context ( analyzed image, reigning order, victory over fascism, called Plyushkin a hole). Sometimes you can hear such phrases: railway rail, imported shampoo, customized parcel post, patent leather shoes. There is a morphological error in these phrases - the gender of the nouns is incorrectly formed.
Syntactic norms prescribe the correct construction of basic syntactic units - phrases and sentences. These norms include rules for word agreement and syntactic control, relating parts of a sentence to each other using the grammatical forms of words so that the sentence is a literate and meaningful statement. Violations of syntactic norms are found in the following examples: Reading it, the question arises; The poem is characterized by a synthesis of lyrical and epic principles; Married to his brother, none of the children were born alive.
Stylistic norms determine the use of linguistic means in accordance with the laws of the genre, the features of the functional style and, more broadly, with the purpose and conditions of communication. Unmotivated use of words of a different stylistic connotation in the text causes stylistic errors. Stylistic norms are recorded in explanatory dictionaries as special notes, and are commented on in textbooks on the stylistics of the Russian language and speech culture. Stylistic errors consist of violating stylistic norms, including units in the text that do not correspond to the style and genre of the text. The most common stylistic mistakes are:
stylistic inappropriateness ( obsessive, royal chaos, doesn't care, the love conflict is depicted in all its glory– in the text of an essay, in a business document, in an analytical article);
the use of cumbersome, unsuccessful metaphors ( Pushkin and Lermontov are two rays of light in a dark kingdom; Did he have the right to cut off this thread of life that he did not hang himself?);
lexical deficiency ( This question worries me deeply);
lexical redundancy ( He wakes them up so that they wake up; We must turn to the period of their life, that is, to the period of time when they lived);
ambiguity ( Oblomov’s only entertainment is Zakhar; All actions and relationships between Olga and Oblomov were incomplete).
Spelling standards- these are the rules for naming words in writing. They include rules for designating sounds with letters, rules for continuous, hyphenated and separate spelling of words, rules for the use of capital letters and graphic abbreviations, and rules for hyphenating words.
Punctuation standards determine the use of punctuation marks. Punctuation tools have the following functions:
delimitation in a written text of one syntactic structure (or its element) from another;
fixation in the text of the left and right boundaries of a syntactic structure or its element;
combining several syntactic structures into one whole in a text.
The norms of spelling and punctuation are enshrined in the “Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation” (M., 1956), the only most complete and officially approved set of spelling rules, published twice - in 1956 and 1962. Based on these rules, various reference books on spelling and punctuation have been compiled.
Orthoepic norms include norms of pronunciation, stress and intonation. Compliance with orthoepic norms is an important part of the culture of speech, since their violation creates in listeners an unpleasant impression of the speech and the speaker himself, and distracts from the perception of the content of the speech. Orthoepic norms are recorded in orthoepic dictionaries of the Russian language and dictionaries of accents. Intonation norms are described in “Russian Grammar” (Moscow, 1980) and Russian language textbooks.
A linguistic norm (literary norm) is the rules for the use of speech means in a certain period of development of a literary language, i.e. * the rules of pronunciation, word usage, the use of traditionally established grammatical, stylistic and other linguistic means accepted in social linguistic practice * This is uniform , exemplary, generally accepted use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences).
The norm is mandatory for both oral and written speech and covers all aspects of the language* There are norms:
orthoepic
(pronunciation)
spelling
(writing)
derivational
lexical
morphological
t
(grammatical)
і
syntactic
shz tonatskdata
Punctual
Characteristic features of the literary language norm:
- relative stability,
-prevalence,
- common usage,
- general obligation,
- compliance with the use, custom and capabilities of the language system.
Language norms are not invented by scientists. They reflect natural processes and phenomena occurring in language and are supported by speech practice. The main sources of language norms include the works of classic scribes and modern writers, analysis of the language of the media, generally accepted modern usage, data from live and questionnaire surveys, and scientific research by linguists.
Norms help the literary language maintain its integrity and general intelligibility. They protect the literary language from the flow of dialect speech, social and professional argot, and vernacular. This allows the literary language to fulfill its main function - cultural.
The literary norm depends on the conditions in which speech is carried out. Linguistic means that are appropriate in one situation (everyday communication) may turn out to be absurd in another (official business communication). The norm does not divide language means into good and bad, but indicates their communicative expediency.
Language norms are a historical phenomenon. Changes in literary norms are due to the constant development of language. What was the norm in the last century and even 15-20 years ago may become a deviation from it today. For example, in the 30-40s. the words diploma student and diploma student were used to express the same concept: “a student performing a thesis work.” The word diplomanik was a colloquial variant of the word diplomant. In the literary fodder of the 50s and 60s. a distinction has been made in the use of these words: the former colloquial diploma student now means a student, a student during the period of defending his thesis, receiving a diploma. The word diplomat began to be used primarily to refer to winners of competitions, prize-winners of shows, competitions awarded with a diploma (for example, a diploma winner of the All-Union Piano Competition, a diploma winner of the International Vocal Competition).
