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Yakov Lvovich Kolominsky
Social psychology of relationships in small groups
A person's heart is all woven from his human relationships to other people; what he is worth is entirely determined by what kind of human relationships a person strives for, what kind of relationships he is able to establish with people, with another person. Therefore, relationships with other people constitute the core of a truly vital psychology.
S. L. Rubinstein
The creation of scientific foundations for the formation of personality necessarily involves the development of a psychological theory, an organic component of which is the problem of interaction between the individual and the environment, the individual and society. Nowadays, the interest of many branches of science is focused on this problem; in fact, it is the focus of all areas of human knowledge.
In social, child and educational psychology, the identified problem is concretized in a number of specific research aspects, such as issues of human personality development at the main stages of ontogenesis in the process of interaction with adults and peers, on the one hand, as well as structural-dynamic and activity-value patterns of the functioning of communities , within which this interaction takes place, on the other.
This textbook presents the results of a number of studies carried out by the author and his collaborators. To clarify many issues, the work of other authors is also used, which was carried out using similar methods from similar positions.
The main content of our research concerns the study of contact communities of peers (small groups), which are considered as integral systems with their own internal dynamics, structure and unique nature of relationships at each age level. From the complex set of relationships connecting members of these groups, selective emotional (personal) relationships that develop in groups of preschoolers, junior, middle and high schools and student groups are subject to special analysis. In some cases, the results of relevant studies in production teams and groups of technical school students are used for comparison. We were also interested in the personal aspects of relationships, their determination, as well as the group members’ awareness and experience of their relationships: socio-psychological reflection and perception.
Our tasks included the development and modification of known ones, as well as the development of new methods for studying relationships in small groups and discussing the methodological problems of their use, introducing a number of new descriptive and explanatory concepts.
All problems are considered from an age perspective from the point of view of the hypothesis about the existence of general and age-related patterns in the functioning of small groups, the interaction of the individual and his microenvironment.
Introduction
Each book has its own destiny - a destiny different from its creator. Some rest peacefully on the shelves of private or public libraries, others give rise to new publications, are read to the point of disrepair, turn into bibliographic rarities, put on “new clothes” and go on trips abroad in translations into foreign languages, becoming textbooks and teaching aids. Fortunately, the book you started studying has had a second fate.
The movement of a book from the author to a certain circle of readers is a very difficult process. It is largely determined by a humorous but completely fair assessment of the dynamics of the perception of any new idea: first - “this cannot be”; then - “there is something in this”; and, finally, “who doesn’t know this.” An original scientific work becomes a textbook, a teaching aid, apparently at the second stage. As for this book, de facto, it has long been widely used by both students and teachers as a teaching aid. It is very pleasant that now this function, so to speak, is legally formalized.
You can describe the life of books ad infinitum... I want to emphasize the main thing - a book has the right to independence, integrity and inviolability... Even the author has no power over his creation, which has taken on a life of its own. This is absolutely undeniable when it comes to a work of art. But in relation to a scientific book, the right to self-identity is sometimes quite decisively violated. This happens when the author himself more or less radically revises his scientific positions under the influence of new facts. Apparently, in this case, you should just write a new book. If the work has stood the test of time, as they say, if its main ideas turned out to be viable and fruitful, if its author has not changed his scientific convictions, he should not, does not have the right to violate the structure and integrity of his creation...
As the reader guessed, all these reasonings - the author’s thoughts out loud, or rather, on paper - were caused by the new edition of the book that he had just opened. At one time, it was, as they say, warmly received, received good press and was translated into several foreign languages.
This work was particularly meaningful to me for a number of reasons. It not only summed up the results of research carried out over 15 years, but also outlined the subjects and methods of new work in the field, which is designated as developmental and educational social psychology (social psychology of development). It is also important that this book became the basis of my doctoral dissertation. By the way, this event - the upcoming defense - was the formal reason for the appearance of Lydia’s precious letter
Ilyinichny Bozhovich, in which she, an infinitely sincere and very demanding person, evaluates the content of this book. I will provide the text of the review a little later.
Lidia Ilyinichna Bozhovich, a wonderful psychologist, creator of the unsurpassed book “Personality and Its Formation in Childhood”, educator of a whole galaxy of excellent psychologists, came into my life in 1960, when I, as a naive, freshly graduated graduate student, came to Moscow, to the Institute psychology of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR in search of a scientific supervisor. The fact that she agreed to this role was a significant event in my life. Someday I will tell in detail about my meetings with Lydia Ilyinichna, but for now there is only one episode with which my scientific destiny is connected.
...During the days of my first arrival, Lydia Ilyinichna was sick, but managed to read an article in the collection “First Successes” (about the experience of boarding schools) (Mn., Narodnaya Asveta, 1960), where I, a first-grade teacher at boarding school No. 17, Minsk, spoke about the experience of individual work with students. Now I re-read it for the first time in years. It bears little resemblance to scientific articles. These are rather live sketches from nature, snapshots of the characters of children and the relationships of teachers with them. Apparently, Lydia Ilyinichna liked something about her... And here I am in a small apartment on Preobrazhenka, where I later came with joy and excitement throughout my graduate years and after graduation. When the topic of the candidate’s dissertation came up, Lydia Ilyinichna asked: “Tell me, Yakov Lvovich (later she invariably called me Yasha), are you a brave person?” I muttered something half-affirmative, and she continued: “The American psychologist Jacob Moreno was in Moscow recently. He created an interesting method for studying the relationships of people in a group - sociometry. Want to try? No one here has used it yet... You can, of course, get caught in the ideological part, but it’s interesting!”
The “Khrushchev thaw” was in the air; everyone wanted to throw off the suffocating shackles of authoritarianism. It seems that the rapid development of social psychology in the sixties of the last century is as much a sign of the times as new poetry. Lydia Ilyinichna, with her keen sense of freedom and justice, was, of course, a member of the sixties. And we follow her. The “sip of freedom” turned out to be, alas, short-lived - the thaw gave way to stagnation.
So I became a sociometrist with all the ensuing consequences. Detractors even called me “the Soviet Moreno.” This was, of course, not a compliment, but a political accusation. And, they say, in the bowels of the relevant authorities a corresponding resolution was already being prepared regarding the “smuggling of bourgeois concepts and methods”... But, apparently, they did not have time; and then, thank God, these authorities disappeared or, more precisely, were rebuilt. As a matter of fact, it’s not even a matter of authorities. Among psychologists and teachers there have always been enough of those who hastened to stand out for their hyper-vigilance... I remember at an all-Union conference dedicated to preschoolers, one elderly “veteran” lady was violently indignant about the work of my followers: “Just listen to what they are talking about: what kind of then “stars”, “isolated”... We are all equal - who dared to isolate a Soviet preschooler?!”
The situation was no better with the assessment of the analysis of relationships in school classes. I was accused of inventing some kind of “informal structure”, some kind of “leaders”. In the class there are elders, chairmen of the detachment council, Komsomol members - what other informal leaders are you looking for?
I would like to present three documents. One of them claims “methodological depth” and, as we will see, is a direct denunciation and a call for immediate administrative punishment - fortunately, the times for more radical measures have passed.
Document one(this is a rather long extract from the book by V.I. Zhuravlev “The relationship between pedagogical science and practice.” - M.: Pedagogika, 1984, pp. 30-32):
...Acquaintance with published materials on the problem of introducing the data of psychological science into the practice of communist education gives reason to believe that among the psychological discoveries valuable for practice, the authors include the theory of small groups, the psychology of interpersonal relationships, the stratometric concept of group activity, which reveal the dynamics of “collectivization” (I L. Kolomensky).
I would, of course, easily forgive the author for the mistake in spelling my last name. What's worse is what he writes next:
......
...Methods of sociometry, referentometry, collective self-analysis, visualization and interpersonal relationships (here the author got something wrong, but, as they say, that’s not the point. – Y. K.), content analysis, modeling, a scale of openness of contacts in a group, independent characteristics, express diagnostics of relationships, socio-psychological simulators, etc. are used by teachers of universities, military educational institutions, vocational schools, kindergartens.
...in this tendency lies a serious danger of methodological disorientation of the Soviet teacher, since a significant part of the methods of social psychology are borrowed from bourgeois microsociology and psychology. And as you know, research methods do not arise in isolation from methodology, they are determined by it (as well as methods of criticism, we will add in parentheses. - Ya. K.)…An example of the danger of disorientation is the uncritical consideration of sociometry that arose on soil alien to the nature of socialism. Its task is to identify internal groups that are rejected (we will forgive the author’s scientific ignorance. We are not talking about science. There are more serious matters here. – Y. K.). It is on this basis that the impossibility of true collectivism is proven. Sociometry in its uncritical use serves not to study the formation and unity of a team, but to analyze the stratification and destruction of a team. The result of the methodological disorientation of scientists and practitioners in this case is a turn from the study and use of patterns of cohesion, consolidation, ideological psychological unity to an exorbitant hypertrophy of facts and methods of splitting the team, the search for leaders and rejected ones.
However, the most important thing comes next. The author has done his job; but for final “conclusions” his strength is not enough, and he habitually appeals to the “authorities”: “They require a thorough party assessment of the idea of the collective, where “informal groups”, “leaders”, “interpersonal incompatibility”, etc. are seen.”
In other words: “Quiet, speakers! Your word, Comrade Mauser." Why did sociometry scare the rock-toothed and sergeant majors so much from ideology? There is something mystical and incomprehensible about this.
In fact, what danger is seen in asking a person with whom he would like to play, relax, or work? In other words, an individual has the right to freely choose a partner for joint activities. Most likely, authoritarian thinking, formed in the conditions of barracks, Gulag pseudo-collectivism - “a step to the left, a step to the right - escape” - organically does not tolerate freedom of choice. After all, choice, as B.F. Porshnev puts it, is the main function of the individual. And the personality in the system of such thinking is a harmful bourgeois abstraction, the same unit that is “nonsense” and “zero”, whose voice is “thinner than a squeak.” Authoritarian pedagogy developed the technology for the formation of a human cog, who “has a fiery motor instead of a heart.”
Today, sociometric methods, based on the humanistic recognition of the right of a free individual to free choice, have received universal recognition among theorists and practitioners.
Document two(characteristics of the sociometric direction, formulated by famous social psychologists from Moscow State University R.L. Krichevsky and E.M. Dubovskaya in the monograph “Psychology of a small group: theoretical and applied aspects.” - M.: MSU Publishing House, 1991):
......As in foreign group psychology, a considerable number of domestic researchers of small groups can be attributed to the so-called sociometric direction. The basis for such an attribution is the use by specialists in specific empirical work of certain variants of the sociometric test as the main methodological means. In Soviet social psychology, a great contribution to the development of this direction was made by Ya. L. Kolominsky, who not only did a lot in terms of constructing various sociometric procedures, but, which is very significant, included the empirical method in a meaningful theoretical context (p. 71).
Note that the latter has no analogues in Western social psychology, where the use of sociometry as a method for studying interpersonal relationships, according to the foreign authors themselves (reputable American monographs are listed. - Y. K.), has long been “untied” from any serious theory (p. 31).
Finally, document three(notes by L. I. Bozhovich, which I quote from an autograph from my archive):
...Before us is a work that is primarily characterized by quality. The author is indeed the creator of a new direction in modern social psychology, which is associated with the study of personal relationships in groups and teams.
The work amazes with the abundance of scientific results. One listing of the new things that the dissertation contains eloquently shows the fruitfulness of the work done:
– identification and analysis of the phenomenon “level of well-being of relationships”;
– identifying the relationship between sociometric status and personality traits;
– discovery of the phenomenon of “superstardom”, characteristic of preschool age and associated with the contrasting “black and white” perception of peers inherent in this age;
– establishing a relationship between the level of reciprocity and the level of well-being of relationships;
– substantiation of the hypothesis about subjective information content as a motive for communication (the Scheherazade phenomenon);
– characteristics of age-related changes in the reciprocity coefficient;
– characteristic of relationship stability, which increases with age;
– establishing a relationship between the stability of relationships and their reciprocity; identifying the dynamics of changes in the circle of desired communication with age;
– identification of the inverse relationship between the true position of the subject and his level of aspirations (paradox of awareness);
– putting forward the concept of socio-psychological observation, its analysis and development of diagnostic methods.
