Option No. 2455407
When completing tasks with a short answer, enter in the answer field the number that corresponds to the number of the correct answer, or a number, a word, a sequence of letters (words) or numbers. The answer should be written without spaces or any additional characters. Separate the fractional part from the whole decimal point. There is no need to write units of measurement. The answers to tasks 1-20 are a number, or a sequence of numbers, or a word (phrase). Write your answers without spaces, commas or other additional characters. By completing task 29, you can demonstrate your knowledge and skills in the content that is more attractive to you. For this purpose, select only one of the proposed statements (29.1-29.5).
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Write down the word missing in the diagram.
Answer:
Find a concept that is generalizing for all other concepts in the series presented below. Za-pi-shi-te this word (word-in-with-che-ta-nie).
State-sovereign prize, commendable gra-mo-ta, applause, positive sanctions, promotion.
Answer:
Below is a list of terms. All of them, with the exception of two, represent methods of scientific knowledge of the world.
1) observation; 2) sensation; 3) judgment; 4) putting forward a hypothesis; 5) conducting an experiment; 6) empirical description.
Find two terms that “fall out” from the general series and write down the numbers under which they are indicated in your answer.
Answer:
Indicate in the given list the empirical methods of scientific knowledge
1) Volcanologists observe the activity of Mount Etna
2) Historians have put forward a hypothesis about the origin of the name “Rus” from the Baltic tribe of Rugs.
3) Economists have theoretically substantiated the prospects for the development of the global economy.
4) Ecologists used a special probe to measure the transparency of the waters of Lake Baikal.
5) Experimentally, experts in the field of genetic engineering identified a gene that contributes to cancer.
Answer:
Establish a correspondence between the manifestations of a person’s qualities and the nature of these qualities: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.
| A | B | IN | G | D |
Answer:
The student was completing a project in biology. What signs indicate that he used empirical methods of knowledge? Select these methods of cognition from the list below and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) developed the eco-system model
2) made observations in the field
3) studied the literature on the research problem
4) used the school laboratory to conduct experiments
5) before the start of the study, he put forward a working hypothesis, which received confirmation
6) described a number of cases that had not previously appeared in the literature
Answer:
Choose the correct statements about economics as a science and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) Economics as a science is illustrated by the study of ways to use limited resources.
2) Economics as a science is illustrated by the production of food products.
3) Economics acts as a science in the process of introducing new technologies into agriculture.
4) Economics as a science includes the body of knowledge about the economy and related human activities.
5) Economics as a science includes material and immaterial production.
Answer:
Establish a correspondence between the types of items in the state budget and specific examples: for each item given in the first column, select the corresponding item from the second column.
Write down the numbers in your answer, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:
| A | B | IN | G | D |
Answer:
Nadezhda has a preschooler son, and, in agreement with the management of the enterprise, she works part-time in production. What other categories, besides part-time workers, are included in the country's labor force? Write down the numbers in ascending order, under which such categories are indicated.
1) housewives
2) working flexible hours
3) those who do not have a job but are actively looking for one
4) those serving sentences in prisons
5) rentiers living on interest on deposits
6) who are on regular vacation
Answer:
The graph shows the changing situation on the agricultural machinery market. Which of the following would cause the demand curve to shift from position D to position D1? (On the graph, P is the price of the product, Q is the quantity of the product.)
1) increase in prices for fuels and lubricants
2) expansion of sown areas
3) reduction in prices for agricultural products
4) increasing taxes for agricultural producers
Answer:
Make correct judgments about social groups and write down the numbers in ascending order, under which they are indicated.
1) A social group is an association of people who have a common significant social attribute.
2) The creation of groups is facilitated by the awareness of the fact that when united, greater results can be achieved than with individual action.
3) Social groups are based on the specific innate properties of people.
4) In the activities of social groups, people satisfy their biological needs.
5) The creation of groups is facilitated by similar interests and goals of people.
Answer:
Class teachers asked 11th grade students and their parents the question: “Which of the following statements do you think most accurately describes the relationship between parents and children?” The survey results (as a percentage of the number of respondents) are presented in the diagram.
Find in the list below the conclusions that can be drawn from the diagram and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) Among parents, the opinion that parents and children will never be able to understand each other is more popular than the opinion that parents and children understand each other; there is no reason for contradiction.
2) Half of the parents surveyed believe that parents and children understand each other, there are no grounds for contradictions.
3) Among students, the opinion that mutual understanding requires joint efforts of both parents and children is more popular than the opinion that parents and children will never be able to understand each other.
4) Equal shares of respondents had difficulty answering.
5) Equal shares of students and parents believe that mutual understanding requires joint efforts of both parents and children.
Answer:
In the country of M., after a long reign of a military dictator, democratically elected forces came to power. What articles must be presented in the new constitution of the country, adopted in the course of a national refer-en-du-ma? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) Ideological pluralism is enshrined as the leading political principle.
2) The president of the country has the right to appoint the composition of the government without the participation of parliament.
3) Everyone located on the territory of the state has inalienable personal rights.
4) Elections to the legislative body of the state are held on a regular basis.
5) The parliament of the country has a bicameral structure.
6) The regions of the country have the right to adopt local laws.
Answer:
Establish a correspondence between the functions and the government bodies that carry them out: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.
Write down the numbers in your answer, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:
| A | B | IN | G | D |
Answer:
In state Z, regular elections to the highest government body were held. Voter turnout was 75%. Which of the following signs allow us to conclude that a democratic regime has been established in state Z? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) A system of checks and balances between the divided branches of government emerged.
2) The new law on local self-government ensured the participation of citizens in social policy.
3) An increase in economic development has become noticeable.
4) Political leadership received a strong foundation in the recognition of the special qualities of the head of state.
5) The birth rate has increased and infant mortality has decreased.
6) The state has concluded a number of international treaties.
Answer:
According to the Constitution of the Russian Federation, which of the following refers to the powers of the President of the Russian Federation? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) approves military doctrine
2) declares an amnesty
3) decides on the resignation of the Government of the Russian Federation
4) grants pardon
5) approves changes in borders between constituent entities of the Russian Federation
6) appoints the Chairman of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation to the position
Answer:
Find in the list below the forms in which legal entities that are commercial organizations can be created. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) public association
2) business company
3) business partnership
4) production cooperative
5) consumer cooperative
6) charitable foundation
Answer:
Correlate the procedural actions and the types of processes within which these procedural actions can be carried out.
Write down the numbers in your answer, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:
| A | B | IN | G | D |
Answer:
Stepan is 14 years old, Ivan is 12 years old. Which of the following actions does Stepan have the right to carry out independently, unlike Ivan? Write down the numbers they are listed under.