The norm of using the word applicant has also changed. B 30-40s both those who graduated from high school and those who entered university were called applicants, since both of these concepts in most cases refer to the same person. In the post-war years, the word graduate was assigned to those graduating from high school, and the word applicant in this meaning fell out of use. Applicants began to be called those who pass entrance exams at universities and technical schools.
The history of the word dialectical is interesting in this regard. In the 19th century, it was derived from the noun dialect and meant “belonging to a particular dialect.” The adjective dialectical was also formed from the philosophical term dialectic. Homonyms appeared in the language: dialectical (dialectical word) and dialectical (dialectical approach). Gradually, the word dialectical in the meaning of “belonging to one or another dialect” became outdated, was replaced by the word dialectic, and the word dialectical was assigned the meaning “peculiar to dialectics; based on the laws of dialectics."
Over time, pronunciation also changes. So, for example, in A.S. Pushkin’s letters there are words of the same root, but with different spellings: bankrupt bankruptcy. How can this be explained? You might think that the poet peed himself or made a mistake. No, the word bankrupt was borrowed in the 18th century from the Dutch or French language and originally sounded bankrut in Russian. The derivatives also had a similar pronunciation: bankrutstvo, bankrutstvo obankrutiteya. During the time of Pushkin, a pronunciation variant appeared with “o” instead of “u”. You could say and write bankruti bankrupt. By the end of the 19th century, the pronunciation bankrupt, bankruptcy, bankrupt, go bankrupt finally won. This has become the norm.
In one of the issues of Literaturnaya Gazeta, in an article about the correctness of speech, such a case was described. The lecturer rose to the podium and began to speak like this: “Some people spit on the norms of literary speech, We, they say, are allowed everything, we say so as families, they will bury us like that. I shuddered * when I heard this, but did not oppose it. At first the audience was perplexed, then there was a murmur of indignation and, finally, laughter. The lecturer waited until the audience calmed down and said: “You are laughing in vain. I speak in the best literary language. In the language of the classics...” And he began to give quotes that contained “incorrect” words from his lecture, comparing them with the readings of dictionaries of that time. With this technique, the speaker demonstrated how the norm of language has changed over 100 years.
Not only lexical, spelling, accentological, but also morphological norms change. Let's take for example the ending of the nominative plural of masculine nouns:
vegetable garden - vegetable gardens, garden - gardens, table - tables, fence - fences, horn - horns, side - sides, bank - banks, eye - eyes.
As we see, in the nominative plural case, nouns have the ending -ь(or -а. The presence of two endings is associated with the history of declension. The fact is that in the Old Russian language, in addition to the singular and plural, there was also a dual number, which was used in that case , when we were talking about two objects: table (one), tables (two), tables (several). Since the 13th century, this form begins to collapse and is gradually eliminated. However, traces of it are found, firstly, at the end of the nominative case of the plural of nouns , denoting paired objects: horns, eyes, sleeves, shores, sides; secondly, the form of the singular genitive case of nouns with the numerals two (two tables, two houses, two fences) historically goes back to the form of the nominative case of the dual number. This is confirmed difference in emphasis; two hours and not an hour passed, in two rows and left the row.
After the disappearance of the dual number, along with the old ending -ы, a new ending -а appeared in masculine nouns in the nominative plural, which, as a younger ending, began to spread and displace the ending -ы.
Thus, in modern Russian, train in the nominative plural has the ending -а, while in the 19th century the norm was -ы. “The trains on the railway stop due to heavy snowfall for four days,” wrote N. G. Chernyshevsky in a letter to his father on February 8.
ralya 1855 But the ending -а does not always win over the old ending -ы. For example, the word tractor was borrowed in the 20th century from the English language, in which traktor is a suffixal derivative of the Latin traho, trahere - “to pull, drag.” In the 3rd volume of the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language, published in 1940, only tractors are recognized as a literary form, and the ending in -a (tractors) is considered colloquial. Twenty-three years later, the 15th volume of the Dictionary of Modern Russian Literary Language was published. In it, both forms (tractors and tractors) are given as equal, and twenty years later, the “Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language” (1983) puts the ending -a in first place as it is more common. In other cases, the nominative plural form in - and remains outside the boundaries of the literary language, classified as incorrect (engineer) or slang (driver).