All these are real scientific achievements that enrich both social, child and developmental psychology.
I would like to emphasize the distinct humanistic orientation of Yakov Lvovich’s work.
Yes, activity and its content is a leading factor in the formation of an individual, a group, a team. But the activity is not carried out by an abstract “generalized” person, but by real individuals with their own individual psychological characteristics. These individuals, in the process of performing activities, enter into certain relationships, including personal relationships.
We can say that it is the analysis of personal relationships that allows us to consider the group as a living organism.
Features of personal relationships, features of likes and dislikes and, above all, the nature of personal preferences are a very informative indicator of the level of formation of a group or team. That is why the disclosure of this complex area of human existence is so significant.
Yakov Lvovich is one of the most cited authors, and this is an important indicator of the scientific prestige of the research conducted.
I would like to note the merits of Yakov Lvovich in popularizing psychological knowledge in our country. His books “Man Among People” (2 editions of the GDR, Czech Republic, Slovakia, France), “Psychology of Communication” (Spain), “Some Pedagogical Problems of Social Psychology”, “Conversations on the Secrets of the Psyche” (GDR, Bulgaria), “Man: Psychology" (VDNKh medal) are widely known in our country and abroad. I think that the ability to present scientific ideas in a language understandable to a million readers is an essential criterion for the clarity, thoughtfulness, and truth of the scientific idea itself.
The ideas and research presented in this book were further developed in my articles and books “Psychology of the Children’s Collective” (Mn.: Narodnaya Asveta, 1984), “Social Psychology of the School Class” (Mn.: Adukatsyya i Vyakhavanne, 1997), “ Social educational psychology" (co-author A. A. Rean, St. Petersburg, 1999), etc., as well as in the dissertation research of my students and employees. They developed new conceptual provisions and experimental approaches that made it possible to obtain additional data on the structural-dynamic, substantive and reflexive-perceptual characteristics of interpersonal interaction in kindergarten groups, school classes, student groups and production teams (A. A. Amelkov, V. V. Avramenko, A. M. Schastnaya, T. N. Kovaleva, O. Ya. Kolominskaya, I. S. Popova, L. A. Pergamenshchik, S. S. Kharin, L. I. Shuiskaya, B. P. Zhiznevsky, E. A. Konovalchik, I. V. Silchenko, A. V. Danilenko, L. V. Finkevich, etc.).
In recent years, we have paid special attention to the study of pedagogical interaction as one of the essential conditions for personal development in preschool groups and school classes. Here, our concept of interpersonal interaction was confirmed and further developed, suggesting a conceptual and experimental distinction between the concepts of attitude as an internal state of the individual, the content of which is the emotional and cognitive reflection caused by another person (“psychological echo”), and communication as external interpersonal behavior, in the process in which interpersonal relationships emerge and develop. These ideas found their experimental and theoretical development in numerous works of our employees and students (N. A. Berezovin, E. A. Panko, E. L. Gutkovskaya, N. G. Olovnikova, L. A. Amelkov, E. A. Orlova, S.S. Kharin, etc.).
As the title suggests, this book discusses psychology interpersonal relationships. Even before the special theoretical and methodological analysis, to which a special section will be devoted, I would like to make a few preliminary comments related to the basic concepts used in it.
One of the specific difficulties not only of teaching psychology, but also of psychological research is that the main descriptive and explanatory categories of this science function in everyday psychological culture, in everyday consciousness in the form of pre-scientific concepts. As a result, the psychological thesaurus is filled mainly with words used in everyday interpersonal communication. This is quite natural, since they reflect, express, describe and try to explain the living reality of human existence in its natural and social circumstances. In some ways, psychology is like physics. Both in psychology and in physics, nothing can be invented or invented. One can only open, notice, isolate, describe and try to explain what really, really exists in nature and the human psyche.
If physicists (the entire cycle of exact sciences, of course) study the objective reality given to us in sensations, then for a psychologist the subject of study can be interpreted as subjective reality given to us in experiences. By the way, physical terms exist, as it were, in a double dimension: in the form of scientific and everyday concepts - gravity, speed, force, energy, attraction, space, time, etc., etc. We will not discuss the issue here how important the everyday meaning of these concepts is for a theoretical physicist. This is a special, very interesting problem associated with the methodology of natural science knowledge. But the fact that for scientific psychology such a comparison of scientific and everyday concepts is not only instructive and fruitful, but also necessary, seems to us beyond doubt.
Arrogant treatment of everyday psychological concepts, in which the living reality of the human psyche is embodied, sometimes leads to the loss by the theorizing (and, especially, overly mathematizing) psychologist of the true life context of the phenomena being studied, without which their essence actually escapes or is distorted. On the other hand, it is dangerous when a psychologist becomes captive of everyday concepts and uses in a scientific sense terms that, due to their common usage and traditional use, acquire an illusory general intelligibility. In this case, it is sometimes worth questioning what at first glance “goes without saying.”
N. F. Dobrynin, a subtle psychologist and a wonderful person, loved to talk about how the famous Swiss scientist E. Claparède began his lectures on attention with the words: “I know what attention is, and you know what attention is, but the longer I will speak, the less you and I will understand what attention is.” This created, as they now say, a “problematic situation” of searching for something new and unusual in the ordinary and familiar, a situation consciousmisunderstanding.
Approximately the same task in relation to the concepts of “person-to-person relationships” and “relationships” faces us.
First of all, we found it interesting and instructive to consider “what words” in modern literary language describe and talk about “what happens between people.” As a kind of “experimental material” we took V. Kaverin’s book “Desk. Memories and Reflections" (M., 1985). This choice is due not only to our stable (the beginning is a childish delight when reading “Two Captains”) and constant sympathy for this wonderful writer, but also to some significant objective circumstances.
V. Kaverin is a writer-scientist. We mean, perhaps, not so much the fact that he has an academic degree in philology, not so much the fact that many of his works of fiction tell about science and people of science (it is enough to recall “Wish Fulfillment” and “Open Book”), but rather , that many of his stories and stories are constructed as studies based on modern concepts of psychological science. A striking example of this is the figurative embodiment of psychodramatic situations in the story “School Performance”. The impetus for choosing this particular book was, perhaps, the fact that its first section, “Random and Non-Random Encounters,” opens with the heading “Types of Relationships,” and somewhere in the middle we find “Personality and Character.”
So, how is what happens between people described in modern living literary language, which most adequately reflects the content of everyday consciousness? However, the key word has already been said - relationship between them:
...Have you ever thought about “relationship types”? Others arise 15-20 years after a life has already been lived, which included a harsh fate that instantly canceled the future and arranged it completely differently from what was thought or dreamed... These relationships, oddly enough, are the strongest, the most sincere, not demanding sacrifices and ready to sacrifice.
There are completely different ones communications(italics mine. – Y. K.), arising by chance, instantly flaring up and extinguishing when the circumstances that were their support, foundation disappear (p. 13).
Already in this short passage significant problems for a psychologist studying interpersonal relationships are concentrated. We could start by using two terms: “relationships” and “connections.” Next, a description is given of the dynamic (duration, strength, nature of occurrence) and meaningful (value-quality) features of relationships between people.
The characteristics of dynamic and qualitative differences in relationships are evident throughout the book. Often situational relationships are compared with deeper and more stable ones.
The initial moment of the emergence of a person’s relationship to a person, which is extremely important for a meaningful analysis of this internal state of the individual, is described by both V. Kaverin and the authors of the letters quoted in his book as an emotional outburst, which at first is difficult to explain. “Sympathies, just like antipathies, flare up suddenly...” (p. 15).
Emotional comprehension of another person (looking ahead, let’s say that it seems to us to be the leading component of a person’s relationship to another person) is described as “psychological currents” that unite (psychological compatibility) or separate (incompatibility) people.
From a letter from M. Zoshchenko to M. Shaginyan about relations with D. D. Shostakovich:
...I love Dm very much. Dm. He told you correctly that I treat him well. I've known him for a long time, probably 15-16 years. But we didn't have a friendship. However, I did not seek this friendship, because I saw that this could not be. Every time we were alone, we felt not easy. Our “currents” did not connect. They made an explosion. We were both extremely nervous (internally, of course). And although we met often, we never managed to have a real and warm conversation.
It was just as difficult for me with him as with Ulanova. My sun didn't shine for them. It was not approaching, but “repulsion” that occurred. And it was surprising both for me and for them (p. 12).
Note that M. Zoshchenko correctly encloses “currents” in quotation marks. In contrast to some modern adherents of extrasensory research, who, at times, directly, without quotes, explain all the secrets of relationships between people by the coincidence or discrepancy of their “biofields”.
Subsequently, the concept of “psychological currents” appears more than once on the pages of V. Kaverin’s book: “Perhaps those psychological currents that M. Zoshchenko wrote about M. Shaginyan arose between us” (p. 13). Elsewhere, the author actually gives a qualitative explanation of the image and reveals the true psychological content. Instantly flaring up likes and dislikes, “psychological currents” do not always determine the further dynamics and other qualities of the relationship. It is important for us here to state the fact that the emotional component does not exhaust the content of a person’s relationship with a person.
Here is an analysis of the author’s relationship with M. Zoshchenko. On the one hand, “...the “currents” that M. Shaginyan wrote about did not exist between us. This was hampered by the dissimilarity of characters and tastes"(p. 16) (those in italics contain, as it seems to us, an attempt to explain the very fact of the emergence or absence of psychological currents).
On the other hand, “among the many connections that accompanied my life, there were completely different ones that required much more courage, relationship. I have long wanted to talk about my friendship with M. Zoshchenko. However, these were, perhaps, not even friendly, but brotherly relationship..." (italics mine. - Y. K.). And further, “the closeness that binds us…” is noted (p. 16).
In other sections of the book, talking about the emergence and further “existence” of relationships with people, the author notes a combination of emotional and, as we would say, educational, cognitive components.
Often the dynamic side of relationships is conveyed through the related concepts of “connection”, “thread”, “thread”. On his relationship with Nina Dorliak:
...At first our company was divided: young people united with young people, old people with old people. But if we remember about “types of relationships,” very soon a certain type emerged that can be called “love and interest in each other” (p. 125).
I don’t know how to convey this feeling, but then I realized that we are friends and will remain friends for life (p. 126).
...The thread of friendly communication, barely discernible among the great events, seemed to have been severed forever (p. 127).
...I felt that our relationship did not end after our departure and would not end for a long time or, at least, would be remembered throughout our lives (p. 127).
Here I would like to draw attention to a subtle and psychologically precise distinction: “living”, actual relationships and memories of relationships are described as independent states.
But what is “subtracted” from relationships when they turn into memories? And under what conditions does this happen? Perhaps, in the case where there is no “activity to implement them,” the behavior that we tend to interpret as “ communication"in the true sense of the word? In V. Kaverin and in the letters of his wonderful correspondents, people who left a significant mark on our culture, such “activity” is “ talk”, after which and as a result of which “threads” are tied and “connections” arise. On the other hand, the absence of such “conversations” is characterized by distance and imbalance in relations.
Thus, the stage in the development of the relationship discussed above was precisely the conversation during one of the meetings: “... later recalling this meeting, I thought that a strong knot was tied in the thin thread of our long-term relationship that day” ( p. 129).
D.K. Shigapova
Suchkova T.V., Saydasheva G.T.
PART 1
PSYCHOLOGY OF SOCIAL INTERACTION
T.V. Suchkova, G.T. Saidasheva
Tutorial
BBK 88.5;88.3
P 91 Psychology of social interaction. Part 1.: textbook. allowance.- Kazan: Kazansk Publishing House. state architect-build Univ., 2013. –80 p.
ISBN 978-5-7829-0403-6
Published by decision of the Editorial and Publishing Council of the Kazan State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering
The content of the textbook meets the requirements of the federal state educational standard for higher professional education and is aimed at developing the general cultural competencies of students. It characterizes the psychology of social interaction as a branch of social psychology, examines the history of the formation of the subject of psychology, the main directions of domestic and foreign psychology, socio-psychological problems of personality and communication.
The manual is intended for students of higher technical educational institutions studying in the field of study 270800.62 “Construction”.
