A.N. Galamichev
Saratov - 2012
Lecture No. 1
Primitive society
Lecture No. 2
Ancient Greece
The history of Ancient Greece occupies a special place in world history, since it is to it that the deepest origins of many of the values of modern civilization go back.
In explaining the phenomenon of Ancient Greece, an important place belongs to the uniqueness of natural conditions. Perhaps nowhere on the globe is there such a intricately indented coastline, complemented by a lace of islands, as in the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula and the Aegean Sea. These natural conditions contributed to the early development of trade, fishing and navigation, and determined the formation of a special type of personality, accustomed to relying primarily on their own strength, knowledge and experience.
The foundations of ancient Greek society were formed by the 8th century BC. It was at this time (776 BC) that the Olympic Games began, in which the civilization of Ancient Greece found its vivid expression. The time of the Olympic Games, which included competitions in running, pentathlon, horse racing, fist fighting and wrestling, was considered sacred, during this time wars stopped, and the winners of the games (Olympians) enjoyed great respect as the living embodiment of an ideal personality.
In the 8th century BC. The famous Greek colonization also begins, which had a huge impact on the entire subsequent development of Ancient Hellas (the self-name of Greece). The surplus population left the shores of the Balkan Peninsula and founded new settlements on the shores of the Mediterranean and Black Seas. By establishing close trade ties with the local population, the new settlers often provided themselves with a much higher level of well-being than in their ancestral home (this is reflected in the myth of the “Golden Fleece”), and expanded the trade ties of Hellas.
Ancient Greece was not a single state. It was a motley mosaic of city-states. A unique form of social and state structure in Ancient Greece was the polis - a city-state that united the city and the district. It was a community of full-fledged citizens - free-born men, indigenous inhabitants of the polis. Each full citizen owned a plot of land.
The existence of private property, which determined the social status of a person, marked the initial uniqueness of the historical development of the West in comparison with the East, which determined the dissimilarity of the historical destinies of the West and the East in the future.
The most powerful and at the same time representing extremely different types of polis structure were Athens and Sparta. If trade and craft Athens represented a polis with the most consistent implementation of the principles of democracy, then Sparta was an oligarchic state, power in which belonged to the descendants of the Dorian tribes that conquered Southern Greece (Peloponnese).
The Greco-Persian wars played a major role in the history of Ancient Greece. Their origins were associated with the unsuccessful revolt of the Greek cities of Asia Minor against Persian rule in 500 BC. Having suppressed the uprising of the Asia Minor poleis, Darius I demanded obedience from the poleis of Greece itself. Many of them agreed to recognize themselves as tributaries of Darius, but the two largest policies - Athens and Sparta - decided to resist. The union they created included 31 policies.
The first attempt to subjugate Greece was made by the Persians in 492, when a storm prevented the Persian fleet from reaching the shores of Hellas. In 490 BC. Persian troops managed to land on the Marathon plain north of Athens, but the decisive actions of the Athenians led to the defeat of the Persian army. In memory of this victory, marathon running competitions are held at the modern Olympic Games, in which participants cover a distance of 42 kilometers. According to legend, after the battle, the messenger who brought the news of victory to Athens, ran 42 kilometers (the distance from Marathon to Athens), fell lifeless.
In 480, King Xerxes set out on a campaign against freedom-loving Hellas, gathering a huge army (shocked contemporaries called fantastic figures from 5 to 1.5 million people). At this critical moment for Ancient Greece, both leaders of the union of ancient Greek city-states - Sparta and Athens - spoke a weighty word. At first, a detachment of 300 Spartans led by King Leonidas showed incredible resilience, delaying the advance of a huge Persian army in the narrow Thermopylae Gorge and allowing the Athenians to thoroughly prepare for the Persian invasion. The Athenian strategist Themistocles managed to take the entire population of Athens to the adjacent sea islands, making it inaccessible to the Persians. When the heavy Persian fleet approached the shores of Attica (the region of Central Greece adjacent to Athens), it was attacked by the Athenians in the narrow Strait of Salamis and was completely defeated. Having lost their fleet, the Persians were forced to retreat. After this, the Greeks, inspired by success, liberated the policies of Asia Minor and thus ended a series of wars that lasted about thirty years.
After the victorious end of the wars with the Persian power, Ancient Greece, having experienced a time of greatest prosperity (it was then that Athens was decorated with the most famous architectural structures of antiquity - the Temple of Athena (Parthenon) and the Propylaea) found itself plunged into a long war between Sparta and Athens for hegemony in the Hellenic world. The war between the Pelopennesian League created by Sparta and the Athenian Naval League, which began in 431 and was called the Peloponnesian War, continued intermittently for more than 70 years. Its result was the widespread ruin of Hellas. Athens, which was ultimately victorious, was so weakened during the war that its former influence became a thing of the past.
Nevertheless, the objective need to unite the disparate city-states remained, and this task was accomplished by the Macedonian king Philip (359 - 336 BC). After spending his youth as a hostage in Greece and having thoroughly studied Greek military art and the state of Hellas as a whole, Philip reorganized the army and then went to war with the Greek city-states, skillfully exploiting the contradictions between them.
After the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC), where Philip managed to defeat the combined forces of the Greek city-states, the ruler of Macedonia forced the Greeks to create an alliance and join forces to fight the Persian power. However, when in 336 BC. Philip was killed.
Philip's plan was brought to life by his son Alexander, who presented the sudden death of his father as the work of the Persians and a pretext for declaring war on the Persian state. In 334 BC. Alexander's troops set out on a campaign to the East.
Numerous, but insufficiently disciplined and poorly trained troops of the Persians and the peoples subject to them were unable to resist the Greek-Macedonian army. Revolts against the Persians began in the satrapies. In Egypt, the priests proclaimed Alexander the son of God and heir to the power of the pharaohs. The inhabitants of Babylon opened their doors to the Greco-Macedonian army.
Pursuing the Persian king Darius III, the troops of Alexander the Great reached Central Asia, and then headed to India, the wealth of which was legendary. Here, exhausted by an eight-year campaign, the troops rebelled and forced Alexander to return to Babylon, which became the capital of the empire he created. Here in 323 BC. at the age of 32 he died suddenly (from poison or illness), after which the huge power collapsed.
In certain parts of the power of Alexander the Great, dynasties of the descendants of his relatives and associates established themselves. The most powerful of them were the Syrian Seleucids and the Egyptian Ptolemies.
After the collapse of the empire of Alexander the Great, a new period began in the history of the Ancient East, called in historical literature the era of Hellenism. The Hellenistic era became a time of fruitful synthesis and interaction between the culture of the Ancient East and the culture of Ancient Greece. It became a time of economic prosperity and cultural growth in the Eastern Mediterranean. The chronological milestone that marked the end of the Hellenistic era. It is generally accepted that the year is 30 BC. when the last of the Hellenistic states - Ptolemaic Egypt - perished under the blows of a powerful enemy - Rome.