1) make deposits in credit institutions and manage these deposits
2) to be heard during the court proceedings to determine one’s place of residence in the event of a divorce of parents
3) make transactions to dispose of funds provided by parents for free disposal
4) exercise the rights of the author of a musical work
5) enter into an employment contract (courier work) with the consent of the parents
6) make small household transactions
Answer:
Read the text below, in which a number of words are missing. Select from the list provided the words that need to be inserted in place of the gaps.
“Social control is a mechanism by which society ensures compliance with certain rules, __________(A) of which are detrimental to the functioning of the social system. In this capacity are __________(B) and law, customs, administrative decisions, etc. The action of social control comes down mainly to the application of various __________(B) to violators of accepted social norms. At the same time, social control involves rewarding __________(D) social norms.
Social control acts as an organic element of any __________(D) management of the social process, as a feedback mechanism that ensures the execution of the commands of the governing body.
Social control can be found in the earliest societies. With the development of productive forces and division of labor, the role of social control increases, and its structure becomes more complex. Social __________(E) arise, dealing almost exclusively with social control (for example, the judiciary). At the same time, the functions of social control are carried out by almost any social institution.”
The words in the list are given in the nominative case. Each word can only be used one once.
Choose one word after another, mentally filling in each gap. Please note that there are more words in the list than you will need to fill in the blanks.
List of terms:
The table below shows the letters representing the missing words. Write down the numbers in your answer, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:
| A | B | IN | G | D | E |
Answer:
<...> <...> <...>
Read the text and complete tasks 21-24.
The complex connections that arise between the state and the individual, and the relationships of people with each other, are fixed by the state in legal form - in the form of rights, freedoms and responsibilities that form the legal status of a person and a citizen. Rights and responsibilities not only set out patterns and standards of behavior that the state considers obligatory, useful, and appropriate for the normal functioning of the social system, but also reveal the basic principles of the relationship between the state and the individual. The relationship between the state and the individual requires clear regulation and orderliness. This is due to the particular importance of this kind of relationship for maintaining the existing system, for its normal functioning.<...>Legal status consists of subjective, including procedural rights: to appeal to government bodies with complaints and petitions, to protect one’s rights and freedoms by all means not prohibited by law, to appeal to court, to interstate protection bodies, and others. The state does not secure individual rights arbitrarily; it legally formalizes natural human rights, as well as a set of rights for the implementation of which socio-political prerequisites have been formed, arising from real social relations.<...>Society and the state are far from indifferent to how a person realizes the opportunities enshrined in legislation; they are interested in the activity of the individual, which is an important condition for the development of a democratic society.<...>The Constitution of the Russian Federation declares that in the Russian Federation “the rights and freedoms of man and citizen are recognized and guaranteed in accordance with generally recognized norms and norms of international law.” This provision of the Constitution gives grounds to understand the legal status of a person and a citizen of Russia as a single set of domestic and international norms containing the rights and freedoms of citizens.
Solutions to long-answer tasks are not automatically checked.
The next page will ask you to check them yourself.
The author argues that “the state does not secure individual rights arbitrarily; it legally formalizes natural human rights, as well as a set of rights for the implementation of which socio-political prerequisites have been formed, arising from real social relations.” Based on the text, knowledge of the social science course and knowledge gained from other social disciplines, name three socio-political prerequisites necessary for the legal registration of natural human rights.
Read the text and complete tasks 21-24.
The complex connections that arise between the state and the individual, and the relationships of people with each other, are fixed by the state in legal form - in the form of rights, freedoms and responsibilities that form the legal status of a person and a citizen. Rights and responsibilities not only set out patterns and standards of behavior that the state considers obligatory, useful, and appropriate for the normal functioning of the social system, but also reveal the basic principles of the relationship between the state and the individual. The relationship between the state and the individual requires clear regulation and orderliness. This is due to the particular importance of this kind of relationship for maintaining the existing system, for its normal functioning.<...>Legal status consists of subjective, including procedural rights: to appeal to government bodies with complaints and petitions, to protect one’s rights and freedoms by all means not prohibited by law, to appeal to court, to interstate protection bodies, and others. The state does not secure individual rights arbitrarily; it legally formalizes natural human rights, as well as a set of rights for the implementation of which socio-political prerequisites have been formed, arising from real social relations.<...>Society and the state are far from indifferent to how a person realizes the opportunities enshrined in legislation; they are interested in the activity of the individual, which is an important condition for the development of a democratic society.<...>The Constitution of the Russian Federation declares that in the Russian Federation “the rights and freedoms of man and citizen are recognized and guaranteed in accordance with generally recognized norms and norms of international law.” This provision of the Constitution gives grounds to understand the legal status of a person and a citizen of Russia as a single set of domestic and international norms containing the rights and freedoms of citizens.
The complex connections that arise between the state and the individual, and the relationships of people with each other, are fixed by the state in legal form - in the form of rights, freedoms and responsibilities that form the legal status of a person and a citizen. Rights and responsibilities not only set out patterns and standards of behavior that the state considers obligatory, useful, and appropriate for the normal functioning of the social system, but also reveal the basic principles of the relationship between the state and the individual. The relationship between the state and the individual requires clear regulation and orderliness. This is due to the particular importance of this kind of relationship for maintaining the existing system, for its normal functioning.<...>Legal status consists of subjective, including procedural rights: to appeal to government bodies with complaints and petitions, to protect one’s rights and freedoms by all means not prohibited by law, to appeal to court, to interstate protection bodies, and others. The state does not secure individual rights arbitrarily; it legally formalizes natural human rights, as well as a set of rights for the implementation of which socio-political prerequisites have been formed, arising from real social relations.<...>Society and the state are far from indifferent to how a person realizes the opportunities enshrined in legislation; they are interested in the activity of the individual, which is an important condition for the development of a democratic society. The next page will ask you to check them yourself.
Choose one of the statements below and write a mini-essay based on it.
Formulate at your own discretion one or more main ideas of the topic raised by the author and reveal it (them) based on social science knowledge.
To reveal the main idea(s) you have formulated, provide reasoning and conclusions using social science knowledge (relevant concepts, theoretical positions).
To illustrate the main idea(s), theoretical positions, reasoning and conclusions you have formulated, provide at least two social facts/examples from various sources (public life (including media reports), personal social experience (including including books read, movies watched), from various educational subjects.
Each given fact/example must be formulated in detail and confirm/be clearly connected with the designated main idea, theoretical position, reasoning or conclusion. The content of the examples should not be of the same type (they should not duplicate each other).