Reviewers:
Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor, Dean of the Faculty of General Engineering Training of KSASU
N.K. Tuktamyshev;
Candidate of Sociological Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Human Resource Management, Kazan (Volga Region) Federal University
Section 1. Social and psychological properties of personality…………….4
1.1. History of the formation of social psychology as a science………....4
1.2. The main directions of foreign psychology in the 20th century……………15
1.3. Development of psychology in Russia in the 19th-20th centuries…………………………30
1.4. Methods of socio-psychological research………………35
1.5. The concept of personality. Socio-psychological structure and personality characteristics………………………………………………………40
1.6. Socio-psychological aspects of socialization……………..49
Questions for self-control………………………………………………………………..52
Bibliography……………………………………………………………......54
Section 2. Psychology of social interaction…………………...55
2.1. Communication as a socio-psychological phenomenon……………….55
2.2. Psychological features of business communication………………….59
2.3. The structure of interpersonal communication. The communicative side of communication………………………………………………………………………………….61
2.4. The interactive side of communication…………………………………….68
2.5. The perceptual side of communication…………………………………… ..71
Questions for self-control…………………………………………….79
Bibliography………………………………………………………80
SECTION 1. SOCIAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF PERSONALITY
Psychology as a science. Social interaction psychology is a branch of social psychology that studies the psychological aspects of the exchange of social actions between two or more people.
The word "psychology" translated into Russian literally means "the science of the soul" (gr. Psyche - "soul" + logos - "concept", "teaching").
Nowadays, instead of the concept of “soul,” the concept of “psyche” is used, although the language still retains many words and expressions derived from the original root: animate, soulful, soulless, kinship of souls, mental illness, intimate conversation, etc.
From a linguistic point of view, “soul” and “psyche” are one and the same. At the same time, with the development of culture and especially science, the meanings of these concepts diverged. Psyche is a systemic property of highly organized matter (brain), which consists in a person’s active reflection of the world around him, in building a picture of the world and regulating his behavior and activities on this basis.
In the human psyche, there are three categories of manifestations: mental processes, mental states and mental properties or characteristics. To mental processes usually include cognitive processes: sensations and perceptions, memory, attention, imagination, thinking and speech; emotional and volitional processes. To mental states include manifestations of various mental processes: feelings (mood, affects), attention (concentration, distraction), will (confidence, uncertainty), thinking (doubt), etc. To mental properties or characteristics Personality includes features of thinking, stable features of the volitional sphere, entrenched in the character, temperament, and abilities of a person.
The division of all manifestations of the psyche into these three categories is very arbitrary. The concept of “mental process” emphasizes the processuality and dynamics of a fact established by psychology. The concept of “mental feature” or “mental property” expresses the stability of a mental fact, its consolidation and repeatability in the structure of the personality. One and the same mental fact, for example, affect, ᴛ.ᴇ. a violent and short-term emotional outburst can rightfully be characterized both as a mental process (since it expresses the dynamics of the development of feelings, identifying successive stages) and as a mental state (since it represents the characteristics of mental activity for a certain period of time ), and as a manifestation of a person’s mental characteristics (since here such personality traits as hot temper, anger, and incontinence are revealed).
So, psychology studies mental phenomena, ᴛ.ᴇ. facts of internal, subjective experience, what happens in the inner world of a person, his sensations, thoughts, desires, feelings, etc. In addition, there are a number of other forms of manifestation of the psyche that psychology has identified and included in its scope of consideration. Among them are facts of behavior, unconscious mental processes, psychosomatic phenomena, and finally, creations of human hands and minds, i.e. products of material and spiritual culture. In all these facts, phenomena, products, the psyche manifests itself, reveals its properties and, in connection with this, can be studied through them. Moreover, psychology did not come to these conclusions immediately, but in the course of heated discussions and dramatic transformations of ideas about its subject.
Modern psychology is a very extensive system of scientific disciplines, at different stages of formation, associated with various areas of practice. Thus, they distinguish, for example, educational psychology, occupational psychology, developmental psychology, etc.
Social Psychology studies mental phenomena that arise in the process of interaction between people in various organized and unorganized social groups. The structure of social psychology currently includes the following three circles of problems.
Socio-psychological phenomena in large groups (in the macroenvironment). These include problems of mass communication (radio, television, press, etc.), mechanisms and effectiveness of the influence of mass communication on various communities of people, patterns of the spread of fashion, rumors, generally accepted tastes, rituals, prejudices, public sentiments, problems of psychology classes, nations, psychology of religion.
Socio-psychological phenomena in so-called small groups (in the microenvironment). These include problems of psychological compatibility in closed groups, interpersonal relationships in groups, group atmosphere, the position of the leader and followers in the group, types of groups (association, corporation, teams), the ratio of formal and informal groups, quantitative limits of small groups, the degree and reasons for group cohesion , the perception of a person by a person in a group, the value orientations of the group and many others.
Social and psychological manifestations of human personality (social psychology of personality). Human personality is the object of social psychology. At the same time, they consider how much the individual meets social expectations in large and small groups, how he accepts the influence of these groups, how he assimilates the value orientations of the groups, what is the dependence of the individual’s self-esteem on his assessment of the group to which the individual belongs, etc. .
Formation of the subject of psychology. In the history of the formation of the subject of psychology, several stages can be distinguished. The first ideas about the subject of psychology are associated with the concept soul, revealed in the works of ancient philosophers. Almost all philosophers antiquity They tried to express with the help of this concept the most important, essential principle of any object of living (and sometimes inanimate) nature, considering it as the cause of life, breathing, cognition, etc. They tried to explain all the incomprehensible phenomena in human life by the presence of a soul. The question of the nature of the soul was decided by philosophers depending on whether they belonged to a materialistic or idealistic direction.
One of the brightest representatives of ancient philosophy is Socrates (469–399 BC). He believed that the basis of moral action is knowledge of the good. Virtue consists of knowing what is good and acting in accordance with this knowledge. Brave is the one who knows how to behave in danger and does so. Knowledge has active power. It is stored in the recesses of the soul of every person.
In his doctrine of the soul, Socrates first pointed out the distinction between body and soul and proclaimed the immateriality and immateriality of the soul. He defined the soul as something different from the body. The soul is invisible, unlike the visible body. She is the mind, which is the beginning of the divine. He defended the immortality of the soul.
Thus, the movement of ancient thought gradually began in the direction of an idealistic understanding of the soul. Idealism reaches its highest development in the works of Socrates’ student, Plato.
The doctrine of ideas is a central philosophical problem Plato (427–347 BC). Ideas are truly existing being, unchangeable, eternal, without origin, invisible, existing independently of sensory things.
Further development of the concept of the soul proceeded by identifying various “parts” and functions in it. In Plato, their distinction took on an ethical meaning. This was explained by Plato’s myth about a charioteer driving a chariot harnessed to two horses: a wild one, eager to go his own way at any cost, and a thoroughbred, noble one, amenable to control. The driver symbolized the rational part of the soul, the horses symbolized two types of motives: lower and higher motives. Reason, called upon to reconcile these two motives, experiences, according to Plato, great difficulties due to the incompatibility of base and noble inclinations.
Such important aspects as the conflict of motives having different moral value and the role of reason in overcoming it were introduced into the field of study of the soul. Many centuries later, a version of the interaction of the three components that form the personality as a dynamic organization, torn by conflicts and full of contradictions, will appear in Freud's psychoanalysis.
Aristotle (384–322 BC) – An ancient Greek philosopher and natural scientist who laid the foundations of many disciplines, including psychology. His treatise “On the Soul” is considered the first special psychological work.
Aristotle opened a new era in the understanding of the soul as a subject of psychological knowledge. It was not physical bodies or incorporeal ideas that became the source of this knowledge for him, but the organism, where the physical and spiritual form an inseparable integrity. The soul, according to Aristotle, is not an independent entity, but a form, a way of organizing a living body. “If the eye were a living being, its soul would be vision,” said Aristotle.
The concept of ability, introduced by Aristotle, was an important innovation that was forever included in the main fund of psychological knowledge. It separated the capabilities of the organism - the psychological resource inherent in it and its implementation in practice. At the same time, a diagram of the hierarchy of abilities as functions of the soul was outlined: a) vegetative (plants also have it); b) sensory-motor (in animals and humans); c) reasonable (inherent only to humans). The functions of the soul became the levels of its development.
Thus, the idea of development was introduced into psychology as the most important explanatory principle. The functions of the soul were arranged in the form of a “ladder of forms”, where a function of a higher level arises from the lower and on its basis. (Following the vegetative (vegetative) ability, the ability to sense is formed, from which the ability to think develops.)
Moreover, each person, during his transformation from a baby into a mature being, goes through the steps that the entire organic world has overcome in its history. (This was later called the biogenetic law.)
The distinction between sense perception and thought was one of the first psychological truths discovered by the ancients. Aristotle, following the principle of development, sought to find links leading from one stage to another. In these searches, he discovered a special area of mental images that arise without the direct impact of things on the senses. Nowadays they are usually called representations of memory and imagination. (Aristotle spoke about fantasy.) These images are again subject to the mechanism of association discovered by Aristotle - the connection of ideas.
Explaining the development of character, he argued that a person becomes what he is by performing certain actions. The doctrine of the formation of character in real actions, which in people as “political” beings always presupposes a moral attitude towards others, placed a person’s mental development in a causal, natural dependence on his activities.
Aristotle attached great importance to education, emphasizing that a lot depends on what one learns from childhood. At the same time, education should not be a private matter, but a concern of the state.
Aristotle’s doctrine of the soul, based on the analysis of vast empirical material, the characteristics of sensation, thinking, feelings, affects, will, pointed to the qualitative difference between man and animals - Aristotle defined man as a “social being.” Aristotle presented a completely new, compared to his predecessors, picture of the structure, functions and development of the soul as a form of the body.
Significant contributions to the development of psychology were made by ancient doctors. So, Hippocrates (c.460-c.377 BC)– The ancient Greek physician, the “father of medicine,” believed that the brain was the organ of thinking and sensation. Everything that a person sees, hears, understands as good or bad, pleasant or unpleasant, is all connected with the brain. When the brain is in a calm state, a person thinks sensibly, when the brain is unhealthy and in an abnormal state, a person experiences madness, fears and dreams.
The most famous is the teaching of Hippocrates on temperaments. He made a classification of temperament types on a somatic basis. The predominance of a certain juice in the body, Hippocrates believed, determines the type of temperament from which differences in the morals of people follow. Thus, the predominance of blood is the basis of sanguine temperament (from the Latin sanquis - blood), mucus - phlegmatic (from the Greek phlegma - mucus), yellow bile - choleric (from the Greek chole - bile), black bile - melancholic (from the Greek melaina chole - black bile). I. P. Pavlov, developing his doctrine of the types of higher nervous activity, referred to Hippocrates and noted that Hippocrates “caught the fundamental features in the mass of countless variants of human behavior.”
The Middle Ages (the period from the 5th to the beginning of the 17th century) went down in history as a time of unconditional submission to the authority of the church. Psychology in the Middle Ages acquired an ethical and theological mystical character. The development of knowledge about the psyche is slowing down sharply. The study of mental life is subordinated to the tasks of theology: to show how the human spirit gradually rises to the kingdom of grace.
The transition from ancient tradition to the medieval Christian worldview is associated with the theory of the Roman thinker Aurelius Augustine (354–430). He believed that the soul controls the body, but its basis is not the mind, but the will. The individual will depends on the divine and acts in two directions: it controls the movement of the soul and turns it towards itself. The improvement of the soul occurs through repentance, renunciation of everything earthly, and not through education, as was the case with Plato and Aristotle. Augustine introduces the proposition “I think, therefore I am,” from which the thesis about the reliability of our being, that the measure of truth is in our self-awareness, is derived. At the same time, truth is given by God, as is the source of human activity - will.
During the Middle Ages, Arabic-language science, in particular medicine, achieved success. Its largest representatives are Avicenna (Ibn Sina), Algazen, Averroes (Ibn Rushd). In the works of these scientists, the idea is expressed that mental qualities are conditioned by natural causes, about the dependence of the psyche on living conditions and upbringing. Avicenna gave a more accurate description of the connection between the processes of sensation and thinking with the brain, observing disturbances in brain injuries. Spiritual forces do not exist on their own, but need an organ, a bodily substrate, which is the brain.