Lecture No. 4
Ancient Rome
Studying the history of Ancient Rome is very important because it allows us to identify the origins of many of the distinctive features of modern Western civilization.
The features of Ancient Rome were clearly reflected in the legend of its founding. According to legend, the founder of Rome, Romulus, together with his brother Remus, was suckled by a she-wolf. With the milk of the she-wolf, Romulus and the citizens of the state he founded absorbed the qualities of the wolf's nature - strength, prudence, cruelty and gluttony.
These qualities of the Romans were largely predetermined by the natural conditions in which the formation of the Roman state took place. Rome was founded in a marginal area, far from trade routes, on the edge of the vast Pontic marshes, which were only drained in the mid-20th century.
In the first centuries of Roman history, the Romans had to endure many severe trials. In 390 BC. The Gauls invaded Central Italy, defeated the Roman troops and almost captured the city itself. According to legend, Rome was saved by geese who made a noise and woke up the sleeping soldiers when the Gauls launched a night attack.
After the war with the Gauls, the Romans improved their military organization. The troops were divided into legions, the latter into maniples, each of which began to represent a separate tactical unit, which allowed the Romans to act on the battlefield much more flexibly and effectively.
In the first centuries of Roman history, the fundamental social basis of expansion was formed, which became the main guiding rod of the history of Rome. This basis was the institution of Roman citizenship, which divided society into privileged and unprivileged parts. After each victorious campaign in the conquered region (country), Roman citizens were allocated large plots of land and became a strong social support of Roman rule. Each new generation of Roman citizens needed to expand their land area, and therefore had a vested interest in continuing wars of conquest. Thus, personal interest was intertwined into a single whole with the matter of strengthening the state and its military power.
Having united Central Italy under their rule, the Romans turned their gaze to the south of the Apennine Peninsula, where economically prosperous Greek colonies were located. This task was very difficult, but the Romans managed to overcome the difficulties. One of the success factors was the extension of the rights of full Roman citizens (initially only patricians, the descendants of the founding fathers of Rome, had them) to the plebeians, which strengthened the position within Rome and expanded the social base of further wars of conquest.
Carthage, a state in North Africa created by immigrants from Phenicia, which occupied a dominant position on trade routes in the Western Mediterranean, also provided an invaluable service to Rome. Carthage provided the Romans with its strong fleet, without which victory over the Greek colonies would have been hardly possible.
From 264 to 202 BC. The Romans fought the so-called Punic Wars (their name comes from the Roman name for the Carthaginians - Punes), during which the issue of dominance over the Mediterranean was decided. Despite the fact that during the Second Punic War (there were three of them), the Carthaginian commander Hannibal entered the territory of Italy and won a number of brilliant victories (including the famous Battle of Cannae, considered the pinnacle of military leadership of all times and peoples), the war ended in victory for the Romans, and as a result of the Third Punic War, the city of Carthage was destroyed.
The victory over Carthage opened the way for Rome to create a Mediterranean power.
At the end of the 2nd - 1st centuries. BC. The Roman Republic experienced a deep internal crisis. The significantly increased number of slaves created serious problems. Slave labor was used in all states of antiquity, but nowhere did it play such an important role, and nowhere was the exploitation of slave labor and their situation as severe as in Rome, where a slave estate based on the labor of slaves developed. In the last decades of the 2nd - first decades of the 1st centuries. There was a wave of slave uprisings, the largest of which was the uprising led by Spartacus (74 - 71 BC). An even more acute problem was the relationship between full-fledged Romans and residents of the cities of Italy who took part in the wars and conquests of Rome. As a result of the Allied War (90 - 88 BC), Roman citizenship was granted to all free inhabitants of Italy. This made it possible to expand the social support of the aggressive policy. But on the way to complete stabilization of the situation in the state, Rome had to go through a series of long civil wars, as a result of which the form of the state changed - the republic was replaced by an empire. The vast territory and many problems associated with governing countries with very different traditions of economic, political and cultural life required the establishment of monarchical rule. The establishment of the empire was associated with the name of Octavian Augustus, who was proclaimed emperor in 27 BC. and reigned for 40 years, until 14 AD.
The establishment of the empire in the form of the principate contributed to the stabilization of the internal situation of the empire, and then to the resumption of aggressive campaigns. The last major territorial acquisitions of Rome were associated with the name of Emperor Trajan (98 - 117). After this, the external activity of the empire ceased, and in the 3rd century it was plunged into a state of deepest crisis, which called into question its very existence.
The crisis of the 3rd century was caused by the rapid growth of slave-owning latifundia, as a result of which the social basis of the Roman military organization and the driving force of expansion - the free peasantry - were eroded. The cheap bread produced in the latifundia deprived the Italian peasantry of the opportunity to profitably sell the fruits of their labor in city markets. The consequence of the massive ruin of the free peasantry was a sharp reduction in the army, the basis of which was the younger sons of peasant families, who, after victorious campaigns, turned into free peasant colonists in the occupied lands - the support of the rule of Rome.
The weakening of the army led to the cessation of aggressive campaigns and, as a consequence, the influx of cheap slaves. The latter was an indispensable condition for the effective functioning of the economic mechanism of the slave-owning latifundia. Economic prosperity was replaced by stagnation, the severance of trade ties, and the desolation of once flourishing areas.
The fall in tax revenues resulted in a deterioration in the supply of the army. In the weakened empire, a sharp struggle for power unfolded, the ferocity of which carried a mortal threat to the very existence of the greatest of the states of antiquity.
Lecture No. 5
The Second World War
The Second World War is the most important event in world history. The entire future fate of humanity depended on its outcome, since the aggressor countries made plans not only for the territorial division of the world, but also for the extermination of entire peoples. At the end of hostilities, it was planned to rewrite world history in order to erase from the memory of subsequent generations traces of the existence of “inferior” peoples, including the Russians.
The Second World War is unparalleled in the enormity of its scale and destruction. It was attended by 72 states, whose population accounted for 80% of the planet's inhabitants. Military operations took place in three parts of the world, on four oceans. This was the only time in history that nuclear weapons were used.
It seems possible to divide the course of events of the Second World War into three stages. The first stage is from the beginning of the war (September 1, 1939, the attack of Nazi Germany on Poland) until the German attack on the USSR on June 22, 1941. At this stage, the world found itself split into three camps - firstly, the aggressor countries, secondly, the countries of Western democracy, which declared war on Nazi Germany after its attack on Poland, but took an extremely indecisive position, and, thirdly, the Soviet Union, concluded a non-aggression pact with Germany on August 23, 1939 and was engaged in 1939 - 1940. strengthening its western borders, sometimes not stopping at violating international law, but at the same time not crossing the borders of Russia that were established for it by the Treaty of Versailles of 1919.