Most people tend to rate themselves slightly above average. This allows us to conclude that a person has a characteristic need for fairly high self-esteem, that is, everyone wants to respect themselves. In people suffering from neuroses, self-esteem is often overestimated or underestimated, and sometimes even extreme (the kindest, the most shy, the most honest). People with hysterical manifestations express the following judgments: “I am much smarter, prettier, kinder than most people, but I am the most unhappy and the sickest.”
Inflated self-esteem contributes to touchiness, intolerance to the slightest remarks (however, there is another extreme: from the height of one’s “I” one does not take even serious criticism to heart). A person with inadequately high self-esteem is potentially conflicted in situations when it comes to rewards and incentives for work. The discrepancy between the expected and real rewards naturally results in resentment and envy, which accumulate and, finally, break through with a sharp accusation against someone. Excessively low self-esteem of a person entails his excessive dependence on others, lack of independence and even ingratiation, timidity, isolation, even a distorted perception of others are manifested, an “inferiority complex” is formed, the behavior of a “loser”.
The formation of self-esteem and self-esteem is influenced by many factors that already operate in early childhood - the attitude of parents, position among peers, the attitude of teachers. By comparing the opinions of the people around him, a person forms self-esteem, and it is curious that a person first learns to evaluate others, and then to evaluate himself. And only by the age of 14-15 does a teenager master the skills of introspection, introspection and reflection, analyze his own results achieved and thereby evaluate himself (“If I didn’t give up in a difficult situation, then I’m not a coward,” “If I was able to overcome a difficult task, then , I am capable”, etc.). A person’s self-esteem can be adequate (a person evaluates himself correctly, objectively), or inadequately overestimated or inadequately underestimated. And this, in turn, will influence the level of a person’s aspirations, which characterizes the degree of difficulty of the goals that a person strives for and the achievement of which seems attractive and possible to a person. The level of aspiration is the level of difficulty of a task that a person undertakes to achieve, knowing the level of his previous performance. The level of aspiration is influenced by the dynamics of failures and successes along the path of life, the dynamics of success and failure in specific activities. The level of aspiration can be adequate (a person chooses goals that he can actually achieve, which correspond to his abilities, skills, and capabilities) or inadequately inflated or underestimated.
The more adequate the self-esteem, the more adequate the level of aspirations.
Character is manifested not only by the attitude towards other people, but also towards oneself. Each of us, intentionally or without realizing it, often compares ourselves with others and ultimately develops a fairly stable opinion about our intelligence, appearance, health, position in society, i.e., forms a “set of self-esteem” on which our modesty depends. We are either arrogant, demanding of ourselves or complacent, shy or arrogant.
A low level of aspirations, when a person chooses too simple, easy goals (although he could achieve much higher ones) is possible with low self-esteem (a person does not believe in himself, has a low assessment of his abilities and capabilities, feels “inferior”), but is also possible and with high self-esteem (when a person knows that he is smart, capable, but chooses simpler goals, so as not to “overwork”, “keep his head down,” showing a kind of “social cunning”). An inflated level of aspirations, when a person sets too complex, unrealistic goals for himself, can objectively lead to frequent failures, disappointment, and frustration.
Self-respect is a generalized attitude of an individual towards himself, directly proportional to the amount of success achieved and inversely proportional to the level of aspirations (self-respect = success/aspiration), i.e. the higher the aspiration, the greater a person’s achievements must be so that he can respect himself.
If a person makes unrealistic claims, he often encounters insurmountable obstacles on the way to achieving the goal, suffers failures, and experiences, according to scientific terms, frustration.
Frustration is a specific emotional state of a person that arises when insurmountable obstacles appear on the way to achieving the desired goal. Frustration manifests itself as aggression, anger, which can be directed at others (“aggressive frustration”), or at oneself, blaming oneself for failures (regressive frustration). Frequently recurring states of frustration can consolidate certain characteristic traits in a person’s personality: aggressiveness, envy, anger - in some; lethargy, lack of self-confidence, “inferiority complex”, indifference, lack of initiative - in others.
If a person does not get out of a frustrated state for a long time, then neurosis is formed - a disease that arises as a result of a conflict between a person and the environment due to clashes between a person’s desires and a reality that does not satisfy them.
Formula for human self-esteem (self-esteem = success/pretension) suggested by an American psychologist William James.
Level of aspiration- the level that a person strives to achieve in various spheres of life (career, status, well-being, etc.), the ideal goal of his future actions. Success is the fact of achieving certain results, fulfilling a certain program of actions that reflect the level of aspirations. The formula shows that self-esteem can be increased either by reducing the level of aspirations or by increasing the effectiveness of one’s actions.
With strong deviations from adequate self-esteem, a person may experience psychological discomfort and internal conflicts. The saddest thing is that the person himself often does not realize the true causes of these phenomena and looks for reasons outside himself.
With clearly inflated self-esteem, a person:
- acquires a superiority complex (“I’m the most correct”), or a complex of two year olds
(“I’m the best”);
- It has idealized
an idea of oneself, of one’s abilities and capabilities, of one’s significance for one’s business and for the people around him (trying to live according to this ideal “I”, often creates unjustified friction with other people; after all, as F. La Rochefoucauld said, there is no better way to get into trouble in life than to think you are better than others
);
— ignores personal failures for the sake of maintaining his psychological comfort, maintaining his usual high self-esteem; pushes away everything that interferes with the existing image of oneself;
- interprets his weaknesses as strengths, passing off ordinary aggressiveness and stubbornness as will and determination;
- becomes inaccessible to others, "mentally deaf"
, loses feedback from others, does not listen to other people’s opinions;
- associates his failure with external factors, other people’s machinations, intrigues, circumstances - with anything, but not with your own mistakes
;
- treats critical assessment of oneself by others with obvious distrust, attributing all this to nit-picking and envy;
- as a rule, sets impossible goals for himself;
— has a level of aspirations that exceeds his real capabilities
;
- easily acquires such traits as arrogance, arrogance, striving for superiority, rudeness, aggressiveness, rigidity, quarrelsomeness;
- behaves in an emphatically independent manner, which is perceived by others as arrogance and disdain (hence the hidden or obvious negative attitude towards him);
- subject to the persecution of neurotic and even hysterical manifestations (“I am more capable, smarter, more practical, more beautiful, kinder than most people, but I am the most unfortunate and unlucky”);
— we predict, has stable standards of behavior
;
- has a characteristic appearance: straight posture, high head position, direct and steady gaze, commanding notes in the voice.