One of the brightest representatives of medieval thought in Europe is Thomas Aquinas (1226–1274 yy). In his system he tried to reconcile theology with science. He believed that the human soul is conscious, one of the mechanisms of cognition is intentionality, some kind of force, an inner word that gives a certain direction to the act of perception and cognition in general. At the same time, truth is still religious in origin. The ultimate source of free human decisions, according to Thomas Aquinas, is not man himself, but God, who causes in man the desire to act one way and not another.
Main feature Renaissance became an appeal to ancient values. By the 14th century refers to the activities of the greatest humanists - Alighieri. Dante (1265–1321 gᴦ.), F. Petrarch (1304–1374 gᴦ.), D. Boccaccio (1313–1375 yy.). During this period, there is a great interest in a person and his experiences. The most important invention of the 15th century. - book printing - made it possible to publish classical ancient literature and engage in education. The most important feature of the Renaissance is the revival of the natural sciences, the development of science and the growth of knowledge. A natural philosophy emerges, free from direct subordination to religion (G. Bruno, B. Telesio, P. Pomponazzi). The 16th century was a time of great discoveries in the fields of mechanics, astronomy, and mathematics. N. Copernicus (1473–1543 gᴦ.), J. Kepler (1571–1630 gᴦ.), G. Bruno (1548–1600 yy.), G. Galileo (1564–1642 gᴦ.) stand at the origins of classical science of the New Age. Their significance lies in the fact that they proved: it is extremely important to analyze actual phenomena, processes and discover laws, guided by the assumption that nature obeys the simplest rules. The systematic work of theoretical scientific thinking begins.
A new era in the development of world psychological thought was opened by concepts inspired by the great triumph of mechanics, which became the “queen of sciences” in New time.
The first draft of a psychological theory focused on geometry and new mechanics belonged to the French mathematician, natural scientist and philosopher Rene Descartes (1596–1650). He invented a theoretical model of the organism as an automaton - a system that works mechanically. Thus, the living body, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ throughout the previous history of knowledge, was considered as animate, ᴛ.ᴇ. gifted and controlled by the soul, freed from its influence and interference.
Descartes introduced the concept of reflex, which has become fundamental for physiology and psychology. Reliable knowledge about the structure of the nervous system was insignificant in those days. Descartes saw this system in the form of “tubes” through which light air-like particles—“spirits”—carry. The reflex scheme assumed that an external impulse sets these “spirits” in motion, carrying them into the brain, from where they are automatically reflected to the muscles. A hot object burns your hand and forces it to withdraw. A reaction occurs similar to the reflection of a light beam from a surface. The term “reflex”, which appeared after Descartes, meant reflection.
Muscle response is an integral component of behavior. For this reason, the Cartesian scheme, despite its speculative nature, belongs to the category of great discoveries.
Thanks to the work of Descartes, there was a turn in the concept of the “soul”; now the subject of psychology becomes consciousness. According to Descartes, the beginning of all principles in philosophy and science is doubt. One should doubt everything - natural and supernatural. Hence the famous Cartesian aphorism “cogito ergo sum” (I think, therefore I exist). Since thinking is the only attribute of the soul, it always thinks, always knows about its mental contents, visible from the inside. Later this “inner vision” began to be called introspection(a person’s self-observation of the internal plane of mental life, ᴛ.ᴇ. of experiences, thoughts, feelings, etc.), and the Cartesian concept of consciousness is introspective.
Having recognized that the machine of the body and the consciousness occupied with its own thoughts (ideas) and desires are two entities (substances) independent of each other, Descartes was faced with the extreme importance of explaining how they coexist in a whole person? The solution he proposed was called psychophysical interaction. The body influences the soul, awakening in it “passive states” (passions) in the form of sensory perceptions, emotions, etc. The soul, possessing thinking and will, influences the body.
One of Descartes' first opponents was B. Spinoza (1632–1677). He believed that there is a single, eternal substance - God or Nature - with an infinite number of attributes (inherent properties). Of these, only two attributes are open to our limited understanding - extension and thinking.
His main work, “Ethics,” captured his attempt to build a psychological doctrine about man as an integral being. In it, he set the task of explaining the whole variety of feelings (affects) as motivating forces of human behavior with the same accuracy and rigor as lines and surfaces in geometry. The three main motivating forces are: a) attraction, which relates to both the soul and the body, is “something other than the very essence of man,” as well as b) joy and c) sadness. It was proven that the whole variety of emotional states is derived from these fundamental affects. Moreover, joy increases the body’s ability to act, while sadness reduces it. This conclusion opposed the Cartesian division of feelings into two categories: those rooted in the life of the organism and purely intellectual ones.
G. Leibniz (1646–1716) believed that the imperceptible activity of “small perceptions” continuously occurs in the soul. Leibniz used this term to designate unconscious perceptions. Awareness of perceptions becomes possible due to the fact that a special mental act is added to simple perception (perception) - apperception, the dependence of perception on past experience.
To the question of how spiritual and physical phenomena relate to each other, Leibniz answered with a formula known as psychophysical parallelism. The dependence of the psyche on bodily influences is an illusion. The soul and body perform their operations independently and automatically. At the same time, divine wisdom revealed that there was a pre-established harmony between them. They are like a pair of clocks that always show the same time because they are run with the greatest accuracy.
Leibniz's ideas changed and expanded the idea of the psyche. His concepts of the unconscious psyche, “small perceptions” and apperception have become firmly established in scientific knowledge about the subject of psychology.
T. Hobbes (1588–1679) completely rejected the soul as a special entity. There is nothing in the world except material bodies that move according to the laws of mechanics. Accordingly, all mental phenomena were brought under these global laws. Material things, affecting the body, cause sensations. According to the law of inertia, ideas appear from sensations in the form of their weakened trace. Οʜᴎ form chains of thoughts following each other in the same order in which sensations change. However, Hobbes declared reason to be a product of association, which has its source in direct sensory communication of the organism with the material world.
Experience was taken as the basis of knowledge. Contrasted with rationalism empiricism(from the gr. “empeiria” - experience). Under the motto of experience arose empirical psychology.
In the development of this direction, a prominent role belonged to J. Locke (1632–1704). He professed the experiential origin of the entire composition of human consciousness. In the experience itself, he identified two sources: feeling and reflection. Along with the ideas that are delivered by the senses, ideas arise that are generated by reflection. ( Reflection is the process of self-knowledge by the subject of his internal mental acts and states). The development of the psyche occurs due to the fact that complex ideas are created from simple ones. All ideas appear before the court of consciousness. Consciousness is the perception of what happens in a person's own mind, Locke believed. This concept became the cornerstone of psychology, called introspective. It was believed that the object of consciousness is not external objects, but ideas (images, ideas, feelings, etc.), as they appear to the “inner gaze” of the subject observing them.
From this postulate, most clearly and popularly explained by Locke, a further understanding of the subject of psychology arose. From now on, the place of this item was claimed phenomena of consciousness. They are generated by two experiences - external, which comes from the senses, and internal, accumulated by the individual’s own mind.
In the 18th century develops associative psychology– a direction that explains the dynamics of mental processes based on the principle of association. These ideas were first formulated by Aristotle; representatives of associationism extended the principle of association of ideas to the entire area of the psyche. At the same time, two directions arose within associationism: J. Berkeley (1685–1753 yy.) and D. Hume (1711–1776 yy.) considered association as a connection between phenomena in the mind of the subject, D. Hartley (1705–1757 yy.) linked the emergence of associations with the interaction of the organism and the external environment.
At the beginning of the 19th century. concepts appeared that separated association from its bodily substrate and presented it in the form of a principle of consciousness (T. Brown, James Mill, John Mill). The view has become established that the psyche is built from elements - sensations. Elements are primary, complex mental formations are secondary and arise through associations, the condition for the formation of which is the contiguity of associations, as well as the frequency of their repetition in experience.
Separation of psychology into an independent science occurred in the second half of the 19th century and was associated with the emergence of the first programs, the creation of special research institutions - psychological laboratories and institutes that began training scientific personnel of psychologists, the formation of psychological societies and associations.
W. Wundt (1832–1920) came to psychology from physiology and was the first to begin collecting and combining into a new discipline what was created by various researchers. His monumental work, perceived as a body of knowledge about a new science, was called “Fundamentals of Physiological Psychology” (1873–1874).
It is with the name of W. Wundt connect the formation of psychology as an independent experimental science. In 1879, Wundt opened the first psychophysiological laboratory in which sensations, reaction times, associations, and psychophysiological characteristics of humans were studied. A few years later, the Institute of Experimental Psychology was created on the basis of the laboratory, which turned into an international center for the training of psychologists.
Experts in human souls were once called psychologists. But psychologists by profession appeared only after Wundt.
Direct experience was recognized as a unique subject of psychology, not studied by any other discipline.
Based on the ideas of W. Wundt, a new direction is developing - structuralism, studying the structure of consciousness, dividing its phenomena into sensory elements that are not amenable to further analysis, elucidating the laws of combining elements into structures and establishing connections between the phenomena of consciousness and internal and external conditions.
In the 80-90s of the XIX century. Numerous studies have been undertaken on the conditions for the formation and updating of associations (G. Ebbinghaus, G. Müller, etc.). G. Ebbinghaus (1850–1909) in the book “On Memory” (1885 G.) presented the results of experiments carried out on himself in order to derive mathematically precise laws according to which the learned material is stored and reproduced. Ebbinghaus opened a new chapter in psychology not only because he was the first to venture into the experimental study of mnemonic processes (memory processes), more complex than sensory ones. His unique contribution was determined by the fact that for the first time in the history of science, through experiments and quantitative analysis of their results, psychological laws were discovered that act independently of consciousness, in other words, objectively. The equality of the psyche and consciousness (accepted as an axiom in that era) was crossed out.
At the end of the 19th century. The experimental method extends to the study of higher mental functions, and the development of experimental and differential psychology occurs. Methods for diagnosing various psychological characteristics of a person are being actively developed. Thus, in American experimental psychology, one of their prominent representatives is R. Cattell (1860–1944). The Multifactor Personality Questionnaire (16PF), which he created within the framework of the theory of personality traits, became most famous in modern psychology.
Alfred Biné (1857–1911) developed methods for diagnosing the level of mental development of children (intelligence development scale 1905–1911). It was in the Stanford-Bine intelligence scale that it was used intelligence quotient (IQ) or the ratio of mental age (determined by the Bine scale) to chronological age (age according to passport). Their discrepancy was considered an indicator of either mental retardation (when mental age is lower than chronological) or giftedness (when mental age exceeds chronological).
The creation of various psychological tools for diagnosing personality manifestations combined psychology with practice. In this direction there arises functionalism – This direction, rejecting the analysis of internal experience and its structures, considered the main task of psychology to be to find out how these structures work when solving problems related to the actual needs of people. Thus, the subject area of psychology expanded. It was seen as covering mental functions (and not elements) as internal operations that are performed not by an incorporeal subject, but by an organism in order to satisfy its need to adapt to the environment.
The origins of functionalism in the USA were William James (1842–1910). He is also known as a leader of pragmatism (from the Greek "pragma" - action) - a philosophy that evaluates ideas and theories based on how they work in practice, benefiting the individual.
In his "Principles of Psychology" (1890 G.) James wrote that the internal experience of a person is not a “chain of elements”, but a “stream of consciousness”. It is distinguished by personal (in the sense of expressing the interests of the individual) selectivity (the ability to constantly make a choice).
Discussing the problem of emotions, James proposed a paradoxical concept that caused heated debate, according to which changes in the muscular and vascular systems of the body are primary, and the emotional states caused by them are secondary. In this case, sadness was explained by the fact that the person was crying.
Although James did not create either an integral system or a school, his views on the service role of consciousness in the interaction of the organism with the environment, calling for practical decisions and actions, became firmly entrenched in the ideological fabric of American psychology. And now, according to James’ book, brilliantly written at the end of the last century, they study in American colleges.
Federal Agency for Education of the Russian Federation
State educational institution
higher professional education
Voronezh State University
Faculty of Journalism
Personality and group: problems of interaction
Educational and methodological manual for studying the course
"Social Psychology"
Compiled by
E.Yu. Krasova
Approved by the Scientific and Methodological Council of the Faculty of Journalism of VSU, protocol No. of 2008
Compiled by E.Yu. Krasova
The educational and methodological manual was prepared at the Department of Advertising and Design of Voronezh State University.