The catastrophic defeat of France in the late spring and early summer of 1940, which led to the death of a great power with a thousand-year history, was the pinnacle of Germany's successes in World War II. This event caused a surge of panic in England and the USA, giving rise to the myth of the invincibility of the fascist Wehrmacht.
In November 1940, the aggressor countries invited the USSR to join their union and take part in the division of the world. After this proposal was rejected, the leadership of Nazi Germany in December 1940 approved the “Barbarossa” plan, which envisaged a treacherous German attack on the Soviet Union in the late spring - early summer of 1941 and a lightning defeat of the Red Army before the onset of autumn leaves with the release of Nazi troops on the Arkhangelsk - Astrakhan line.
The German attack on the USSR on June 22, 1941 marked the beginning of the second, key period of the Second World War, which ended on November 6, 1943 with the capture of the capital of Soviet Ukraine, the city of Kyiv, by the Red Army.
A characteristic feature of the second period of the war was a clear division of the world into two opposing camps - the anti-human forces of racism, violence, tyranny, mockery of the achievements of world civilization and the forces that defended the bright ideals of humanism, goodness and justice. In the final demarcation, we should note the enormous personal contribution of the leaders of Western democracies - British Prime Minister W. Churchill, who immediately after the German attack on the USSR declared his support for the Soviet Union, and US President F. Roosevelt, who spoke from the same positions. Already in August 1941, the USSR and England carried out their first joint military operation, during which they established joint military control over the territory of Iran, which could become a springboard for aggressive German actions. Since November 1941, the United States began supplying strategic materials to the USSR in accordance with the Lend-Lease law, which allowed our country to partially compensate for the colossal losses incurred in the initial period of the Great Patriotic War, marked by catastrophic defeats of the Red Army and the abandonment of vast territories of primary economic importance.
However, it is necessary to say with certainty that throughout the key period of World War II, the Soviet Union bore the brunt of military operations, and it was in the battles that took place on Russian soil that the future of humanity was decided. The year 1942 turned out to be especially tragic, when, after the defeat of the Nazi troops near Moscow at the end of 1941, the aggressor countries again seized the strategic initiative and launched an offensive in the southeast of the European part of the USSR, which threatened irreparable consequences for all countries of the anti-fascist coalition. During this period, of the 237 Wehrmacht divisions, 4 were in North Africa, 51 were stationed in occupied European countries, and 182 acted against the Red Army on the Eastern Front.
The incredibly difficult victories of the Red Army in the battles of Stalingrad and the Kursk Bulge marked the transition of the strategic initiative in World War II to the Soviet Union, and the crossing of the Dnieper, on the banks of which the German command intended to erect an impregnable “Eastern Wall” and try to conclude a separate peace agreement with which - or from the countries of the anti-fascist coalition, finally decided the outcome of the Second World War. When the Red Army captured Kiev in the late autumn of 1943, it became clear that it was quite capable of liberating not only the territory of the USSR, but also the entire continental Europe without the active support of its allies.
The third and final stage of World War II can be dated from November 6, 1943 to September 2, 1945 (the date of the end of the war was the signing of the act of unconditional surrender of Japan).
The final stage of World War II was characterized by a noticeable intensification of the military efforts of Western democracies. The most important step in this direction was the opening on June 6, 1944 of a second front in Europe after the successful landing of the Anglo-American landing in Normandy.
The final stage of the Second World War was also marked by the intensification of cooperation between the countries of the anti-fascist coalition, which, remembering the lessons of the First World War and the Versailles system, set themselves the task of ensuring conditions for lasting peace and preventing world wars in the future. The most important issues of world politics became the subject of discussion at three meetings of the heads of state participating in the anti-fascist coalition.
The first of these meetings took place at the turn of November and December 1943 in Tehran. At the Tehran conference, the timing of the opening of a second front in Europe was finally agreed upon, and the general principles of the post-war world order and the fate of Germany were discussed.
In February 1945, the second conference of the heads of state of the anti-fascist coalition (I.V. Stalin, W. Churchill and F. Roosevelt) took place. At it, decisions were made on state borders in post-war Europe (it was mainly about the borders of Poland, Germany and the USSR), on the division of Germany into four zones of occupation (USSR, USA, England and France) to ensure the country's transition to peaceful life. In addition, the basic principles of the activities of the United Nations (UN), an international organization designed to prevent military conflicts, were agreed upon. In April 1945, the founding conference of the UN began its work in San Francisco.
The third meeting of the heads of state participating in the anti-fascist coalition took place after the end of the war in Europe. On May 8, representatives of the German military command signed an act of unconditional surrender after the brilliant Berlin operation carried out by the Red Army (April 16 - May 2, 1945), which ended with the capture of the German capital Berlin.
The composition of the participants in the last meeting of heads of state participating in the anti-fascist coalition, held in Potsdam in July - August 1945, has changed. The British delegation was headed by Labor leader C. Attlee, the American delegation by G. Truman, who became president after the death of F. Roosevelt. The change of leaders of England and the United States had a negative impact on the results of the Potsdam Conference, but this did not prevent the final determination of the outlines of state borders in post-war Europe and the coming to an agreement on the future of Germany (it included four: demilitarization; decartelization; denazification; democratization).
The entry of the USSR into the war with Japan on August 9, 1945, in accordance with the obligations adopted at the Yalta Conference, and the brilliant conduct of the Manchurian operation accelerated the end of the Second World War, the last point in the history of which was the signing of the act of unconditional surrender of Japan on September 2, 1945.
The purposeful actions of the countries of the anti-fascist coalition at the final stage of the Second World War turned out to be so effective that from the moment it ended to the present day, humanity has managed to prevent a repetition of the two global military conflicts that marked the history of the 20th century.
Lecture No. 16
A.N. Galamichev
Brief lecture notes on general history
A manual for students studying in the following areas
"Tourism", "International Relations"
Saratov - 2012
Lecture No. 1
Primitive society
The most ancient past of mankind (before the appearance of the first written monuments) is usually called prehistoric times or the era of primitive society.
Modern science dates the appearance of man in a huge range of 3 - 2.5 million years ago. The decisive step on the path to the emergence of man was the beginning of the manufacture of tools. The making of tools testifies to the elements of abstract thinking, the presence of which is the main feature that distinguishes humans from higher primates.
With the beginning of the systematic production and use of tools, humanity entered the Stone Age (the name comes from the fact that stone was the main material from which tools and weapons were made at that time). The Stone Age, in turn, is usually divided into ancient (Paleolithic), middle (Mesolithic) and new (Neolithic).
At the end of the Paleolithic era, a period of sharp cooling began. About 100 thousand years ago, glaciers covered almost the entire territory of Russia, Western and Central Europe.