With clearly low self-esteem, a person:
- has a predominantly anxious, stuck, pedantic type accentuations character, which constitutes the psychological basis of such self-esteem;
- as a rule, unsure of himself, shy, indecisive, overly cautious;
— urgently needs the support and approval of others, depends on them
;
- is easily influenced by other people, thoughtlessly follows their lead;
- suffering from an inferiority complex, strives to assert oneself, self-realization ( sometimes - at any cost
, which leads him to indiscriminateness in the means of achieving his goals), feverishly to catch up, to prove to everyone and, above all, to himself, his importance, that he is worth something;
— sets lower goals for himself than he can achieve
;
- often "leaves"
into your troubles and failures, exaggerating their role in your life;
- is too demanding of himself and others, excessively self-critical, which often leads to isolation, envy, suspicion, vindictiveness and even cruelty;
- often becomes boring, annoying others with little things, causing conflicts both in the family and at work;
- has a characteristic appearance: the head is slightly pulled into the shoulders, the gait is hesitant, as if insinuating, and when speaking, the eyes often look away to the side.
The adequacy of self-esteem is determined by the relationship between two opposing mental processes in a person:
— cognitive, promoting adequacy;
- protective, acting in the opposite direction to reality.
Self-esteem is also related to self-esteem. You can’t run away from yourself and you can’t hide, so each of us must see ourselves from the outside: who am I; what others expect from me; where our interests coincide and diverge. Self-respecting people also have their own line of behavior: they are balanced, non-aggressive, independent.
To evaluate oneself means to consider oneself within a certain hierarchical system. People vary widely in their sense of self-worth, and many of these differences show up in everyday life. When a person refuses to do what he believes incompatible with its moral value , they say about him that he is proud. When a person tries struggle to convince others of your importance , he is accused of vanity. When a person refuses to give high praise for myself which others think he deserves, he is called modest.
Much of what a person does or refuses to do depends on his level of self-worth. Those who do not consider themselves particularly talented do not strive for very high goals and do not show disappointment when they fail to do something well. People who perceive themselves as unable to resist temptation avoid situations in which they might succumb to temptation. A person who thinks of himself as a worthless, worthless being is often reluctant to make efforts to improve his lot. On the other hand, those who value themselves highly often tend to work under great stress. They consider it beneath their dignity to not work well enough.
A person's level of self-worth is determined not by what he publicly states or by what he sincerely thinks about himself, but by how he consistently acts towards himself. If a person is especially sensitive to inattention, if he desperately avoids situations in which his weaknesses might be revealed, if he indulges in daydreaming to the extent that his ability to function is impaired, there is reason to conclude that he is seriously insecure.
It has long been suspected that those who are very complacent and powerful are only compensating for ingrained feelings of inferiority. If a person speaks very confidently, but avoids situations where his abilities can be impartially tested, then everyone will begin to doubt him. Conscious self-esteem turns out to be just a protective armor, a way to prevent you from looking at yourself too closely.
When a person cannot accept himself as he really is, the main efforts are directed towards self-defense rather than towards self-knowledge.
Psychological Effects of Our Self-Awareness
Millions of Russian citizens “moonlight” as political scientists, economists and social psychologists. In almost every kitchen you can hear a detailed explanation of what is happening in Russia, Ukraine, and the entire planet. We are not only able to evaluate the event (in the most objective way! At least, it seems so to us.), but also explain what is going on in the head of each of the participants. True, in reality, we rarely manage to do this. There are too many traps scattered inside our consciousness. Over the past century, psychologists have experimentally established many patterns of our thinking.
01. Others are always the same
Scientific name outgroup homogeneity effect.
The simplest illustration: it seems to us that we, Europeans, have very different faces, but the Chinese or blacks are all the same. Or another example. Ask any resident of Central Russia a simple question: “What color is Chechen hair?” And you will immediately receive a definite answer: “Black. What other ones?” But Chechens can have black, copper-red, or blond hair.
The same thing happens at the level of social characteristics. Lawyers, police officers, Western Ukrainians, fishermen, villagers, Americans, oppositionists... It seems to us that this is a single mass with common views on life and a single psychological structure.
How works
The division of the world into “us” and “strangers” was developed in ancient times. Paleontologist Alexander Markov in his book “Human Evolution” he refers to an experiment with monkeys, who were shown photographs of different animals - both monkeys of the same species, and elephants, hippopotamuses, and giraffes. When the animal saw its relatives, it held its gaze and considered each photograph as something new. But elephants and hippos did not arouse interest: why look at pictures if they are the same animal?
In humans, this innate mechanism is supplemented by the so-called principle of cognitive economy. Our brain is very lazy and tries in every possible way to reduce the amount of information processed. Why analyze the psychology of each individual official or policeman, when you can use a simple scheme: since he belongs to this professional group, it means that he is cynical, greedy, self-confident, loves Putin1 and so on.
02. Everyone is a little crazy
In psychology this is called subjective value, irrational choice.
Understanding the actions of others is very simple. People do what benefits them. They prefer to sell high and buy low. He who pays calls the tune. Fortunately (or unfortunately), this model rarely works. But real people very often act completely irrationally, doing things that, in theory, are unprofitable for them. This applies to trade, politics, and personal relationships. The irrationality of consumers was described in detail by psychologist Daniel Kahneman, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Economics.
How it works
The value of the decision made is not calculated in rubles and dollars. People make choices using a bunch of factors: emotional background, comparison with others, their own experience, cultural norms and much more.
03. Bad situations are more common than bad people
It's called fundamental error of causal attribution. The jaw-dropping title once again shows that psychology is still a science, and not idle talk about the meaning of life. If translated into human language, then “causal attribution” is about how we explain the reasons for the actions of other people or ourselves. It is fundamental because it occurs very often, and an error is an error.
Examples
Imagine that there are two unfamiliar men in front of you. One sternly says: “Everything must be done as I said.” The other one nods obediently. What can we assume? The first one is most likely an authoritarian person, likes to command, strives to control everything, and has a decisive character. The second one is probably cowardly, has low self-esteem, and is inclined to obey. Right? But the behavior of these two may not be connected at all with their character, but with a specific situation. The simplest thing: one is a boss, and the other is a subordinate. Moreover, the boss is actually a soft and indecisive person, he was just asked to be stricter today. Or maybe he is not the boss at all, but simply responsible for the project. The one who nods obediently will most likely turn out to be a tyrant and despot in another situation, but now he is late for work, feels guilty and therefore does not mind. In addition, we cannot rule out that yesterday he mixed cognac with dry wine or beer, and now he has such a severe hangover that he only has the strength to nod.