1. ORGANIZATIONAL AND METHODOLOGICAL SECTION
Purpose of the course: students' acquisition of knowledge about social and individual psychological mechanisms of communication and interaction of people in groups and intergroup contacts.
Course objectives:
· give students knowledge of the theoretical foundations of social psychology, highlighting its specifics and role in the system of social sciences and humanities, practical significance for specialists in the field of media, PR and advertising;
· help students master methods of independent analysis of socio-psychological phenomena and processes;
· to facilitate students’ acquisition of skills and abilities to recognize individual and socio-psychological characteristics of a person, including the personality of a professional journalist, and to correct their own consciousness and behavior.
Requirements for the level of mastery of course content:
· know the basic concepts of social psychology, scientific directions and concepts;
· master socio-psychological categories and their characteristics;
· have an idea of the essence of social perception and its psychological effects, features of the perception of media information;
· form and develop skills of reflection and social perception;
· understand the socio-psychological regulators of interpersonal conflicts;
· understand the meaning of intergroup communication;
· know the mechanisms of influence on communication partners in different life situations;
· master the ways and techniques of media influence on mass consciousness;
· understand the nature of aggression and ways to regulate destructive behavior;
· possess the skills of socio-psychological analysis, be able to use them in their future professional and labor activities
2. THEMATIC PLAN AND DISCIPLINE CLOCK
| Topic name |
current control |
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| Research field social psychology |
Abstracts |
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| History of the formation and development of social psychology |
Abstracts |
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| Applied research methods in social psychology |
Abstracts |
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| Communicative side of communication |
Abstracts |
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| Mutual understanding and social cognition |
Performing problematic tasks |
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| Psychology of conflict situations |
Testing |
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| Personality in the social world |
Performing problematic tasks |
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| Destructive personality behavior and its characteristics |
Performing problematic tasks |
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| Social influence |
Performing problematic tasks |
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| Small groups: structure, typology, research |
Testing |
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| Dynamic processes in a small group |
Discussion |
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| Spontaneous groups and methods of influence in them |
Abstracts |
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| Mental makeup of an ethnic community |
Discussion |
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| Socio-psychological features of intergroup relations |
Discussion |
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3. COURSE SUMMARY
Topic 1. Research field of social psychology
Social psychology as a behavioral science and its relationship with other branches of knowledge. Specifics of the socio-psychological approach. The object of social psychology is social groups and their representatives. The structure of social psychology (psychology of communication, personality, small and large social groups, intergroup relations). Functions of social psychology. Key provisions of social psychology - social situation, social influence, social cognition. Psychological and sociological directions in social psychology. An experimental approach to the psychology of mutual influence of people.
Practical needs of society and social psychology. Areas of practical social psychology. Social and psychological studies of mass communication. Positions and work strategies of a practicing social psychologist. Social and psychological situation in Russia at the beginning of the 21st century.
The main periods of development of social psychology and their characteristics. K. Levin is the founder of dynamic social psychology. The crisis of social psychology and its overcoming. Scientific paradigms of modern social psychology: “old” - positivist and “new” - social constructivism.
Theoretical orientations (behaviorism, psychoanalysis, cognitivism, interactionism) and socio-psychological problems developed in their vein. The theory of dyadic interaction by D. Thibault and G. Kelly. The theory of group development by V. Benis and G. Shepard. L. Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance. The concept of social representations S. Moscovici. The theory of human destructiveness by E. Fromm. Transactional Analysis
E. Berna.
Modern trends in the development of social psychology. Main milestones in the development of domestic social psychology.
Basic requirements for scientific research in social psychology. The problem of the relationship between theory and empirical material. Resolving the issue of validity and practical significance of information. Qualitative, quantitative, qualitative-quantitative research methods and their characteristics. Experiment in socio-psychological research: types, procedure. Classic experiments of S. Milgram, L. Festinger. The study of verbal and non-verbal behavior of an individual, group, several groups in a certain social situation using observation. Types, procedure and typical observation errors. Focus group is a method for studying social perception and motivation. Projective techniques and their procedures. Sociometry as a method for studying the state of a small group and the individual in the group. Survey technique. Rules and principles for designing questionnaires.
Ethical issues in social psychological research.
Interpersonal relations in the system of social relations. The emotional basis of interpersonal relationships. Structure of communication. Specifics of the communication process. Communication model (communicator, message, audience). The problem of meaning in the assimilation of information. Verbal sign system. Language as a means of communication. Expressive functions of language. The hypothesis of linguistic relativity by E. Sapir-B. Whorfa. Jargon as a form of speech behavior. Persuasive communication. Manipulative operations with information.
Features of nonverbal communication compared to speech. Nonverbal sign systems (optical-kinetic, paralinguistic and extralinguistic, organization of space and time, visual contact, olfactory signals), their analysis. Communicative competence.
The concept of social perception, its forms. Experimental studies of interpersonal perception. Factors influencing social perception. Mechanisms of mutual understanding: identification, empathy. Model of reflexive structure. Interaction between the communicator and recipients (model of G. Gibsch and M. Vorverg).
The role of social attraction in interpersonal communication. The process of forming impressions. The significance of the processes of categorization and stereotyping in communication. Interpretation of the reasons for another person's behavior is a phenomenon of causal attribution. The structure of the attributive process. Attribution errors. Fundamental attribution error.
The problem of accuracy of interpersonal perception and practical means of increasing it. Psychological effects of perception. Weaknesses and misconceptions of the social thinking of a professional journalist and the possibilities of overcoming bias.
Topic 6. Psychology of conflict situations
Psychological content of interaction (interaction). Components of the interaction process. Types of interaction. The problem of cooperation and conflict in social psychology. Conflict is the perceived incompatibility of actions or goals. Psychological traditions in the study of conflict (approaches: psychodynamic, situational, cognitivist). Modern trends in the approach to interpersonal conflicts: humanistic psychology of C. Rogers.
Psychological typology of conflicts (M. Deutsch). Styles of behavior of people in conflict (grid by K.W. Thomas and R.H. Kilmann). Signs of conflict in the human mind. Conflict personality and ways to establish mutual understanding with it.
Conflict as a cognitive schema. Peculiarities of perception of a conflict situation. Social and psychological methods of conflict regulation.
Personality in the system of group and intergroup interaction. Personality theories (psychoanalytic, interactionist, cognitivist). Psychological structure of personality. Socio-psychological personality types. Self-concept of personality. Social identity of the individual. The concept of social identity by G. Tajfel and J. Turner. Locus of control and individual self-efficacy. Socialization of personality.
Social roles and role relationships. Classification of formal personality roles (T. Parsons). Role conflicts (intrapersonal and interpersonal). Structural analysis (E. Bern's concept of ego states). Basic characteristics of the ego states of the individual (parent, child, adult). Functional disturbances in ego states and their consequences. Psychological game. Practical use of transactions.
Aggressive (destructive behavior): concept and content. Biological and social factors of aggressive personality behavior. Socio-psychological concepts of destructive behavior (approaches: instinctivist, frustration, behaviorist). Cross-cultural studies of the manifestations of destruction in children. Types and forms of aggression. Diagnosis of aggressiveness.
Psychology of submission. S. Milgram's experiments to determine the degree of obedience and disobedience, ways to reduce cruelty in behavior. Problems of reporting violence in the media.
Tactics for responding to aggressive behavior and ways to overcome it. Catharsis hypothesis. Cognitive methods for controlling destruction. Language key to relieve aggression.
Topic 9. Social influence
Interpersonal influence: concept and content. Influence and power. The significance of the social situation in interpersonal influence. History of social influence research. Experiments by K. Lewin: influence in a group and leadership. Psychological and social means of influence. Levels of interpersonal relationships and ways of influencing a person (E.L. Dotsenko). Psychological processes of influencing (compliance, identification, internalization). Social power (power of reward, coercion, informational, expert, referent, legitimate).
Persuasion: ways and techniques. Manipulation and its types. Methods of manipulation. Majority influence. Socio-psychological conditions and influence of minorities.
Specifics of the small group approach in social psychology. Main directions of research of small groups: sociometric (J. Moreno), sociological (E. Mayo), school of group dynamics
(K. Levin). Dimensions and boundaries of a small group. Small group size. Classification of small groups. Small group structure: the relationship between structural and dynamic aspects. Psychological effects in a small group (social ease, social difficulty, social laziness, deindividuation, group-think, social polarization, etc.).
Social and psychological qualities of the individual in the group (perceptual defense, the effect of expectations, cognitive complexity, etc.). Interpersonal relationships in a small group (T. Leary’s method). Models of communication in a small group.
Topic 11. Dynamic processes in a small group
Mechanisms for forming small groups. Conditions for transforming an externally defined group into a psychological reality for its members. The phenomenon of group pressure. Conformism: content, typology, forms. Reasons for conforming behavior. Conditions for the manifestation of conformity in a small group. The concept of psychological reactance.
The problem of group development. Group cohesion and ways to study it. Socio-psychological tension and interpersonal conflicts as forms of relationships in a group. Basic typologies and dynamics of conflicts. Methods of conflict resolution. Social and psychological methods for studying relationships and conflicts. Psychological characteristics of “majority” and “minority”. Ways of mutual influence.
Leadership as one of the processes of group dynamics. Theories of the origin of leadership: charismatic, situational, synthetic. Typology of a leader's social influence. Leadership styles. The image of a modern political leader.
Topic 12. Spontaneous groups and ways of interaction in them
Socio-psychological tools for understanding groups: theory of social representations (S. Moscovici), theory of identity
(A. Tashfel), the concept of “we-feelings” (B. Porshnev). History of the study of mass behavior (G. Tarde, G. Lebon, B.M. Bekhterev). Types of spontaneous groups: mass, crowd, audience, public. Characteristics of a person in the mass. Leaders of the masses.
Psychological mechanisms of spontaneous behavior. Mass panic. Mass aggression. Public opinion as a factor in the formation of a spontaneous group. Specificity of interaction in spontaneous groups. Crowd: content and typology. Crowd shape and structure. Crowd control.
Topic 13. Mental makeup of an ethnic community
Ethnic community and its characteristics. "Emic" and "ethical" approaches in ethnopsychology. The main stages of development of ethnopsychology and directions of research. Ethnic symbolism. Ethnic consciousness. Ethnic identity and the influence of social context on its formation. Psychological characteristics of representatives of various ethnic groups.
Mentality and national character. Russian national character as a psychological phenomenon. Comparative cultural studies of Russian national character. Characteristic portrait of a typical Russian. The problem of contradictions in the national identification of Russians.
The role of mentality and national character in media information policy.
Topic 14. Social and psychological features of intergroup relations
The problem of intergroup relations in social psychology: theoretical approaches and experimental studies. The process of intergroup differentiation and its stages. Factors influencing intergroup perceptions. The role of stereotypes in the formation of the “image” of a group. The phenomenon of “in-group bias.” Specificity of intergroup processes at the level of large social groups: the influence of cultural and historical context. Characteristics of intergroup differentiation: age, gender, regional, etc. Intergroup aggression. Resolving intergroup conflict.
Interethnic relations. Mechanisms of interethnic perception: ethnocentrism, stereotypes and prejudices. Gender relations and their influence on personality. Content and functions of gender role stereotypes. Gender roles. Gender as a factor in media and advertising.
Main literature
Andreeva G.M. Social psychology: a textbook for students. universities
/ G.M. Andreeva. - M.: Aspect Press, 2007. - 362 p.
Aronson E. Social psychology: Psychological laws of human behavior in society / E. Aronson, T. Wilson, R. Eikert; lane from English : V. Volokhonsky and others; scientific ed. A.L. Sventsitsky. - St. Petersburg; M.:
PRIME-EVPRZNAK: OLMA-PRESS, 2004. – 558 p.
Krysko V.G. Social psychology: a textbook for students. universities /
V.G. Krysko. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2006 .- 431 p.
Myers D. Social psychology / D. Myers; lane from English V. Gavrilov and others - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2006. - 793 p.
Sventsitsky A.L. Social psychology: textbook / A.L. Sventsitsky. – M.: TK Welby, Publishing House. Prospect, 2004. – 336 p.
additional literature
Andreeva G.M. Foreign social psychology of the twentieth century: Theoretical approaches / G.M. Andreeva, N.N. Bogomolova, L.A. Petrovskaya. - M.: Aspect-Press, 2001. – 288 p.