The Ice Age became a time of severe testing for humanity. He was able to withstand it thanks to the mastery of fire, which occurred long before the start of glaciation, approximately 200 - 300 thousand years ago.
The main result of human development during the Ice Age was the formation of the modern type of man.
During the Mesolithic era (from the 20th to the 9th - 8th millennia BC), when natural conditions were favorable to humans, the planet was settled, including America and Australia. Humanity has made a big step forward in the manufacture of stone tools, and such an effective hunting weapon as the bow has appeared. The primitive human herd is replaced by a race. In parallel with this, spiritual life became more complex and improved, primitive religious ideas appeared, and with them fine art (rock painting) emerged. At the end of the Mesolithic era, humanity was first faced with the problem of overpopulation of the Earth. Some tribes (including the aborigines of Australia, the Indians of the Amazon, etc.) took the path of self-restraint and conservation of the existing state of affairs. However, most of the tribes took a different path, making a huge step forward in economic development, which in scientific literature was called the Neolithic Revolution (this term reflects the fact that these changes accompanied the entry of humanity into a new era - the Neolithic era).
The Neolithic Revolution (IX - VIII centuries BC) marked the most important milestone in the history of mankind - the transition from an appropriating economy to a producing one. Cattle breeding grew out of hunting, and agriculture grew out of gathering.
Along with progress in the sphere of material production, humanity has made a huge step forward in the development of spiritual culture and in improving the organization of society. Religious cults have become much more complex. The clan as a form of community of people was replaced by a tribe with a more complex organization - a people's assembly and a council of elders. In the Neolithic era, the concept of property appears and, inextricably linked with this, the family emerges as the fundamental unit of social organization.
In the IV - III millennia BC. With the beginning of the use of tools made of copper, humanity entered the era of the Copper-Stone Age (Chalcolithic). The emergence of the first states dates back to this time.
Summary of a history lesson in grade 9 on the topic: “Science, culture and art of the second half of the 20th century.”
Participant: teacher of history and social studies MBOU Saralinskaya secondary school Skripko Svetlana Aleksandrovna 2015Lesson summary Topic: Science, culture and art of the second half of the 20th century.
Target: show the need to create safe technologies for humans and the environment and their impact on culture and art.Tasks:
1. Study the stages of scientific and technological progress.
2. By analyzing the world’s solutions to global problems, teach students to think independently, to have their own point of view on what is happening in the world
3. Reinforce schoolchildren’s interest in sports hobbies
4. Develop independent speaking skills.
Preliminary preparation: Students receive homework before the lesson - to reveal the meaning of the following concepts: cloning, nanotechnology, population explosion, globalization, conceptual art.
Equipment: school desks are arranged in a circle. The classroom is decorated at the discretion of the teacher with photographic reproductions reflecting the topic of the lesson: the first computers, Dolly the sheep, the terrorist attack in New York on September 11, 2001, photos of the Beatles, the Olympic Games, etc. 1. Introductory speech by the teacher.
Good afternoon guys! Today we have a fascinating discussion ahead of us. I consider the round table on the topic “Science, culture and art of the second half of the 20th century” to be open.
2. Studying new material. The teacher introduces the second and third stages of scientific and technological progress. It is necessary to emphasize that the main feature of the second stage was the possibility of using microprocessors to automate the production cycle up to the creation of robots with artificial intelligence. And in the third stage, the main successes were achieved by biology and medicine.
- Attention question, please tell me, what is cloning? That's right, let's write it down in a notebook: Cloning is the artificial creation of clone organisms, that is, genetically identical to the original (donor) organism.
- And now I would like to hear from you the arguments for and against this process. (Answers from the guys)
Well, let's continue. Ways to solve global problems.
The danger of a population explosion. Conversation on this issue. Working with the meaning of a word. Demographic explosion is the uncontrolled growth of the Earth's population. The main conclusion is that a demographic explosion can lead to an imbalance between the processes of natural reproduction of natural resources and human economic activity.
And now we will talk about globalization and globalism. Who can separate these concepts? (Problematic situation). Students express their point of view, supporting it with arguments. The main conclusion: globalization as a process of formation of a planetary civilization should be distinguished from globalism - the desire to impose its own orders and standards on the rest of the world, starting from the principles of economic regulation and ending with mass culture.
Another topic for discussion is the Olympic Games and mass sports. Guys, let's remember how recently our country hosted guests in Sochi at the 2014 Olympics? Who glorified Russia? What new sports have you learned about? The role of sport in the life of society?
The lesson is coming to an end. Let's remember what new happened in science, culture and art at the end of the 20th century? Why have safe technologies become SO necessary?
Well done! Great job.
Homework:“Conceptual art through my eyes” - creation of an independent object.
Topic: “Byzantine Middle Ages” for grade 10
Lesson type: combined
Goals and objectives of the lesson:
Educational aspect:
Continue to form ideas about the Middle Ages;
Give an idea of the uniqueness of Byzantine civilization;
Highlight the features of Byzantine feudalism;
Cover the situation of religion and the church, the development of Byzantine culture.
Developmental aspect:
Continue to develop students’ skills in establishing cause-and-effect relationships, participating in discussions on historical issues, and formulating their own position on the issues under discussion, using historical information for argumentation.
Educational aspect:
Cultivate respect and instill love for the historical past.
Basic concepts and terms: Romans, usurpation, basileus, iconoclasm, fem
During the classes:
I. Organizational stage
II. Checking homework
Working with cards:
Card No. 1: 1. Define the concepts: workshops, guilds
2. Describe the process of development of medieval cities
Card No. 2: 1. Define the concept of burghers.
2. Describe the class of townspeople. What place did it occupy in the structure of medieval society?
Oral survey:
Name and characterize the main stages of the Middle Ages
Tell us about the development of medieval culture
What were the causes of the crisis of the 14th-15th centuries?
III. The stage of preparing students to learn new material
When in 395 the Emperor Theodosius divided the empire between his sons Arcadius and Honorius, he could not know how different fates were in store for them: the quick and inglorious death of the western part and the thousand-year life of the eastern part.
Beginning of Byzantine civilization
Periodization of the history of Byzantium
Features of Byzantine feudalism
Byzantine power system
Religion and Church
Byzantine culture
IV. Stage of assimilation of new knowledge
Beginning of Byzantine civilization
In the 4th century. It became obvious that the historical paths of the Western and Eastern parts of the Roman Empire diverged. Constantine I the Great, the ruler of a still unified empire, in 330 moved its capital to the site of the small city of Byzantium. The capital received the name of its founder, becoming the city of Constantine - Constantinople, it was also called the second Rome. In 395, the divergence between the West and the East of the empire acquired official status. In the east, the Eastern Roman Empire was formed, which later became known as Byzantium. The subjects of this empire retained the self-name “Romei”, i.e. Romans, although the official language was Greek. Two features determined the development of the Eastern Roman Empire. It was the direct successor of Ancient Rome, the Roman Empire itself. And from the very first days, its existence was inextricably linked with Christianity and the church. The Byzantine branch of Christianity will be called Orthodox, and its church organization will acquire the status of the Orthodox Church. All this served as the basis for Byzantium to claim an exceptional position in the medieval world, declaring its rights to political and spiritual leadership.