And even knowing that such behavior is imposed on a person from the outside, we continue to suspect that it is not a matter of the situation, but of character. A classic experiment on this topic was conducted by psychologists Edward Jones and Victor Harris back in the late sixties. A group of students had to give a speech about Fidel Castro. By lot it fell to some to praise him, to others to scold him. There was no connection with real political leanings. Another group listened to these speeches and had to evaluate how the person really felt about the Cuban leader. And although observers knew how the roles were distributed, they were still inclined to believe that the people who happened to defend Fidel in reality also sympathized with him, and vice versa.
This experiment has been repeated many times by social psychologists in many different forms. And the result was always the same: assessing the reasons for the actions of others, people tend to exaggerate the role of character traits and downplay the influence of the social situation. A person who takes up arms is aggressive and cruel, but a person who donates money to orphans is kind and sympathetic. For most, this is the truth and they cannot even admit that their opinion may be subjective.
Even scientists themselves are not immune from this mistake. Social psychologist David Myers admits in his book: “I once had the opportunity to help an interviewer who was selecting employees for a faculty. Six of us interviewed one applicant, and each of us had the opportunity to ask him two or three questions. I left thinking: “What a uptight, clumsy person he is.” We met the second candidate face to face over a cup of coffee, and it immediately turned out that we had a close friend in common. Our conversation continued, I admired more and more what a “cordial, charming and likable person” she is.”
How does it work
One hypothesis to explain the fundamental attribution error is that it's all about figure and ground. For us, the most noticeable thing is behavior. What circumstances lie behind certain actions is not very visible from the outside. It's a completely different matter when it comes to us. Now, if we ourselves shout at someone, it is not at all because of our hysteria, but because we are fed up with it. And if at someone’s birthday we sit in a corner, avoiding the general fun, then this is not from shyness or strong introversion, but from fatigue after a working day, and the company chosen was uninteresting.
04. Good people don't get into trouble
In psychology this is called illusion of a just world.
For example. A girl was walking through the park at night when a thug attacked her and raped her. Of course, we feel sorry for the victim, but at the same time thoughts slip through our minds: “Why did she drag herself through the park at night?”, “There was no point in walking around in a short skirt!”, “Maybe it was an acquaintance of hers, and she provoked him to have sex...”
The same goes for any other victims. Homeless on the street? He probably drank the apartment away. Beaten up by hooligans? He probably provoked them somehow. Is the country at war? There was no point in creating a mess and supporting dubious politicians.
I would like to quote Sergei Dovlatov:“When they took away the choirmaster Lyalin, who lived below, my father recalled that Lyalin was an anti-Semite. When the philologist Roginsky was arrested, it turned out that Roginsky had been drinking. Entertainer Zatsepin treated women tactlessly. Make-up artist Sidelnikov generally preferred men. And film playwright Shapiro, being a Jew, behaved with incredible aplomb...”
How does it work
There is a lot of pain and tragedy around. Going through all this is incredibly difficult, you can go crazy or at least go on a binge. If you ignore this, you will become an insensitive cynic. We can only reassure ourselves that the victims partly deserved their fate.
The heroic side can still awaken in a person. Like, if there is injustice in the world, then I must fight it. But it’s still not possible to cope with all the abomination. And since I cannot immediately engage in battle with a dragon that devours innocent maidens, it means that these maidens are not so innocent.
05. “I knew it!”
In psychology this is called hindsight error, hindsight effect.
This is a question about amateur political scientists. You are very lucky if you have ever met a person who admitted: “I assumed that the situation would develop this way and that way, but in reality it turned out differently.” Usually the opposite happens. Polls and experiments show that almost everyone correctly predicted the outcome of a presidential election or the outcome of a football game. Only this accurate forecast was made after the event happened.
How does it work
The simplest explanation: a person is simply lying, claiming that his prophecy was accurate. After all, in this way you can easily establish yourself as an expert in politics, economics and sports.
A more subtle mechanism is to adjust (consciously or not) what happened to the initial forecast. For example, if a party received 42% of the votes in an election, this could be assessed as both a crushing defeat (less than half) and an impressive victory (the largest faction in parliament).
A person can also implant in his memory the memory that he correctly predicted events, although in reality nothing of the kind happened. The false memory effect was perfectly demonstrated in her experiments by Elizabeth Loftus.
06. Left - left, right - right
Scientists call this effect group polarization.
Let me give you an example. Let’s say that in the outskirts of the State Duma a draft law was born banning public nose picking. The overwhelming majority of citizens did not even think about this problem. But the topic is beginning to be discussed, fortunately social networks open up unprecedented scope for such discussions. Someone calmly remarks: they say, the ban on picking is not such a great tragedy, maybe it’s for the better. Immediately he receives hundreds of likes on the one hand and angry rebuke on the other. Critics of the ban also begin with caution: “This decision may not be entirely effective...” But on the one hand, opponents are putting pressure, and on the other, supporters are supporting. As a result, the discussion literally within a day develops into an irreconcilable war between “Down with the arbitrariness of power! Give me freedom! and “Nose picking threatens the security of the country! Down with American agents! Then you can form social movements, go out into squares and punch people in the face.
How does it work
The effect is a bit like Maxwell's demons. People-particles charged in the same way tend to gather in one part of space, people-particles with a different charge move to another. If a group unites to fight something, then it will encourage any statements against this something and condemn (at least morally) remarks that somehow justify this something. As a result, the group will move towards an increasingly radical position. Nothing personal, pure physics.
07. Group instead of brain
The effect has a scientific name groupthink, groupthink, Groupthink.
For example. “Do you want to destroy our unity?!” - asks one of the group members. After this, it’s scary to even think that you might not agree with a single point of view.
Social psychology textbooks cite as examples of “groupthink” decisions that led to Germany’s defeat in the war, the Watergate scandal and the crash of the Challenger. Author of "The Social Animal" Elliot Aronson writes: “What did Hitler’s “inner circle,” Nixon’s “palace guard,” and the NASA administration have in common, apart from the obvious fact that all three teams made decisions that led to tragic results? They were all relatively close-knit groups, isolated from any other points of view».
How does it work
The need to maintain group cohesion sometimes it seems more important than making the right decisions. Schism and criticism can destroy unity, which means they must be extinguished even in your own head. Probably, the importance of preserving the group was inherited from primitive times, when it was a matter of survival.
08. Blame it all...
Named by scientists simple explanation effect.
I'll try to give an example. We know exactly why the October Revolution happened. There is only one reason - German agents of influence who wanted to undermine Russia's defense power. However, there is another “one” reason: it was urgently necessary to carry out industrial modernization. Or again: it’s all about the activity of the Sun...