Krysko V.G. Social psychology in schemes and comments: textbook. allowance / V. G. Krysko. - St. Petersburg. and others: Peter, 2003. - 284 p.
Olshansky D.V. Psychology of masses / D.V. Olshansky. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2001. – 368 p.
Pines E Workshop on social psychology / E. Pines, K. Maslach. – St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2000. – 528 p.
Platonov Yu.P. Social psychology of behavior: textbook. aid for students universities / Yu.P. Platonov. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2006. - 459 p.
Social psychology / ed. S. Moscovici; lane from fr. T. Smolyanskaya. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2007. - 591 p.
Social psychology: dictionary / ed. M. Yu. Kondratiev. - M.: St. Petersburg. : Per Se: Speech, 2006. - 175 p.
Social psychology: workshop: textbook. aid for students universities
/ G.M. Andreeva [and others]; edited by T.V. Folomeeva. - M.: Aspect Press, 2006. - 477 p.
V.B. Olshansky. – Rostov n/a. : Phoenix, 1999. – 539 p.
Electronic catalogues:
· consolidated catalog of libraries in Voronezh. – (http//www.biblio.vrn.ru);
· catalog of the scientific library of Voronezh State University. – (http//www.lib.vsu.ru);
· website of the Department of Sociology and Political Science of VSU. – (http//www.hist.vsuru/politics/).
4. Materials for students’ independent work
Topic 1. Research field of social psychology
Basic concepts: subject of social psychology, structure of social psychology, psychological social psychology, sociological social psychology, social situation, social influence, social cognition.
Control questions
1. What are the specific problems that social psychology studies?
2. What is the specificity of social psychology as a branch of knowledge?
3. Describe the main categories of science.
4. Expand the content of the functions of social psychology?
5. What is the essence of the practical orientation of social psychology?
6. Describe the areas of work of a practicing social psychologist.
7. What socio-psychological problems are relevant in modern Russia?
Literature
Akopov G.V. Social psychology of education / G.V. Akopov. -
M.: Mosk. psychol.-social int. Flint, 2000. - 295 p.
Bityanova M.R. Social psychology: science, practice and way of thinking: textbook. allowance / M. R. Bityanova. - M.: Eksmo-press, 2001. - 575 p.
Baron R.A. Social psychology: key ideas / R.A. Baron,
D. Byrne, B.T. Johnson; lane from English A. Dmitrieva, M. Potapova. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2003. - 507 p.
Introduction to practical social psychology: textbook for universities / ed. Yu.M. Zhukova, L.A. Petrovskaya, O.V. Solovyova. – M.: Smysl, 1996. – 373 p.
Kondratyev Yu. M. Social psychology of students: textbook. allowance / Yu.M. Kondratiev. - M.: Mosk. psychol.-social. int., 2006. - 159 p.
Novikov V.V. Social psychology: phenomenon and science: textbook. allowance / V.V. Novikov; Moscow acad. psychol. Sciences, Yaroslav. state univ. - M.: Publishing House of the Institute of Psychotherapy, 2003. - 341 p.
Pines E Workshop on social psychology / E. Pines, K. Maslach. – St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2000. – P.18-60.
Shibutani T. Social psychology / T. Shibutani; lane from English
V.B. Olshansky. – Rostov n/a. : Phoenix, 1999. – P.11-30.
Yurevich A.V. Social psychology of science / A.V. Yurevich. - St. Petersburg. : Publishing House Rus. Christian. humanitarian in-ta., 2001. - 350 p.
Topic 2. History of the formation and development of social psychology
Basic concepts: positivism, social constructivism, behaviorism, psychoanalysis, Gestalt psychology, cognitivism, cognitive dissonance, interactionism.
Test questions and assignments
1. Describe the main milestones in the development of social psychology.
2. What factors were associated with the crisis in social psychology?
3. What are the main scientific paradigms of modern social psychology?
4. Study the table “Theoretical orientations in social psychology” and give a detailed analysis of it:
5. What is the essence of K. Lewin’s field theory?
6. What theories of “middle rank” arose in social psychology after K. Lewin?
7. What are the psychoanalytic ideas of the T-groups?
8. Name the main ideas of K. Rogers’ school.
Literature
Goffman I. Presentation of oneself to others in everyday life /
I. Hoffman. - M. : Kanon-press-C: Kuchkovo Pole, 2000. - 302 p.
Emelyanova T.P. Social representation - concept and concept: results of the last decade / T.P. Emelyanova // Psychologist. magazine - 2001. - T.22. - No.6. – P.24-35.
Mead J. Internalized others and the self / J. Mead // American sociological thought: texts. – M.: Nauka, 1994. – P.224-226.
Moscovici S. Social representations // Psychol. magazine - 1995. –T.16. - No. 1, 2.
Levin K. Field theory in social sciences / K. Levin. – St. Petersburg. : Peter, 1999. – 406 p.
Leontyev D.A. Kurt Lewin: in search of new psychological thinking / D.A. Leontyev, E.Yu. Patyaeva // Psychol. magazine - 2001. – T.22. - No. 5. – P.3-10.
Leontyev D.A. Gordon Allport - architect of personality psychology / D.A. Leontiev // Psychol. magazine – 2002. – T.23. - No. 3. - P.3-8.
Psychology of the masses: a reader / ed.-comp. D.Ya. Raigorodsky. – Samara: Publishing house. House. “BAKHRAH”, 1998. – 592 p.
Rudestam K. Group psychotherapy / K. Rudestam. – St. Petersburg. : Peter Kom, 1998. – 384 p.
Fromm E. Anatomy of human destructiveness / E. Fromm; lane with him. E. M. Telyatnikova. - M.: AST, 2006. - 635 p.
Fromm E. Escape from freedom: a textbook / E. Fromm; lane from English G.F. Sewing worker. - M. : Flinta: Mosk. psychol.-social. Institute: Progress, 2006. - 246 p.
Festinger L. Theory of cognitive dissonance / L. Festinger. - St. Petersburg. : Yuventa, 1999. – 318 p.
Horney K. Neurotic personality of our time / K. Horney; lane V.P. Bolshakova. - M.: Academician. project, 2006. - 207 p.
Shikhirev P.N. Modern social psychology: textbook. manual for universities / P. N. Shikhirev; scientific ed. A. I. Dontsov. - M.; Ekaterinburg: Institute of Psychology RAS: KPS+: Business Book, 2000. - 447 p.
Topic 3. Methods of applied research in social psychology
Basic concepts: research methodology, research program, research procedure, qualitative methods, quantitative methods, qualitative-quantitative methods, experiment, observation,
content analysis, survey, sociometry, testing, hardware and technical methods, in-depth interview, focus group, projective techniques.
Control questions
1. What are the specifics of the methodology of socio-psychological research?
2. What is included in the content of the socio-psychological research program?
3. How do quantitative applied research methods differ from qualitative ones?
4. Data about what socio-psychological problems can be obtained through observation, experiment, content analysis, focus groups, surveys, sociometry?
5. What are projective techniques and what is their procedure?
Literature
Belanovsky S.A. Focus group method / S.A. Belanovsky. – M.:
Magister Publishing House, 1996. – 272 p.
Golubkov E.P. Fundamentals of Marketing: Textbook / E.P. Golubkov - M.: Publishing house "Finpress", 2003. - 688 p.
Gorbatova D.S. Workshop on psychological research: textbook. allowance / D.S. Gorbatova. – Samara: Publishing house. House “BAKHRAH-M”, 2006. –
272 pp.
Dmitrieva E..V. Focus group method: Problems of preparation, conduct, analysis / E.V. Dmitrieva // Sociol. research - 1999. - No. 8. –
P.133-138.
Zborovsky G.E. Applied sociology / G.E. Zborovsky. – M.: GAYDARIKI, 2004. – 437 p.
Kornilova T.V. Introduction to psychological experiment: textbook / T.V. Kornilova - M.: Moscow State Publishing House. Univ., 1997. – 256 p.
Kruger R. Focus group. Practical guide / R. Kruger,
M.E. Casey; lane from English – M.: Publishing house. Williams House, 2003. – 256 p.
Matovskaya A.V. The use of nonverbal information in a personal interview / A.V. Matovskaya // Sociol. research – 2006. – No. 3. – P. 104 – 112.
Myznikov S.V. Sociolinguistic factors in a sociological survey / S.V. Myznikov // Economy. and social change: Monitoring societies. opinions. – 2004. – No. 1. – P.64 – 82.
Myagkov A.Yu. Explanatory models of the interviewer effect. Experimental testing experience / A.Yu. Myagkov, I.V. Zhuravleva
// Sociol. research – 2006. – No. 3. – P.85 – 97.
Levinson A. Focus groups: evolution of the method (review of the discussion at the ESOMAR conference) / A. Levinson, O. Stuchevska // Econ. and social change: Monitoring societies. opinions. – 2003. - No. 1. – P.46-55.
Nokhrina N.N. Test as a general scientific diagnostic method / N.N. Nokhrina // Sociol. research – 2005. – No. 1. – P. 118 –126.
Sikevich Z.V. Sociological research: a practical guide / Z.V. Sikevich. – St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2005. – 320 p.
Solso R.L. Experimental psychology / R.L. Solso, M.K. McLean. – St. Petersburg. : prime-EUROZNAK, 2003. – 272 p.
Shapar T.V. Methods of social psychology / V.B. Shapar. – Rostov n/d: Phoenix, 2003. – 288 p.
Topic 4. The communicative side of communication
Basic concepts: communication, verbal communication, non-verbal communication, sign systems: optical-kinetic, paralinguistic, extralinguistic, space and time of communication, visual contact, olfactory signals; persuasion, manipulation, lies.
Control questions
1. What place do speech and nonverbal signals occupy in interpersonal communication?
2. Name and characterize the emotional functions of speech.
3. Classify gestures and reveal the content of each type with examples.
4. What is the role of space and time in organizing communication in communication?
5. What are the findings of visual communication research?
6. What are the ways of persuasion?
7. What are the criteria for identifying false information?
Literature
Andrianov M.S. Analysis of the process of nonverbal communication as paralinguistics / M.S. Andrianov // Psychol. magazine - 1995. – T.16. - No. 3. – P.25-32.
Birkenbil V. Language of intonation, facial expressions, gestures / V. Birkenbil. - St. Petersburg. : Peter Press, 1997. - 214 p.
Wilson G. Sign language - let it lead to success / G. Wilson, K. McCloughin. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2000. – 224 p.
Glass L. I read your thoughts / L. Glass. - M.: LLC “AST Publishing House”, 2003. – 251 p.
Znakov V.V. Classification of psychological signs of true and false messages in communicative situations / V.V. Signs
// Psychol. magazine - 1999. - T.20. - No. 2. – P.34-46.
Krasnikov M.A. The phenomenon of lies in interpersonal communication /
M.A. Krasnikov // Society. science and modernity. – 1999. - No. 2. - pp. 176-185.
Kreidlin G.E. Nonverbal semiotics: body language and natural language / G.E. Kreidlin. - M.: New Literary Review, 2004. – 281 p.
Labunskaya V.A. Human expression: Communication and interpersonal cognition / V.A. Labunskaya. - Rostov n/a. : Phoenix, 1999. – 608 p.
Petrova E.A. Gestures in the pedagogical process / E.A. Petrova. – M.: LLC “AST Publishing House”, 1998. – 222 p.
Popov S.V. Visual observation / S.V. Popov. – St. Petersburg. : Publishing house “Rech” together with publishing house “Semantics-S”, 2002. – 320 p.
Pocheptsov G.G. Theory of communication / G.G. Pocheptsov. - M.: Refl-book; Kyiv: Wakler, 2001. – 656 p.
Pocheptsov G.G. Twentieth Century Communication Technologies
/ G.G. Pocheptsov. - M.: Refl-book, 2002. – 352 p.
Simonenko S.I. Psychological bases for assessing the falsity and veracity of messages / S.I. Simonenko // Question. psychology. - 1998. - No. 3. - P.78-84.
Stepanov S. Language of appearance / S. Stepanov. – M.: EKSMO-Press, 2001 – 416 p.
Ekman P. Psychology of lies / P. Ekman. – St. Petersburg. : Peter, 1999. – 272 p.
Topic 5. Mutual understanding and social cognition
Basic concepts: social perception, identification, empathy, reflection, causal attribution, fundamental attribution error, stereotyping, perceptual effects.