If the old, original norm is designated by the letter A, and the competing option by the letter B, then the competition between them for a place in the literary language takes place in four stages and graphically looks like this: Stage 1 Norm - A Stage 2 Options A-B Stage 3 Barkan you B -A Stage 4 Norm - B A
B
PTR,
>B
A
outdated(
ext., decom., and
At the first stage, the only form A dominates; its variant B is beyond the limits of the literary language and is considered incorrect. At the second stage, option B already penetrates into the literary language, is considered acceptable (additional mark) and, depending on the degree of its distribution, is qualified as colloquial (colloquial mark) in relation to norm A or equal to it (mark I). At the third stage, the senior norm A loses its dominant role, finally gives way to the junior norm B and becomes obsolete norms. At the fourth stage, B becomes the only norm of the literary language. The sources of changes in the norms of the literary language are different: live, colloquial speech; local dialects; vernacular; professional jargon; other languages,
Changes in norms are preceded by the appearance of their variants, which actually exist in the language at a certain stage of its development and are actively used by its speakers. Variants of norms are reflected in dictionaries of modern literary language.
For example, in the “Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language”, accented variants of such words as normalize and normalize, mark and mark, thinking to thinking are recorded as equal. Some variants of words are given with the corresponding markings: cottage cheese and (colloquial) cottage cheese, agreement and (simple) agreement. If we turn to the “Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language” (M., 1983), then we can follow the fate of these options. Thus, the words “normalize” and “thinking” become preferred, and “normalize” and “thinking” are labeled “additional.” (acceptable). Of the options, mark and mark, marking becomes the only correct one. Regarding cottage cheese and cottage cheese, the norm has not changed. But the contract option has moved from a colloquial form into a colloquial form, and is marked “additional” in the dictionary.
Shifts in standardization can be clearly seen in the example of the pronunciation of the combination -chn.
Let's present this in a table: *
Word Tolk, lyrics. Russian, language, 1935-1940 Orthoepic dictionary Russian. language 1997 everyday [SHK] [chn] and extra. [shn] bakery [shn] [shn] and additional. [chi] snack bar [schn] [chn] toy [schn] [chn] on purpose [schn] [schn] decent [schn] [schn] and [chn] decent [schn] [schn] and [chn] creamy [schn] add. outdated [shn] scrambled eggs [shn] [shn] apple [shn] don. [shn] As you can see, out of 10 words, only two (on purpose, scrambled eggs) retain the pronunciation [shn]; in one case (bakery), preference is given to the pronunciation [shn], but [chn] is also allowed; in two cases, both pronunciations are considered equal (see decently, decently)> in the other five, the pronunciation [chn] wins, while in a nutshell ( snack bar, toy) it is considered the only correct one, and in three (everyday, creamy, apple) the pronunciation [shn] is also allowed* Indicators of various normative dictionaries give reason to talk about three degrees of normativity:
norm of the 1st degree - strict, rigid, not allowing options;
the 2nd degree norm is neutral, allowing equivalent options;
norm 3 degrees - more flexible, allows the use of colloquial as well as outdated forms.
The historical change in the norms of a literary language is a natural, objective phenomenon. It does not depend on the will and desire of individual native speakers* The development of society, changes in the social way of life, the emergence of new traditions, the improvement of relationships between people, the functioning of literature and art lead to the constant renewal of literary language and its norms.
According to scientists, the process of changing language norms has become especially intensified in recent decades*
Characteristics of the basic norms of the literary language,
Grammatical norms are the rules for using morphological forms of different parts of speech and syntactic structures.
¦ The most common grammatical errors associated with the use of gender of nouns* You can hear incorrect phrases: railway rail, French shampoo, big callus, registered parcel, patent leather shoes*
But the nouns rail, shampoo are masculine, corn, parcel are feminine, so we should say: railway rail^ French shampoo, big corn, custom parcel. The word shoes in such
form is considered incorrect. It is correct to say: /and/flya with the emphasis on the first syllable: there is not one shoe; bought beautiful shoes; there are a lot of winter shoes in the store; I'm glad to have new shoes.
Verbs, for example, reflexive and non-reflexive, are not always used correctly in speech. Thus, in the sentences “The Duma must decide on the date of the meeting”, “Deputies need to decide on the proposed bill”, the reflexive verb decide is colloquial in nature. In the above examples, the verb should be used without - xia: “The Duma must determine the date of the meeting,” “Deputies need to determine their attitude to the proposed bill.” The verb to decide has a colloquial connotation in a sentence like: “We need to decide,” i.e., “We need to determine our attitude towards someone/something.”
Violation of grammatical norms is often associated with the use of prepositions in speech. Thus, the difference in semantic and stylistic shades between synonymous constructions with prepositions due to and thanks is not always taken into account. The preposition thanks retains its original lexical meaning associated with the verb to thank, therefore it is used to indicate the reason that causes the desired result: thanks to the help of comrades, thanks to the correct treatment. If there is a sharp contradiction between the original lexical meaning of the preposition thanks and the indication of a negative reason, the use of this preposition is undesirable: I did not come to work due to illness. In this case, it would be more correct to say - because of illness.