Very often, when explaining an event, we rely on a single factor, which is elevated to an absolute. You can use anything from geopolitical games to complex psychoanalytic theories. But in reality, not a single event - from revolution to divorce - occurs for only one reason; a complex of factors is always at work.
How does it work
Same cognitive economy. The fewer parameters we can use to explain things, the better for our tired brains.
09. Emotions versus statistics
The effect of a bright picture, the effect of false representativeness.
Let me give you an example. This happened in one of the districts of the city N. The girl Masha was riding on a swing, and suddenly her scarf got caught on a tree. Masha began to choke, she wheezed, her face began to turn blue, she could no longer scream. If it weren’t for Baba Dusya passing by, the girl would have died. Tragedy was miraculously avoided. But the boy Petya, who fell from the roof of the garage and crushed his skull, could not be saved. And the girl Olya died in terrible agony, scalded with boiling water right in her apartment, her screams were heard even on the next street... In 2013, 125 cases of child injuries were registered in the N area (in 2000 - 531).
Now the question is: should we be concerned about accidents among children in this area? If you look at the numbers, you find that over 13 years, child injuries have decreased by more than four times and you can move on to other problems. But the tragic fates of Masha, Olya and Petya do not leave us indifferent. I feel sorry for them.
How does it work
We are emotional beings. And when we are told about a specific living story, we begin to turn on - sympathize, be indignant, grieve. From a rational point of view, the numbers can be much more convincing. But they are not alive, and it is much more difficult to include them in the emotional world of our assessment. Our likes, preferences, attitudes are determined by vivid individual examples; It is incredibly difficult to interrupt this emotional background with dry statistics or boring arguments of logic. And therefore - “Resign the head of the district!”, And it doesn’t matter that he reduced the number of child injuries by four to five times.
10. When there is a war inside the brain
Resolving Cognitive Dissonance.
For example. You firmly believe that the President of South Concordia is a scoundrel, a swindler and a protégé of American imperialism. In addition, this bastard is brutally suppressing freedom fighters from the “Love and Reason” partisan movement. Suddenly you read the news that this president released all political prisoners and announced free elections, and the next day the partisans blew up a children's hospital.
One knowledge came into conflict with another. The same cognitive dissonance that Leon Festinger discovered a long time ago happened. What should I do? There are many options: declare the source of information unreliable, recognize the president’s actions as a cynical maneuver, find a message that in fact there were not children in the hospital, but government soldiers, and that it was not partisans who blew it up, but disguised secret service agents.
How does it work
Our consciousness strives for consistency. It is easier for us to have a single model of the world with a clear division into good and bad. It is easier to admit a lie than to put up with a complex and contradictory picture.
Each of us, intentionally or without realizing it, often compares ourselves with others and ultimately develops a fairly stable opinion about our intelligence, appearance, health, position in society, i.e., forms a “set of self-esteem” on which it depends: modest We are either arrogant, demanding of ourselves, or complacent and shy.
Self-esteem is one of the sources of psychological stability and good mood. Let's say a person made a mistake, did something wrong. If this person has a sufficiently high level of self-esteem, he can reassure himself: “It’s okay, because in general I’m not stupid and this is not typical for me,” that is, psychological defense is triggered, and the person calms down.
For most people, self-esteem is often overestimated or underestimated, and sometimes even extreme (the kindest, the most shy, the most honest). A person with hysterical manifestations expresses the following judgments: “I am much smarter, prettier, kinder than most people, but I am the most unhappy and the sickest.” What communication difficulties do people with high self-esteem experience? A person who considers himself much smarter than others, and even more so deliberately emphasizes this, inevitably irritates those around him. This is natural - after all, the thought “see how smart I am” implies a disdainful attitude towards others. And who likes to be considered stupid by someone?
Inadequate self-conceit, emphasizing one’s merits, arrogance, and disregard for others are an inexhaustible source of negativity from others. Often you have to communicate with people who, due to inadequately high self-esteem, are jealous and envious of the successes of their colleagues. “The worst and most evil kind of envy: envy of mental superiority.”, - stated G. Fielding. When someone's abilities and successes are also accompanied by ostentatious display of these achievements, they provoke envy and negative attitudes from others. Inflated self-esteem also contributes to such character traits as excessive touchiness. Resentment, as a rule, is a feeling that arises in response to the unfair attitude of others. But what does “unfair” mean to a person? And the fact that someone’s opinion of him is lower than his own opinion of himself. From here it is clear that inflated self-esteem contributes to touchiness and intolerance to the slightest remarks (however, there is another extreme: from the height of one’s “I” one does not take even serious criticism to heart). A person with inadequately high self-esteem is potentially conflicted in situations when it comes to rewards and incentives for work. The discrepancy between the expected and real rewards naturally results in resentment and envy, which accumulate and, finally, break through with a sharp accusation against someone.
A person’s self-esteem can be adequate (a person evaluates himself correctly, objectively), or inadequately inflated or inadequately underestimated.
And this, in turn, will influence the level of a person’s aspirations, which characterizes the degree of difficulty of the goals that a person strives for and the achievement of which seems attractive and possible to a person.
The level of aspiration is the level of difficulty of a task that a person undertakes to achieve, knowing the level of his previous performance.
V. P. LEVKOVICH, Candidate of Philosophical Sciences
Raising a new person is the most important component of communist construction. Our reality itself forms in Soviet people high moral ideals, the need to work for the common good. Ideological and educational work is also aimed at developing a Marxist-Leninist worldview, eradicating consumer tendencies and selfishness, without which life in any group is unimaginable.
Today, the cultural level of the Soviet person is high enough for him to work on himself, on his character, behavior, and objectively evaluate his aspirations and actions. And in this complex individual work, the party principle of unity of word and deed, of testing oneself first of all with deeds, remains a reliable guideline.
Self-esteem - the ability to evaluate oneself, one's capabilities and abilities - plays a huge role in the life of each of us. After all, your behavior, mood, and many vital decisions depend on how you feel. A correct attitude towards yourself, a realistic assessment of your data helps you wisely distribute your strength, set solvable tasks for yourself, and maintain mental balance.
Not only that: self-esteem is an important regulator of relationships with other people. Imagine a person who considers himself an excellent specialist, an impeccable master in this or that matter, while he is just a mediocre worker with great self-esteem, and those around him, naturally, do not recognize his authority. There is room for unfounded claims on the one hand and a skeptical, mocking attitude on the other.
An incorrect idea of oneself and the collision of this idea with reality sometimes gives rise to bitter disappointments and internal conflicts, manifested in a bad mood and decreased vitality. People with high self-esteem often become touchy, distrustful, stubborn, and bitter.