Why did Byzantium turn out to be more durable than the Western Roman Empire?
In the east of the Roman Empire, slavery was less developed than in the west
The exchange between city and countryside has been preserved
Crafts and trade have been preserved in the cities
The emperor could maintain a strong army and navy
Byzantium repelled attacks from external enemies
One cannot ignore the fact that in science the historical role of Byzantium has never been assessed unambiguously, especially in terms of its influence on other nations, and in particular on Russia. A significant part of Western historians and political scientists still accuse Russia of not being able to part with the imperial heritage of Byzantium, the traditions of its great power, embodied in the concept of “Moscow - the Third Rome” and in state authoritarianism. Let us leave such judgments to their conscience and try to make a brief overview of the history of Byzantium and its influence on peoples and countries.
Periodization of the history of Byzantium
The heart of the Eastern Roman Empire was Asia Minor and the Balkans, where powerful centers of ancient civilization existed for a millennium. It also included Syria, Palestine, Egypt, the islands of the Aegean Sea, Cyrenaica, Cyprus, part of Mesopotamia and Armenia. At the end of the 5th-6th centuries. Byzantium briefly extended its influence to the Apennine Peninsula, part of the Iberian Peninsula and North Africa. Byzantium was a huge multi-ethnic state that included different peoples, civilizations and cultures, which is generally characteristic of empires. This is a huge multilingual world, each part of which had its own traditions and development features dating back to ancient times. For all of them, Byzantium was destined to become a “historical bridge” between the past and the future, between antiquity and the Middle Ages, to absorb the diversity of their historical experience and melt it into a unique civilization - the Byzantine one. History Byzantium is usually divided into three periods:
Early Byzantine period: IV - first half of the VII century.
This is the time of formation of the medieval empire. Byzantium retains the authority of a world power inherited from Rome, the Byzantine emperor is the highest arbiter in relations between peoples and a role model to whom the eyes of the rulers of the newly formed barbarian states of the West are turned. In Byzantium, late antique state and social institutions continued to exist, for example the Senate, slavery was preserved on a fairly large scale, Roman law was codified, and the cities inherited from Antiquity flourished. At the same time, the sprouts of feudal relations appeared. Patronage forms of peasant dependence arose in the Byzantine countryside. The peasants fled from state taxes on the lands of large owners, surrendered under their protection, thereby, while still personally free, they began to depend on land in economic conditions.
Middle Byzantine period: VII-XII centuries.
VII-VIII centuries - the time of iconoclasm.
Iconoclasm - the fight against the veneration of icons
All segments of the population were drawn into the struggle against the veneration of icons, but the iconoclasts were defeated. Byzantium is a special version of the medieval state, which was a fusion of the traditions of the late Roman Empire, the influence of eastern despotism, and some features of the feudal monarchies of the West. In the VII-IX centuries. profound changes occurred in the administration of the empire. The monarch changed the Latin title "emperor" to the Greek "basileus". However, despite the strengthening and expansion of the administrative apparatus, social instability was growing in the empire, which was primarily fueled by the separatism of large feudal landowners. This led to radical changes in the structure of provincial government. A fem system was created, the basis of which was the military-administrative districts - themes. A special military class of stratiots was formed in the themes. Stratiots received land plots for hereditary possession for military service. The creation of the femme system ultimately led to the decentralization of the administration of the empire. Byzantium and its neighbors in the IV-XIII centuries. The foreign policy situation of the empire worsened. Seljuk Turks attacked the borders, nomads rushed to the Danube, Sicilian Normans wanted to seize the Adriatic. By the end of the 12th century. Cyprus separated from the empire, the Bulgarians formed an independent state, the “second Bulgarian kingdom,” and the Serbs achieved independence from the empire. The imperial court was mired in intrigue, the bureaucracy was extortionate and did not fulfill its functions. The empire was falling apart.
Late Byzantine period: XIII-XV centuries.
The final, tragic stage of Byzantine history. Taking advantage of the crisis of the empire, Western European monarchs began to tear away from Byzantium the territories that attracted them, the Sicilian king - the Ionian Islands, the English king Richard I - Cyprus, which then lost to the king of Jerusalem. In April 1204, the Crusaders took Constantinople by storm. The Western knights of the cross behaved in the capital of the Christian empire like cruel barbarians, destroying the population, robbing, raping, and did not spare their fellow believers who tried to take refuge in churches. The Latin Empire and several other crusader states were created on the territory of Byzantium. The Byzantines tried to organize resistance. They managed to retain part of the lands on which independent states arose - the Nicaean Empire, the Kingdom of Epirus and the Empire of Trebizond. Nicaea initiated the revival of the Byzantine Empire. In 1261, the troops of the Nicaean ruler Michael VIII Palaiologos entered Constantinople. The revived Byzantine Empire was only a shadow of its former self. Its territory shrank to part of Asia Minor, Thrace and Macedonia, and several islands. From within it was shaken by uprisings. The strengthening of the empire was not helped by the intense theological disputes that broke out in the 14th century. and split Byzantine society. The empire had many enemies, but the most powerful of them were the Ottoman Turks. In May 1453, Turkish troops took Constantinople. The invaders plundered the city and destroyed the population, just like the Crusaders two and a half centuries ago. The existence of more than a thousand-year-old empire has ended. The Second Rome fell. Constantinople was given a new name - Istanbul and became the capital of the Muslim Ottoman Empire.
Features of Byzantine feudalism
Byzantium was, in essence, the only country where feudal relations developed directly from the late Roman ones, characteristic of the disintegration of the late slave system. The socio-economic development of Byzantium was determined by the fact that the emperor was the supreme owner of the land; there was a significant fund of state lands that belonged to the imperial domain or the state treasury. These lands were so vast that the peasants who lived on them could not always cultivate them. State and imperial lands were leased for a long time. Imperial, state ownership of land brings Byzantium closer to the countries of the East. The state widely used the practice of granting land for service - military or government. The feudal forms of land tenure that developed in Byzantium were partly reminiscent of feudal fiefs in Western Europe, but they also had significant differences. So, for example, it was not the land itself that could be transferred into possession under the terms of compulsory service, but primarily the right to levy taxes on this territory. The state could confiscate the granted property. If in Western Europe feudal lords had the right of immunity, that is, judicial and administrative privileges, then the Byzantine feudal lords never had the right of a higher court in their domains. Most feudal grants were not hereditary. In Byzantium, a hierarchical seigneurial-feudal system did not develop, as in the West. All feudal lords depended on the central government. The military organization was also state-owned; the feudal lords did not have their own strong military units. The circle of feudal lords was not connected with them by legal or land ties. In addition to imperial, state and conditionally feudal property, there was the property of peasant communities (land in public use) and individual peasant property. The development of the feminine system was determined by the presence of stratiots (peasant warriors) of a plot of land of a certain size. Ownership of such a plot was automatically associated with military service. In addition to a significant number of free community members, in Byzantium there were also various categories of dependent peasantry. The peculiarity of Byzantium was that it was a “country of cities.” The cities were directly connected with the central government and were never under the jurisdiction of large feudal lords, as was the case in Western Europe. The feudal hierarchy in Western Europe led to the emergence of a stable system of titles that acquired hereditary status. This strengthened the internal ties of the feudal class. The fundamental difference was that in Byzantium the title was given only for life and was never hereditary. A person could advance from title to title, from one official rank to another. The granting of a title or rank was the exclusive prerogative of the emperor. The emperor determined a person's place in the aristocratic environment.