Control questions
1. What are the mechanisms by which people perceive each other?
2. What experiments have proven that explaining the reasons for another person’s behavior is the main thing in social perception?
3. What are the keys to determining the adequacy of an individual’s explanation of the reasons for another person’s behavior?
4. Describe typical distortions in the perception of another person.
5. How to increase the accuracy of perception?
Problem tasks
1. The perceptual side of human communication is the basis for mutual understanding, establishing trusting relationships, and coordinating actions. Perception seems to have two poles - personal and social. The line of an individual's typical perception runs between them. Illustrate this point with your own examples.
2. Give examples from your communication experiences by reviewing the following information. The experiments revealed a phenomenon called “accentuation.” It lies in the fact that, depending on the specific conditions in which a person is formed and lives, he learns to consider some things, phenomena, qualities more significant than others. Hence the differences in the perception and assessment of other people by representatives of socio-demographic, professional and other groups.
3. Perception is selective: new impressions are categorized on the basis of past experience (the significance of learned concepts, relationships, values and rules). Therefore, the process of stereotyping plays an important role in the formation of perception. What is this process? Give your own examples.
4. Expand the content of the factors influencing perception:
· restrictions associated with the senses;
· state of consciousness;
· previous experience;
· “cultural modeling”.
5. Using relevant information, explain the results of an experiment conducted by social psychologists. The experiment was called “Placebo” (dummy).
In one of the schools, two groups of schoolchildren were formed, similar in abilities and other qualities. The teachers who were supposed to work with these groups were told that the students in the first group were extremely gifted children, and the students in the second were inhibited and difficult. After some time, an analysis of the performance in both groups was carried out. The results were amazing: in the first “gifted” group, academic performance was excellent, the children shone with their knowledge, and the teachers were pleased. In the second group, children had “satisfactory” and “unsatisfactory” grades and constant conflicts arose.
6. Typical distortions of ideas about another person are the psychological effects of “halo”, “significance”, “projection”, “novelty”, “logical error”, etc. What are they? Have you encountered similar effects in your practice?
Literature
Andreeva G.M. Psychology of social cognition / G.M. Andreeva. – M.: Aspect-Press, 1997. – 383 p.
Znakov V.V. Understanding as a problem in the psychology of human existence / V.V. Signs // Psychol. magazine - 2000. - T.21. - No. 2. – P.50-61.
Kelly G. The process of causal attribution / G. Kelly // Modern foreign social psychology: texts / ed. G.M. Andreeva,
I.N. Bogomolova, L.A. Petrovskaya. – M.: Publishing house. Moscow State University, 1984. –
P.127-137.
Kosov B.B. On some laws of perception, discrimination and identification of simple and complex objects / B.B. Kosovo // Issue. psychology. – 2003. - No. 1. - P.50-61.
Krupnik E.P. Experimental study of the mechanisms of holistic perception / E.P. Krupnik // Question. psychology. – 2003. - No. 4. -
P.127-192.
Pines E Workshop on social psychology / E. Pines, K. Maslach. – St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2000. – P.106-166.
Prospects of social psychology / editor-ed. : M. Houston et al.; lane from English : A. Mirera et al. - M.: EKSMO-Press, 2001. - 687 p.
Social psychology: workshop: textbook. manual for university students / G.M. Andreeva [and others]; edited by T.V. Folomeeva. - M.: Aspect Press, 2006. - 477 p.
Social psychology: reader: textbook. aid for students universities / comp. E.P. Belinskaya, O.A. Tikhomandritskaya. - M.: Aspect-press, 2003. - 474 p.
Taylor S. Social psychology / S. Taylor, L. Piplo, D. Sears; scientific ed. lane N.V. Grishina. – St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2004. – 767 p.
Shikhirev P.N. Modern social psychology: textbook. manual for universities / P. N. Shikhirev; scientific ed. A. I. Dontsov. - M.; Ekaterinburg: Institute of Psychology RAS: KPS+: Business Book, 2000. - 447 p.
Topic 6. Interpersonal conflicts and their regulation
Basic concepts: cooperation, competition, conflict as a socio-psychological phenomenon, constructive conflict, destructive conflict, style of behavior in a conflict situation, conflict as a cognitive scheme, conflict perception.
Control questions
1. What is the specificity of understanding conflict in social psychology?
2. What options for understanding interpersonal conflicts did classical psychology offer?
3. Formulate M. Deutsch’s typology of conflicts and provide your interpretations.
4. What are the basic strategies of human behavior in conflict? Which of them are most typical for your immediate environment?
5. Describe a conflict-ridden person. How can you influence such a person?
6. The most important factor in the emergence of conflict is the perception of the situation as a conflict. How do you understand this?
7. What laws and effects of the psyche operate in conflict perception?
BEHAVIOR STYLES IN CONFLICT SITUATIONS
Instructions
In each question, select your preferred behavior option and indicate its letter in the answers.
I. a) Sometimes I allow others to take responsibility for resolving a controversial issue.
b) Rather than discussing what we disagree on, I try to draw attention to what we both agree with.
2. a) I am trying to find a compromise solution.
b) I try to settle the matter taking into account all the interests of the other person and my own.
3. a) I usually persistently strive to achieve my goal.
b) Sometimes I sacrifice my own interests for the sake of the interests of another person.
4. a) I try to find a compromise solution.
b) I try not to hurt the feelings of others.
5. a) When resolving a controversial situation, I always try to find support from another.
b) I try to do everything to avoid useless tension.
6. a) I am trying to avoid causing trouble for myself.
b) I try to achieve my goal.
7. a) I try to postpone the resolution of a controversial issue in order to resolve it finally over time.
b) I consider it possible to give in to something in order to achieve something else.
8. a) I usually persistently strive to achieve my goal.
b) I first try to determine what all the interests involved and controversial issues are.
9. a) I think that you should not always worry about any disagreements that arise.
b) I make an effort to achieve my goal.
10. a) I am determined to achieve my interest.
b) I'm trying to find a compromise solution.
11. a) First of all, I strive to clearly define what all the issues involved are.
b) I try to reassure the other and, mainly, preserve our relationship.
12. a) I often avoid taking positions that might cause controversy.
b) I give the other person the opportunity to remain unconvinced in some way if he also agrees.
13. a) I propose a middle position.
b) I will try to have everything done my way.
14. a) I tell the other my point of view and ask about his views.
b) I show the other the logic and advantage of my views.
b) I try to do everything necessary to avoid tension.
16. a) I try not to hurt the feelings of another.
b) I usually try to convince the other person of the advantages of my position.
17. a) I usually persistently strive to achieve my goal.
b) I try to do everything to avoid useless tension.
18. a) If it makes another person happy, I will give him the opportunity to insist on his own.
b) I give the other the opportunity to remain unconvinced if he also meets me halfway.
19. a) First of all, I try to determine what all the interests involved and controversial issues are.
b) I try to postpone the resolution of controversial issues in order to resolve them finally over time.
20. a) I am trying to immediately overcome our differences.
b) I try to find the best combination of benefits and losses for both of us.
21. a) When negotiating, I try to be attentive to the desires of the other person.
b) I always tend to discuss the problem directly.
22. a) I'm trying to find a middle position (between mine and the other person's).
b) I defend my position.
23. a) As a rule, I am puzzled by how to satisfy the desires of each of us.
b) Sometimes I give others the opportunity to take responsibility when resolving a controversial issue.
24. a) If the position of another seems very important to him, I try to meet him halfway.
b) I try to convince the other person to compromise.
25. a) I am trying to convince another that I am right.
b) When negotiating, I try to be attentive to the arguments of the other.
26. a) I usually offer the middle position.
b) I almost always strive to satisfy the interests of each of us.
27. a) I often try to avoid disputes.
b) If it makes the other person happy, I will give him the opportunity to stand his ground.
28. a) I usually persistently strive to achieve my goal.
b) When resolving a situation, I usually try to find support from another.
29. a) I propose a middle position.
b) I think that you shouldn’t always worry about disagreements that arise.
30. a) I try not to hurt the feelings of another.
b) I always take a position in a dispute so that we can achieve success together.
Literature
Andreev V.I. Conflictology (the art of dispute, negotiation, conflict resolution) / V.A. Andreev. – M.: INFRA-M, 1995. – 286 p.
Antsupov A.Ya. Conflictology / A.Ya. Antsupov, A.I. Shipilov. - M.: UNITY, 2000. – 551 p.
Grishina N.V. Psychology of conflict / N.V. Grishina. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2003. – 464 p.
Emelyanov S.M. Workshop on conflict management / S.M. Emelyanov. – St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2000. – 368 p.
Conflictology: textbook / ed. A.S. Carmina. - St. Petersburg. : Publishing House "Lan", 2000. - P.63-65.
Lebedeva M.M. From conflict perception to agreement / M.M. Lebedeva // Polit. research – 1996. - No. 5. – P.163-168.
Lebedeva M.M. Political resolution of conflicts / M.M. Lebedeva. - M.: Aspect Press, 1999. – 271 p.
Levin K. Resolution of social conflicts / K. Levin; lane from English – St. Petersburg. : Speech, 2000. - 408 p.
Leonov N.I. Conflicts and Conflict Behavior: Methods
studies: textbook. allowance / N.I. Leonov. – St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2005. – 240 p.
Topic 7. Personality in the social world
Basic Concepts Key words: personality, self-concept, locus of control, social identity, socialization, social role, role conflict, psychological game, marginal personality, deviant personality.
Control questions
1. What is the specificity of the study of personality by social psychology?
2. What theoretical explanations of the psychological nature of personality have been developed by science?
3. What is the significance of the self-concept and locus of control for the individual and society?
4. What is a social role, and what are the difficulties of fulfilling the roles?
5. What role conflicts have you encountered among your friends?
Problem tasks
1. What type of personality - with internal or external locus of control - is common in your immediate environment? Justify your point of view using the material in the table, which provides answers to the question “What do you believe in more?”
2. Study the table “Main characteristics of the positions of a parent, adult and child” and describe the communication situations in which such ego states appear.
| Basic |
Parent |
Adult |
|
| Characteristic words and expressions |
"Everyone knows that you should never..."; "I don't understand how they allow this..." |
"How?"; "What?"; "When?"; "Where?"; "Why?"; "Maybe…"; "Probably…" |
"I'm angry with you!"; "That's great!"; "Great!"; "Disgusting!" |
| Intonation |
Accusers Condescending Critical Interrupting |
Related to reality |
Very emotional |
| State |
Arrogant Super correct Very decent |
Attentiveness Search for information |
Awkward Depressed Oppressed |
| Expression |
Frown Unsatisfactory Concerned |
Open eyes Maximum attention |
Oppression Astonishment |
| Hands on hips Pointing finger Hands folded on chest |
Leaned forward towards the interlocutor, head turns after him |
Spontaneous mobility (clench fists, walk, pull a button) |
3. To better understand what a “socially rejected role” is, everyone imagines themselves in the role of a deviant person and answers the following questions.
What are the benefits of my position?
What are my difficulties?
What do I think about people like me?
What am I reacting to?
Who could understand me?
Literature
Abulkhanova-Slavskaya K.A. Personal ideas about the attitude of significant others towards her / K.A. Abulkhanova-Slavskaya, E.V. Gordienko
// Psychol. magazine - 2001. – T.22. - No. 5. – P.37-49.
Alexandrov D. N. Fundamentals of entrepreneurship. Personality and entrepreneur syndrome: textbook / D.N. Alexandrov, M.A. Alieskerov, T.V. Akhlebinina; under general ed. D. N. Alexandrova. - M. : Flinta: Mosk. psychol.-social Institute, 2004. - 519 p.
Antonyan Yu. M. Personality of the criminal = Personality of criminal /
Yu. M. Antonyan, V. N. Kudryavtsev, V. E. Eminov. - St. Petersburg. : Legal Center Press, 2004. - 364 p.
Batarshev A.V. Personality of a business person.
Social-psychological aspect / A.V. Batarshev. - M.: Delo, 2003. - 382 p.
Belinskaya E.P. Social psychology of personality: textbook. aid for students universities / E.P. Belinskaya, O.A. Tikhomadritskaya. – M.: Aspect-Press, 2001. – 299 p.