When faced with a dilemma: change self-esteem or ignore the opinions of others, a person with a persistently inflated idea of his own merits sometimes chooses the second path. He breaks ties with those who value him lower than he values himself. What if these are people with whom he communicates on a daily basis? Such a gap inevitably gives rise to psychological discomfort, wariness, and suspicion.
Internal conflicts caused by the discrepancy between self-esteem and the results of practical activities can also be experienced by people who underestimate their own capabilities. They often perceive unexpected success as an accident; it makes them feel unfamiliar, uncomfortable, and does not bring natural joy. They are very sensitive to comments and failures in their work; they perceive negative feedback painfully, remember it for a long time, and this deprives them of the necessary activity in life.
Knowing yourself is not an easy science. And to comprehend it, we need the help of others.
A person forms an idea of himself based on how he evaluates his appearance, abilities, character, moral qualities, professional capabilities, and position in society. Moreover, these parameters are not equivalent for different people. For one to feel self-respect, it is enough to feel his integrity, a clear moral position - everything else fades into the background for him. For another, appearance is especially important: considering himself ugly, he is disadvantaged by this, and therefore he is timid and timid.
Self-esteem is built not only on personal impressions; its formation is greatly influenced by the assessment of a person by other people: in the family, in the immediate environment, at work. Children are especially suggestible in this sense. A number of studies by Soviet psychologists have shown that the self-esteem of preschoolers and primary schoolchildren depends mainly on the opinions of those around them - parents, educators, and peers.
Studies conducted with older children, students in grades 4-6, revealed that they willingly accept an unreasonably high assessment and follow it even when it clearly goes against their personal experience.
In this experiment, the children were given to solve mathematical problems, and they could not check the answer with the problem book and did not know whether they had solved it correctly. Those who failed, the experimenters, as planned, praised them, told them that everything was fine with them, and the students, encouraged by this, chose increasingly more complex tasks for themselves for further work. But then the moment came when the work was returned to them with all the errors noted. And what? The subjects could no longer overestimate their capabilities and continued to choose impossible tasks for themselves.
As you can see, it is not so difficult to make a teenager overly self-confident. But even a disapproving assessment is perceived by children just as trustingly, creating a low image of themselves. It has been experimentally established that low self-esteem among lagging students is often caused not so much by their objective capabilities as by the feedback of teachers and friends. A lag in learning, constantly reinforced by the negative characteristics that a teenager hears about him, leads to an increase in self-doubt and a feeling of inferiority.
Increased sensitivity to the assessments of others, characteristic of children, can, to one degree or another, persist in an adult. One, under the influence of praise, quickly grows in his own eyes, willingly listening to flattering reviews, the other looks at himself soberly, not allowing his head to be turned. There are people who “know their worth”; undeserved criticism does not disarm them; others, under the influence of negative assessments, quickly wilt.
For example, a person worked in one team and there he felt confident, he knew that he was assessed positively. But then he was offered a new job, he meets other people, expecting that they will appreciate him the same way. It is quite possible that the first contacts will not be so favorable, that due to some random circumstances or superficial external observations, he will be rated lower here than he expected. And because of this, some people’s self-esteem immediately becomes lower, they lose their former energy, and begin to doubt their abilities.
We learn the true measure of our own strengths and weaknesses in specific life situations, in communication with other people and, of course, in practical activities.
For example, this is not a rare family conflict. The child’s bad behavior, some kind of misconduct, is discussed, and the wife angrily says to her husband: “I can’t handle him alone, and you don’t care about him! You are a bad father!
The husband is full of internal protest. How is it possible, he loves his son, he is always worried when the child is sick, he is still upset... No, he does not accept the accusations, he is simply offended!
So at such a moment - or not even at such a moment, but after it has cooled down, after an hour or two, calmly think alone with yourself: am I still a bad father or a good one? What am I doing to raise my son? Not what feelings do I have for him, but what do I do? When have I given up my pleasures to go for a walk or play with him? What did you teach him? What problems did he help solve? Objective answers to these questions may help you give yourself a correct assessment.
Or, let’s say, at work a person heard accusations of sluggishness, inertia, and irresponsibility. Take offense? Reject? Silently agree?
The position of the offended is the most unconstructive; it will not help you in life. Another important thing is to understand for yourself whether the criticism was fair or not. Putting aside your emotions, try to calmly think through your work, based only on facts. Have you actually missed deadlines for completing any tasks? Were there any failures or gaps that were your fault? Are your comrades doing more or less, what are the results of your work compared to them?
Experiments conducted by psychologists have shown that failure at work lowers self-esteem and forces people to turn to easier tasks. But, of course, even in experiment such a dependence was not always straightforward. Moreover, she should not be straightforward in life. Indeed, among a person’s virtues, along with the ability to correctly evaluate oneself, there is also such an irreplaceable quality as persistence in achieving a goal, the ability, despite failure, to try one’s strength again and again. And how often does retreating before the first difficulties turn into an unforgivable mistake!
And if you have not coped with any task, try to take a sober look at yourself in this situation, correctly assess your knowledge, capabilities, and abilities. The ability to face the truth often becomes the key to subsequent achievements. And on the contrary, if in the failure that befell you you try at all costs to justify yourself to yourself, if you do not want to notice your shortcomings and look for the reason in others, then success is unlikely to accompany you in the future.
A. ability to procreate 1. social
B. ability to adapt
to environmental conditions 2. biological
B. ability to accumulate knowledge
and work skills
D. the ability to see the purpose of one’s actions
D. the ability to evaluate oneself and others
Write down the selected numbers in the table under the corresponding letters.
A 15. Find characteristics of the empirical level of scientific knowledge in the list below. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1. direct observation of individual facts and phenomena
2. putting forward and justifying hypotheses
3. fixation of generalizations in the form of laws
4. obtaining quantitative data about the object being studied
5. development of scientific theories
6. explanation of existing relationships
A. 16. Read the text below, each position of which is indicated by a specific letter.
(A) Society is an integral system, a multidimensional entity. (B) Politics plays the most significant role in the development of society. (B) The thinkers who gave primacy to the economic sphere of public life were mistaken. (D) In the recently published philosophical dictionary, several articles are devoted to the concept of “society”. (D) Among the authors of dictionary articles are not only philosophers, but also sociologists and economists.
Determine which text provisions have
1. factual nature
2. the nature of value judgments
3. the nature of theoretical statements
Write down in the table under the letter indicating the position a number expressing its character.