In addition to tosh, the prepositions thanks to, contrary to, according to, towards, according to modern standards of literary language, are used only with the dative case: “thanks to activity”, “contrary to the rules”, “according to the schedule”, “towards the anniversary*.
Lexical norms, i.e. the rules for using words in speech, require special attention. M. Gorky taught that words must be used with the strictest precision. The word must be used in the meaning (literal or figurative) that it has and which is recorded in Russian language dictionaries. Violation of lexical norms leads to a distortion of the meaning of the statement. There are many examples of inaccurate use of individual words. So, the adverb somewhere has one meaning “in some place”, “unknown where* (music started playing somewhere). However, recently this word has begun to be used in the meaning of “about, approximately, sometime”: “Somewhere in the 70s of the 19th century”, “The classes were planned to be held somewhere in June”, “The plan was completed somewhere by 102%."
The frequent use of the word order in the meaning of “a little more”, “a little less” should be considered a speech defect. In Russian there are words to denote this concept: approximately, approximately. But some people use the word order instead. Here are examples from the speech: “About 800 people left the city schools before the revolution, and now there are about 10 thousand”; “The living area of the constructed houses is about 2.5 million square meters, and the green ring around the city is about 20 thousand hectares”; “The damage caused to the city is about 300 thousand rubles*.
The words somewhere, in order, in the meaning “about”, *approximating” but* are often found in colloquial speech:
How many examples did you pick on the topic?
Somewhere around 150.
How many printed sheets are checked?
About 3 printed sheets.
What weather is expected?
In the near future the temperature will be somewhere around zero degrees. (Recording of oral speech).
An error is also the incorrect use of the verb lozhet instead of put. The verbs lay and put have the same meaning, but put is a commonly used literary word, and lay is a colloquial word. The expressions sound unliterary: “I put the book in its place,” “He puts the folder on the table,” etc. In these sentences, the verb to put should be used: “I put the books in its place,” “He puts the folder on the table.” It is also necessary to pay attention to the use of prefix verbs put7 fold, fold. Some say “report to place”, “add up numbers”, instead of the correct “put in place”, “add up numbers”.
Violations of lexical norms are sometimes due to the fact that speakers confuse words that are similar in sound but different in meaning. For example, verbs are not always used correctly to provide I imagine. Sometimes we hear incorrect expressions such as: “The floor is presented to Petrov,” “Let me introduce you to Dr. Petrov.” The verb to provide means “to give the opportunity to take advantage of something” (to provide an apartment, vacation, position, credit, loan, rights, independence, word, etc.), and the verb to present means “to transfer, give, present something, to anyone" (submit a report, certificate, facts, evidence; submit for an award, an order, a title, for a prize, etc.). The above sentences with these verbs correctly sound like this: “The floor is given to Petrov,” “Allow me to introduce you to Dr. Petrov.”
Sometimes the nouns stalagmite and stalactite are used incorrectly. These words differ in meaning: stalagmite - a conical limestone build-up on the floor of a cave, gallery (cone up); stalactite - a conical limestone growth on the ceiling or vault of a cave or gallery (cone down).
The words differ in their meaning: college (secondary or higher educational institution in England, USA) and college (secondary educational institution in France, Belgium, Switzerland); effective (effective, leading to the desired results) and spectacular (producing a strong impression, effect); Offensive (causing offense, insulting) and touchy (easily offended, inclined to see offense, insult where there is none).
To clarify the lexical norms of the modern literary language, it is recommended to use explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language and special reference literature.
Orthoepic norms are pronunciation norms of oral speech. They are studied by a special branch of linguistics - orthoepy (Greek orthos correct and epos speech).
One of the largest researchers of pronunciation norms, R.I. Avanesov, defines orthoepy as
a set of rules of oral speech that ensure the unity of sound design in accordance with the norms of the national language, historically developed and entrenched in the literary language.
Maintaining uniformity in pronunciation is important* Spelling errors always interfere with the perception of the content of speech: the listener’s attention is distracted by various incorrect pronunciations, and the statement is not perceived in its entirety and with sufficient attention* Pronunciation that corresponds to spelling norms facilitates and speeds up the communication process* Therefore, the social role correct pronunciation is very large, especially now in our society, where oral speech has become a means of the widest communication at various meetings, conferences, congresses*
What are the rules of literary pronunciation that must be followed in order not to go beyond the generally accepted, and therefore generally understandable, Russian literary language?
We list only those that are most often violated*