Fill out the table:
European and Byzantine feudalism
| Line- comparisons | Feudalism |
|
| European | Byzantine |
|
| Forms of land tenure | Under the terms of service, the land (feud) was transferred into the possession of the feudal lord, usually hereditary | Under the terms of service, the feudal lord was given the right to levy taxes from a certain territory: most of the feudal grants were not hereditary |
| responsibilities feudal lords | Right of immunity (judicial and administrative privileges) | Did not have the right of a higher court in their possessions |
| Feudal hierarchy | Hierarchical vassal-fief system (legal and land dependence of vassals on lords); a stable system of titles emerged (hereditary nature) | All feudal lords depended on the central government and did not have military detachments; the title was assigned by the emperor for life and was not inherited; one could move up the career ladder |
| The situation of the peasants | Most of the peasants were dependent on the feudal lords | A significant number of free peasants - community members; there were dependent categories of the population |
| Position of cities | They emerged mostly anew on the lands of large feudal lords and fought with them for rights and liberties. | Preserved since Antiquity, were directly connected with the central government |
Byzantine power system
Guess what the power of the emperor was in Byzantium?
The idea and image of empire were extremely attractive to the Middle Ages. Western sovereigns dreamed of restoring the Roman Empire and saw in it a perfect state model. Byzantium did not dream, but was a direct heir, a continuer of the Roman imperial tradition, having assimilated it in its latest and most complete form. The Byzantine emperor was an autocrat (autocrat), and his entire system of power was individual and universal. He had supreme and absolute power over the land, the country and its subjects. He was a secular ruler and at the same time the highest religious authority. The emperor was also a representative figure, symbolizing universal power, the power of the empire. It is no coincidence that the signs of power of the Byzantine emperors were borrowed from the attire and rituals of the monarchs of Europe (purple mantle, orb, etc.). The emperor was a sacred figure, the entire imperial ritual was supposed to indicate the existence of a mystical connection between the king of earth and the King of Heaven. The emperor's throne was double. One seat was occupied by the earthly ruler, on the other lay a cross, symbolizing the presence of Christ. The emperor was considered, like God, the highest giver of benefits for his subjects and the highest judge, who had the right to execute, pardon, mutilate, take away property, and remove from government posts. At the same time, the emperor was the supreme guardian of the law. There is a certain historical paradox in the fact that in the autocratic state itself, a huge amount of work was carried out to codify Roman law, which many centuries later will form the basis of European law, in an era when Europe is thinking about the democratization of the state and social structure. In the Byzantine Empire, there was a fixed law, but the rights of people were limited by the central government. The central government also concentrated control functions in its hands. Power was primarily “created” in the capital - laws were issued here, all the most important documents were prepared here, here was the pinnacle of the administrative-bureaucratic apparatus, and from here tax collectors were sent to the provinces.
5.Religion and church
The formation of Byzantine statehood coincided with theological disputes, the development of Christian dogma, the establishment of Christianity as the state religion, and the church as a special socio-political institution. Trinitarian disputes (disputes about the Trinity) ended with the adoption of the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed (325, 381). Disputes about the essence (nature) of Jesus Christ (Christological) raged for three centuries and ultimately led to the triumph of Orthodoxy (orthodox teaching). A feature of the spiritual life of Byzantine society was that theological disputes were not the property of only Christian scribes and clergy. They involved the widest sections of the population - from aristocrats to commoners, and power was seriously involved in them. Thus, a contemporary said that they argued about the Trinity on the streets, markets, squares, in shops and even in baths. This indicates the deep religiosity of the Byzantines. In the VIII-IX centuries. All segments of the population were involved in iconoclasm, and the iconoclast emperor declared: whoever is for the veneration of icons and relics is against the throne and power. There was an obvious connection between religious views and attitudes towards the state. The decline of the Byzantine Empire was also complicated by controversy over theological issues. Many were fascinated by the mystical teachings of Gregory Palamas, who believed that a person could find salvation through the special energy of divine light that was shed upon people during the Transfiguration of Christ on Mount Tabor. This teaching - hesychasm - was accepted by the Orthodox Church, but it could no longer serve to effectively unite the spiritual forces of the people in the face of the impending destruction of their country. While in the West in the Middle Ages there was a continuous struggle between the papal throne and secular rulers for supreme power, in Byzantium a kind of balance developed between the state and the church, between secular and ecclesiastical power. Orthodox hierarchs, with rare exceptions, preached unity with the state, content with the role of its main spiritual mentors and advisers. In Byzantium, the church did not have the economic and administrative independence that it had in Western Europe. In the empire, churches and monasteries, although they were large landowners, did not turn into closed feudal principalities independent of the state, like the church fiefdoms and abbeys of Western Europe. From the first centuries of existence, differences emerged between the eastern and western branches of Christianity. The Western doctrine was dominated by the doctrine of the saving role of the church, in whose hands were both the assessment of the believer’s virtues and the remission of sins. Eastern Christianity assigned an important role in the salvation of a person to individual prayer and through it allowed for mystical merging with God. Differences regarding church rituals also became sharply visible between the Eastern and Western churches. Linguistic differences and territorial disunity between the West and the East contributed to their growth. All this led to a split in the churches in 1054, after which the Christian world finally fell into two parts. This split has not been overcome to this day. Christianity, following the Byzantine model, was adopted by the peoples who were part of the area of state and cultural influence of Byzantium.
6.Byzantine culture
Listening to a student's report
In the first centuries of the Middle Ages, Byzantium remained the custodian of ancient traditions. This was primarily reflected in early Byzantine architecture and the art of mosaics. The most magnificent building of the early medieval Christian world was the main cathedral of Constantinople - the Hagia Sophia.