A 17
Suffice it to recall that culture today is understood not only as a state or characteristic of society and man in general, but also as a very specific set of technologies
customs, traditions, way of life, statehood, etc.: “culture of Ancient Rus'”, “culture
the ancient world", "West" or "Western culture", "East" or "Eastern culture", etc.
It is in this sense that they speak, for example, about many cultures, about comparison of cultures, about dialogue
interaction of cultures. In these situations, the term “culture” really means
an existing culture created in a specific area...
Cultural phenomena, by definition, arise only as results (traces) of human activity; they cannot appear in nature, in a “natural” way. This, in particular, is the same knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, law, customs and all other abilities, characteristic features
and the habits acquired by man as a member of society; this is language, symbols and codes, ideas, taboos, rituals, ceremonies, social institutions, tools, technologies and all components associated with these phenomena...
, .
(D.A. Laletin)
Give any three meanings of the term “culture” based on the text.
A 18. The Pythagorean theorem is one of the fundamental theorems of Euclidean geometry, establishing the relationship between the sides of a right triangle. On what grounds can it be considered scientific knowledge? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1. To describe it, the method of theoretical explanation was used.
2. It is difficult to study on your own.
3. Its truth was established by summarizing folk wisdom.
4. To confirm its truth, a proof based on experimentally established data is proposed.
5. Its discovery occurred on the basis of the experience gained.
6. It is presented in the special language of mathematics.
A 19. Find a concept that is generalizing for all other concepts in the series below, and write down the number under which it is indicated.
1) Faith; 2) cult; 3) rituals; 4) religion; 5) performing religious services.
A 20. The historical process itself is very complex and represents the interaction of many objective and subjective factors.
Objective factors include the natural living conditions of society, the objective needs of people to provide the necessary conditions for their lives, as well as the state of material production, the existing social structure of society, its political system, etc., which each new generation finds already established and which in that or in some other way determine the life activity of people. Subjective factors of the historical process are various kinds of people’s abilities to make changes in certain aspects of social life through their actions.
All people are directly or indirectly included in the historical process, since they are included in the process of social production, as well as in the political and spiritual life of society. In this respect, they are all participants in the historical process. But they become its subjects only to the extent that they act consciously: they realize their place in society, the social significance of their activities and the direction of the historical process. By consciously participating, say, in improving economic and social relations, the political system of society, in the development of its spiritual life, this or that person or social group acts as a subject of the historical process.
Recently, in science and politics they are increasingly talking about humanity as an independent subject of the historical process. There are good reasons for this. In modern conditions, humanity is increasingly acting as a single whole due to the expansion and strengthening of economic, political and cultural ties between the peoples of all countries and the strengthening of their interdependence. It is within the framework of humanity as a single whole that the problems of ensuring universal peace, preserving and developing the natural environment, as well as creating conditions for the development of cooperation and mutual assistance of all peoples and states of our planet must now be solved.
And humanity, to one degree or another, solves these problems, first of all, by establishing comprehensive cooperation between peoples and states. The activities of many international organizations are aimed at this. It is extremely important that in the presence of many contradictions and conflicts between individual social groups, nations, peoples and states, humanity as an independent entity continues to exist and contributes to the peaceful resolution of these contradictions and conflicts - local, regional and international.
(V. Lavrinenko)
What three subjects of the historical process are named in the text? How does the subject, according to the author, differ from the participant?
The political system and material production are largely determined by the conscious activities of people. Why does the author classify them as objective factors of historical development? What other objective factors of historical development are mentioned in the text?
The text states that the activities of many international organizations contribute to the establishment of comprehensive cooperation between peoples and states. Name any three such organizations and indicate the scope of activity of each of them.
A 21. Supporters of ideas about the progressive development of society include thinkers who believed that
1. The “golden age” of humanity is in the past
2. history “moves in circles”
3. less perfect formations are replaced by more perfect ones
4. society constantly returns to previous forms and structures
A 22. What feature distinguishes science from other branches of culture?
1. belief in the existence of supernatural forces
2. theoretical justification for the laws of development of nature and society
3. artistic expression of attitude towards the world
4. proposal of a complete worldview system
A 23. Adolescent children especially need to communicate with peers. This shows the needs
1. social 3. material
2. biological 4. aesthetic
A 24. Are the following judgments about the criteria for the truth of knowledge true?
A. One of the main criteria of truth is the correspondence of knowledge to the interests of the knowing subject
B. One of the main criteria of truth is the usefulness of knowledge.
1. only A is correct
2. only B is correct
3. both judgments are correct
4. both judgments are wrong
A 25. The modern meaning of the term “culture” is very diverse and often vague.
Suffice it to recall that culture today is understood not only as a state or tradition, an image
characteristics of society and man in general, but also a very specific set of technologies, customs, life, statehood, etc.: “culture of Ancient Rus'”, “culture of the ancient world”, “West” or “Western culture”, “East” or “ culture of the East”, etc. It is in this sense that they speak, for example, about many cultures, about comparison of cultures, about dialogue and interaction of cultures. In these situations, the term “culture” refers to a really existing culture created in a certain area...
This word (term) in everyday life refers to art, museums, libraries, cinema, theaters, religion and many other very different things. We define as “cultural” or “uncultured” behavior of people; We use expressions such as “work culture”, “trade culture”, “production culture”, etc.
Cultural phenomena, by definition, arise only as results (traces) of human activity; they cannot appear in nature, in a “natural” way. This, in particular, is the same knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, law, customs and all other abilities, characteristics and habits acquired by man as a member of society; this is language, symbols and codes, ideas, taboos, rituals, ceremonies, social institutions, tools, technologies and all components associated with these phenomena...
Therefore, any manifestations of human activity , taking place in a particular society, one way or another represent the culture of this society . If, even for the best and noblest reasons, some of them are arbitrarily removed (not included in the culture), then the picture of a historically specific (local) actual culture will be incomplete, and the system of interactions between the elements or components, aspects of this culture will be distorted . In other words, the culture of a concrete historical society appears even in crime, drug addiction and other completely odious events and processes. Fully deserving the label “anticulture,” such phenomena of social life nevertheless remain phenomena of the corresponding culture as a whole.
A 26. Man is a unity of three components: biological, psychological and social. The biological component includes
1. structural features of the human body
2. value orientations
3. behavioral skills
4. knowledge and skills
A 27. What distinguishes science from other branches of spiritual culture?
1. identifying the essence of social and natural phenomena
2. reflection of reality in images and symbols
3. expression of a subjective attitude towards the world
4. Reliance on the idea of supernatural intervention
A 28. Measures to overcome the “North and South” problem include(s)
1. increase in military spending
2. international programs to support developing countries
3. reducing literacy costs
4. fight against international terrorism