The centralization characteristic of Byzantium was reflected in the desire of Byzantine culture for a certain unity of aesthetic ideals and forms. Art seemed to be a reflection of Divine Beauty, which was destined to save the world. Art was supposed to reproduce not the changeable and imperfect earthly world, but the Idea, the Divine image of being, eternal and unchanging, revealing itself to the inner enlightened gaze. A unique genre of art was born in Byzantium - icon painting. An icon (from the Greek eikon - image, image) is a symbolic image in which there is a religious sacrament. The icon is painted with paints in accordance with strictly observed rules (canons). The image on the icon is two-dimensional, flat, the third dimension is dogmatic, spiritual, divinely revealed meaning. The image on the icon is extremely generalized, includes a small number of details, but must embody an inexhaustible supply of spiritual energy. Byzantine icon painting became the source of medieval art in Rus'. From the late Byzantine icon grew Italian painting, which anticipated the Renaissance. The original principle of the Christian cult was symbolism, thanks to which real objects were endowed with a supernatural meaning. All elements of the cult became symbols, allegories, and revealed a different, inner secret meaning. The temple itself turned out to be a symbol of the cosmos, and its entire architecture, the entire system of mosaics and paintings was intended to embody in visible images the Christian idea of the connection between the earthly and the heavenly... The temple contained the entire space: the sky - the dome, paradise - the altar apse ( however, the symbols were not unambiguous and the apse was also thought of as the cave of Bethlehem, the birthplace of Christ) and even hell, the western parts of the building, where initially those who had not yet been baptized and were only striving to become a Christian stood during worship. Here, in the western part of the temple, the image of the Last Judgment was sometimes placed. The striving for the Idea, for Infinity, became the most important aesthetic task for the Byzantines. Byzantium was a country of Christian learning. The philosopher and theologian John of Damascus, who created a philosophical and theological system not inferior to Western European scholasticism, began his work “The Source of Knowledge” with the expression familiar to us all: “Learning is light, and ignorance is darkness.” The first Christian textbook, “The Six Days” of Basil the Great, was created here, and many schools operated in the cities. The main Constantinople school surpassed Western European universities in terms of teaching. Various fields of knowledge developed - mathematics, astronomy, medicine, geography, nature studies, etc. In Byzantium, literacy was much more widespread than in Western Europe. From Byzantium, the ancient heritage of the Greeks penetrated into Western Europe, especially through areas that were actively in contact with it. From Byzantium, through the “Moravian brothers” Cyril and Methodius (9th century), the alphabet and literacy came to the Slavic lands and Rus'. Even after its death, the traditions of Byzantine culture continued to live in the cultures of other Orthodox countries; they found development in the Moscow state, which considered itself a religious and partly state successor to Byzantium. At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. Byzantine art forms were reinterpreted in Art Nouveau art and the neo-Byzantine style of architecture .
V. Stage of consolidation of new knowledge
1. What is the chronological framework of the existence of Byzantium?
What was the important difference between the social system of Byzantium and other European countries?
What features of the development of Byzantine feudalism can be identified?
VI. Reflection
Answer the questions:
During the lesson I was...
It was clear/not clear to me...
VII. Debriefing phase and homework
Thus, today we got acquainted with one of the most powerful states of the Middle Ages and found out the main features of its historical development
Paragraph 10, written task 2 on p. 130
The lesson was developed according to the training course “General History” based on the textbook by N.V. Zagladin “General History. From ancient times to the end of the 19th century." paragraph 16 “Early Middle Ages in Western and Central Europe”
Lesson objectives:
- To master the main characteristics and features of the European medieval feudal civilization: a) the socio-economic foundations of feudalism, b) the features of the social structure and way of life.
- Continue work to develop basic educational competencies among secondary school students: the ability to see and understand the world around them; master the scientific picture of the world, expanding to a cultural and universal understanding of the world; skills in organizing goal setting, planning, analysis, reflection, self-assessment of educational and cognitive activities; group work skills.
Epigraphs for the lesson:
“A new world has appeared in the West, resulting from the fusion of the Roman and barbarian worlds” (Jacques Le Goff).
“In the history of civilizations, as in human life, childhood is of decisive importance. It largely, if not entirely, predetermines the future...” (Jacques Le Goff).
Basic Concepts: feud, feudal lord, feudalism, feudal estate, vassal-feudal relations, feudal hierarchy, feudal duties.
Equipment: VCR, TV, computer, historical map “Europe in the 5th-10th centuries,” interactive visual aid “History of the Middle Ages,” interactive whiteboard, historical diagrams “Clan and Neighborhood Community,” “Feudal Estate,” “Feudal Staircase” , packages of historical documents on the topic of the lesson, video recordings of fragments of feature films about the Middle Ages “Kingdom of Heaven”, “Robin Hood”, “Ivanhoe”.
Lesson Plan
1. Updating previously acquired knowledge on the topic of the lesson.
2. Formation of the economic basis of European feudal civilization:
a) Decomposition of the clan and transition to the neighboring community.
b) Formation of large feudal land ownership.
c) Feudal estate.
3. Early feudal society and its specifics:
a) The peasantry and its status.
b) Feudal lords and the feudal hierarchy.
c) Values and way of life of feudal lords.
4. Generalization
5. Reflection.
6. Homework.
DURING THE CLASSES
1. Work in the lesson begins with updating previously studied material; this is necessary, since the previous topic “Arabs” “broke” the logical connection with the first stage of the study of European medieval civilization. Updating is carried out by the teacher in the form of a frontal conversation on the following questions:
– What event is considered to be the end of the history of the Ancient World? What is the date? (Fall of the Western Roman Empire, 474)
– What were the reasons for the great migration of peoples?
– When was the concept of “the Middle Ages” introduced?
– What role did the barbarians play in the transition to a new stage of the Middle Ages (feudalism)? Under what name did these historical events enter historical science?
– What is the chronological framework of the Middle Ages? (V-XV centuries)
Teacher: What barbarian kingdoms formed from the ruins of the Western Roman Empire? (476 g).
Students completing the task: Work with the interactive visual aid “History of the Middle Ages.” If there is no manual, they work with a map or atlas and give answers.
Teacher: How did the barbarian invasion turn out for the economy and culture of Europe in the first centuries of our era? Support your point of view with historical documents
(task for students). Students work with document package No. 1 ( Annex 1
)
The teacher summarizes the students’ answers and leads them to the formulation problem task: How to evaluate the events of the first centuries AD in Europe? What is this – the victory of barbarism over civilization? Is this social regression or progress? Rollback or forward movement?
The teacher invites students to determine the purpose of the lesson themselves: What should we do to find the answer to this question?
Students: They answer. Approximately. To answer this question, we need to understand what was happening inside society, in its “foundation” - the economy, in the social sphere of society, and analyze these processes.
Teacher: Right. This is where we will focus our efforts. Organizes work in groups. Groups receive packages of historical sources prepared in advance.
So, what happened in society in the 3rd-5th centuries in Europe. With all the diversity on the surface of social life, at the core of the processes taking place, there are many general...Historical sources will help us find answers to these questions.
2. The main means of production in an agrarian society (both in the Ancient world and in the Middle Ages) and the main value was Earth.
Assignment to students: Based on the document, determine what happened to the land in the Western Roman Empire after the barbarian invasion? (students find a document in the package). And they give an answer about a change of owner: the transfer of large land holdings into the hands of the barbarian nobility.
Teacher: Slowly, but in the same direction, processes took place in Central Europe, where the influence of Roman civilization was weakly or not felt at all... The peoples here experienced an era of decomposition of the tribal system...
Teacher: Their essence was that instead of generic came to the rural community neighbor's
Assignment to students: Compare the tribal and neighboring communities using diagrams: What do they have in common? What are the differences between them? Confirm this using documents (students work with document package No. 2) (Student answers)
Teacher: Did socio-economic processes in the community lead to the destruction of the “big family”? What document confirms this phenomenon? Property inequality increased within the neighboring community. Find confirmation of this in historical documents.
Students work with package of documents No. 2 ( Annex 1 )
Teacher: The growth of inequality among the community members, the allocation of the nobility, was accelerated by the policy of royal power: grants of land holdings to those around them under certain conditions.
Assignment to students: Find in the documents on what conditions the feud (flax), that is, land ownership, was given? Students work with documents and give an answer.
Teacher: Thus, the economic molecule of the new society gradually emerged - the feudal estate.
Assignment to students: Look at the diagram and describe each essential element of the estate (domain). Students give answers: castle. Feudal lord's house. The land is master's and peasant's. Rural community.
The teacher concludes: The neighboring community existed throughout the Middle Ages. In a strong class, you can ask the question: Why could a neighboring community last for more than a thousand years?
Students: reflect, look for explanations for such stability, updating existing knowledge.
Teacher: summarizes the answers and emphasizes that the rural neighboring community was an economic unit of agriculture, a base, a foundation, above which rose a superstructure in the form of feudal power...
Conclusion: During the early Middle Ages, the economic foundation of a new society was formed, which is called the feudal socio-economic formation (Marx) or medieval European civilization.
3. And the feudal estate itself united the main categories of society: the peasantry and feudal lords - into a single whole... It would be logical to consider how this mechanism functioned... The vast majority of the population were peasants - community members.
a) The peasantry and its status in feudal society
Teacher: At the dawn of the formation of medieval feudal European civilization, the majority of the population were free peasants - community members. However, gradually, more and more peasants became dependent on the feudal lords.
Student work in groups: Using historical documents, determine the ways of enslavement of peasants. Students work with a package of documents and provide answers.
(Annex 1
, package of documents No. 2). What documents confirm that in the early Middle Ages, along with feudal dependents, there were also free peasants? Students give answers.
Teacher: Based on the materials, determine what duties were imposed on dependent peasants by the feudal lords?
– What was the power of the feudal lord over the peasants?
– What was the peasants’ reaction to the change in their social status (loss of freedom)?
– What was the reaction of the feudal lords to the struggle of the peasants?
Students give answers.
Teacher: Thus, we have an idea of the position in the social structure of feudal society that the majority of the population, the peasantry, occupied. And it is logical to get acquainted with the position of those who stood at the top of the social hierarchy - the feudal lords.
b) Feudal lords and feudal hierarchy
The study of the third question is structured as student work in groups with package of historical documents No. 4 ( Annex 1 ). Students master educational skills to analyze material, extract necessary information, generalize and draw conclusions.
Assignments for groups of students: Who could act as a lord and issue a fief?
– What responsibilities were assigned to the vassal?
– What are the conditions for losing a fief?
– What was the procedure for forming vassal-seigneurial relations?
– How were the rights of the vassal protected?
– What were the limits (boundaries) of the feudal lord’s power over his possessions? Confirm with documents.
Concluding the analysis of the issue, students draw up a diagram:
Feudal staircase
King
Dukes. Graphs
Barons
Knights
And they explain the meaning of the statement: “The vassal of my vassal is not my vassal.”
Teacher: gives an additional task that sheds light on the specifics of feudal relations in England: “The vassal of my vassal and my vassal.”
Students give answers.
c) Values and way of life of feudal lords
It seems to be an important point in the lesson, as it allows students to “understand” many of the features of medieval European society. On the other hand, at this stage of the lesson, it is advisable for the teacher to structure the work in such a way as to ensure the development of information and technical competence in students. For this purpose, students can be introduced to a fragment or fragments of a feature film about medieval society (for example, “Ivanhoe”, “Robin Hood” and others), in which the activities, life, customs, and system of spiritual values of knights are vividly presented. Previously students groups are given tasks: After analyzing the film materials, make a report:
- Group 1 – about the occupation of feudal lords,
- Group 2 – about the spiritual and moral values of feudal lords.
At the end of the study of the issue, the teacher, in a conversation with students, focuses on the assessment of the so-called “Code of Knightly Honor”:
– What principles did it include?
-What kind of character did he have?
– Which of the “knightly honors” would you recommend to preserve in the system of “universal moral values”?
– Which provisions are definitely outdated?
In the absence of the necessary conditions for organizing such work students, you can study the material by organizing the work of groups with a package of historical documents that clearly characterize the occupations, way of life, and values of the feudal lords ( Annex 1
, package of documents No. 5.)
4.
When summarizing student responses teacher emphasizes the fact that conflicts, enmity, and internecine wars occurred between feudal lords. And puts exercise: Why was this possible? And what were the consequences?
On the first question students emphasize the “economic independence” of each feudal lord, strengthening his land ownership and power under the dominance of a subsistence economy.
On the second question, the answer is that the result was feudal fragmentation in Europe.
Teacher“returns” to the Problem task posed at the beginning of the lesson. Students it is decided.
5. Reflection. Assessing the work of groups and in groups. The form of reflection is chosen by the teacher.
6. Homework: Study paragraph 16. Fill out the block diagram of the knowledge gained ( Appendix 2 ).
Literature
- N.V. Zagladin, N.A. Simony. General history. From ancient times to the end of the 19th century. Textbook. Grade 10. Russian Word, 2007.
- N.V. Zaitseva. Story. Lesson plans based on the textbook by N.V. Zagladin “World history from ancient times to the end of the 19th century” 10th grade. "Teacher", 2007.
- V.E. Stepanova. History of the Middle Ages. Reader. Teacher's manual. M., 2000
- V.M. Khachaturian. History of world civilizations. 10-11 grades. M.: Bustard, 2002.
- A book to read on the history of the Middle Ages. M.: Education, 2001.
- History of the Middle Ages. Textbook for university students. Edited by N.F. Kolesnitsky. M.: Education, 1996.