Bern E. Sex in human love / trans. from English M.P. Daddy. – M.: Publishing house EKSMO-Press, 2000. – 384 p.
Leontyev A. N. Activity. Consciousness. Personality: textbook. allowance / A.N. Leontyev. - M.: Meaning: Academy, 2004. - 345 p.
Maslow A. Motivation and personality / A. Maslow; lane from English - St. Petersburg. and others: Peter, 2007. - 351 p.
Social psychology of personality in questions and answers: textbook. aid for students universities / S.A. Belicheva, O.S. Vasilyeva, S.T. Janeryan et al.; edited by V.A. Labunskaya. – M.: Gardariki, 2000. – 395 p.
Subject, personality and psychology of human existence / ed.
V.V. Znakova, Z.I. Ryabikina. - M.: Institute of Psychology, 2005. - 382 p.
Theories of personality in Western European and American psychology: a textbook on personality psychology / comp. D.Ya. Raigorodsky. - Samara: Publishing house. House. “BAKHRAH”, 1996. – 391 p.
Frager R. Personality: theories, experiments, exercises / R. Frager, D. Fadiman. – St. Petersburg. : prime-EUROZNAK, 2001. – 864 p.
Topic 8. Destructive personality behavior and its characteristics
Basic Concepts: constructive behavior, destructive (aggressive) behavior, direct aggression, indirect aggression, factors of aggression, catharsis hypothesis, cognitive methods of controlling aggression, language key for relieving aggression.
Problem tasks
1. Science has developed two answers to the question of whether destructive personality behavior is innate:
Man by his true nature is good-natured, it is the fault of society that he is aggressive;
Man is an uncontrollable, impulsive animal.
Name the scientists who expressed similar ideas. Give your arguments for or against.
3. Study the table “Types of aggressive behavior”, analyze it, and provide relevant examples.
| Physical Active Direct |
Beating or murder |
| Physical Active |
Laying booby traps; conspiracy with an assassin to destroy the enemy |
| Physical Passive |
The desire to physically prevent another person from achieving a desired goal or engaging in a desired activity |
| Physical Passive Indirect |
Refusing to perform necessary tasks (for example, refusing to vacate an area during a sit-in) |
| Verbal Active Direct |
Verbally insulting or humiliating another person |
| Verbal Active |
Spreading malicious slander or gossip about another person |
| Verbal Passive |
Refusal to talk to another person, answer his questions, etc. |
| Verbal Passive Indirect |
Refusal to give certain verbal explanations or explanations (for example, refusal to speak up in defense of a person who is unfairly criticized) |
3. Study the data from experiments on the problem of aggressive behavior in schoolchildren, given in the tables. Try to identify those parameters that are more likely to lead to the formation of the offender’s personality.
Indicators of aggressive manifestations of students (numerical values
are given in %; the limits of data scatter are given in parentheses below)
| Identified indicators |
Student groups |
Student groups |
| Average indicators aggressiveness |
||
| Summary prerequisites for manifestations of aggressiveness |
||
| Sociometric status among peers |
Prevails |
And positive |
| Anxiety |
Prevails |
Average level |
| Relationships with parents in general |
All options |
All options |
| Relationships with parents and peers on vacation |
Prevails |
All options |
| Relationships with parents in general matters |
All options |
All options |
| Attitude towards the class teacher |
Prevails |
Neutral |
Manifestations of independence in aggressive and non-aggressive students
| Assessed indicators related to student independence |
Groups of children with |
Groups of children without |
| Dependence on the teacher |
Expressed |
Expressed |
| Need for help |
Expressed |
Expressed |
| Ask for help |
Occasionally |
Occasionally |
| Professionally |
Weakly expressed |
Pronounced |
| Willingness to help |
Episodic |
Episodic |
| Demonstrativeness |
Expressed |
Expressed |
| Attitude towards cooperation |
Indifferent |
Moderate |
| Striving for success |
Held back by fear of failure |
High, but with fear |
| Expressiveness of types of social orientation |
Ignore all types |
Emphasis on one, two |
| Self-assessment of prospects |
Satisfactory |
4. In the laboratory of psychosocial research at the National Center for Mental Health (Moscow), during the study of the behavior of prisoners, it was revealed that the most aggressive group are first-time convicted thieves, the last place is occupied by murderers. According to the hostility index, robbers took first place, and murderers came in last. Try to explain this contradictory phenomenon.
Literature
Alfimova M.V. Psychogenetics of aggressiveness / M.V. Alfimova,
IN AND. Trubnikov // Question. psychology. - 2000. - No. 6. - P.112-121.
Berkowitz L. Aggression: causes, consequences, control
/ L. Berkowitz. - St. Petersburg. : prime-EUROZNAK, 2001. - 512 p.
Baron R. Aggression / R. Baron, D. Richardson. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 1997. –
336 pp.
Garr T.R. Why people rebel / T.R. Garr. – St. Petersburg: Peter, 2005. – 461 p.
Kraihi B. Social psychology of aggression / B. Kraihi; lane from English
A. Lisitsina. - St. Petersburg. and others: Peter, 2003. - 333 p.
Nazaretyan A.P. Violence and tolerance: an anthropological retrospective / A.P. Nazaretyan // Question. psychology. – 2005. - No. 5. - P.37-50.
Ositsky A.K. Psychological analysis of aggressive manifestations of students / A.K. Ositsky // Question. psychology. – 1994. - No. 3. – P.61-68.
Pines E Workshop on social psychology / E. Pines, K. Maslach. – St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2000. – P.366-411.
Pirogov A.I. Political psychology: textbook. manual for universities / A.I. Pirogov. – M.: Academic Project: Triksta, 2005. – P.202-243.
Psychology of human aggressiveness: a textbook. – Minsk: Harvest, 1999. – 386 p.
Rean A.A. Aggression and personality aggressiveness / A.A. Rean // Psychol. magazine - 1996. - No. 5. - P.3-18.
Safuanov F.S. Psychological typology of criminal aggression / F.S. Safuanov // Psychol. magazine - 1999. - T.20. - No. 6. - P.24-35.
Skakunov E.I. The nature of political violence. Problems of explanation / E.I. Skakunov // Sociol. research - 2001. - No. 12. - P.22-30.
Topic 9. Social influence
Basic Concepts: social influence, social power, social norms, identification, internalization, authority, charisma, manipulation.
Control questions
1. Define the concepts of “influence” and “power” in a psychological sense.
2. Describe the psychological processes by which people become influenced.
3. Name the types of influence and give their detailed analysis.
4. What are the foundations of social power?
6. What is the difference between barbarian and civilized influence?
7. What are the ways of influencing at different levels of interpersonal relationships?
Problem tasks
1. Remember a recent situation when, after committing a certain act, you realized that someone was manipulating you: they declared one goal while pursuing another. How did you guess about this? Why did your partner do this?
2. Remember any recent situation when you deliberately went to mislead your partner: you announced one goal to him, while pursuing another. Why did you do this?
3. With a certain habit of self-analysis, each person can recognize that in many cases he is trying to convince other people of something or to persuade them to a certain course of behavior because it was in his own interests. Analyze the example below.
4. One’s own emotions act as significant signals informing about manipulative actions on the part of others. "Exaggerated" emotions are a sign that an irrational idea has been activated. The sound of emotional strings can be so strong that a person’s natural ability to perceive and analyze information, draw conclusions and assumptions, respond to arguments and formulate counterarguments is disrupted. According to research by social psychologists, the following irrational ideas have become widespread in Russian society:
I have to (should)…
take responsibility;
help if you are asked;
sympathize and understand;
to thank;
behave correctly;
to be a man;
do everything quickly;
like;
control;
eliminate injustice;
be original;
be brave;
be generous.
I shouldn't (shouldn't)...
refuse;
lose one's temper;
quarrel, scold;
pay for love.
others should...
be fair, honest;
others shouldn't...
ask me to borrow money;
criticize me.
everyone should remember...
“maybe it will blow by”;
if I worked more, I deserved more;
the idea is more important than the person;
if something is bad with us, then it is still good, because it is ours;
one must obey the opinion of the majority.
Formulate your own irrational ideas and try to figure out when and how you became an object of manipulation.
Literature
Dontsov A.I. Social context as a factor in the interaction between minorities and the majority / A.I. Dontsov, M.Yu. Tokarev // Issue. psychology. – 1998. - No. 3. – P.115-123.
Dotsenko E.L. Psychology of manipulation / E.L. Dotsenko. – M.: MSU, 1996. – 269 p.
Zaraisky D.A. Managing other people's behavior. Technology of personal psychological influence / D.A. Zaraisky. – Dubna: Publishing house. Phoenix Center, 1997. – 272 p.
Zimbardo F. Social influence / F. Zimbardo, M. Leippe; lane from English N. Malgina, A. Fedorov. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2001. - 444 p.
Znakov V.V. Machiavellianism, manipulative behavior and mutual understanding in interpersonal communication / V.V. Signs // Question. psychology. – 2002. - No. 6. - P.45-55.
Moscovici S. Are biased messages more effective than unbiased messages? / S. Moscovici, F. Buschini // Psychol. magazine - 2000. - T.21. - No. 3. – P.74-85.
Sidorenko E.V. Influence and resistance training /
E.V. Sidorenko. – St. Petersburg. : Rech, 2001. – 256 p.
Taranov P.S. Techniques for influencing people / P.S. Taranov. - M.: FAIR, 1998. – 608 p.
Turner J. Social influence / D. Turner; lane from English Z. Zamchuk. - St. Petersburg. and others: Peter, 2003. - 257 p.
Tokareva M.Yu. Minority as a source of social influence / M.Yu. Tokareva, A.I. Dontsov // Question. psychology. – 1996. - No. 1. – P.50-62.
Cialdini R. Psychology of influence / R. Cialdini. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 1999. – 272 p.
Topic 10. Small groups: structure, typology, research
Basic concepts: small group, reference group, group cohesion, social facilitation, social loafing, group polarization, communication models.
Control questions
1. Explain the essence of the concept of “small group” and tell us about the main directions of research of the phenomenon.
2. What is the essence of theoretical approaches to the small group phenomenon? Name them and describe the main ideas.
3. How can small groups be classified? Give specific examples of different groups and point out their specific features.
4. What psychological effects operate in a small group?
5. Describe communication models (information networks) in a small group?
Test "Diagnostics of Interpersonal Relationships"
To study relationships in a small group, T. Leary’s technique is used. To check which relationship styles are typical for you, you need to fill out the table by selecting the appropriate number of judgments (from 0 to 4, located in each cell) that are most typical for your behavior in a group (family, school, friends, etc.). After summing up, a personal profile discogram is filled out.
| I. Others think favorably of him Makes an impression on others Able to manage and give orders Able to insist on his own |
I. Capable of causing admiration Respected by others Has leadership talent Likes responsibility |
| II. Has self-esteem Independent Able to take care of himself May show indifference |
II. Self-assured Self-confident and assertive Businesslike and practical Likes to compete |
| III. Capable of being harsh Strict but fair Can be sincere Critical of others |
III. Strict and cool where necessary Unforgiving but impartial Irritable Open and straightforward |
| IV. Likes to cry Often sad Able to show distrust Often disappointed |
IV. Can't stand being bossed around Skeptical He's hard to impress Touchy, scrupulous |
| V. Capable of being critical of oneself Able to admit when you're wrong Willingly obeys Compliant |
IV. Easily embarrassed Unsure of himself Compliant Modest |
| VI. Noble Admiring and imitative Approval Seeker |
V. Often resorts to the help of others Willingly accepts advice Trusting and eager to please others |
| VII. Capable of cooperation Try to get along with others Friendly, benevolent, Attentive and affectionate |
VI. Always kind to deal with Values the opinions of others Sociable and accommodating Kind-hearted |
| VIII. Delicate Approving Responsive to calls for help Selfless |
VII. Kind and reassuring Tender and kind-hearted Likes to take care of others Selfless, generous |
| I. Likes to give advice Gives an impression of importance Sovereign-imperious Imperious |
I. Strive for success Expects admiration from everyone Controls others Autocratic |
| II. Boastful Arrogant and self-righteous Thinks only about himself Cunning calculating |
II. Snob (judges people by rank and wealth, rather than by personal qualities) Conceited Selfish Cold, callous |
| III. Intolerant of others' mistakes Selfish Frank Often unfriendly |
IV. Sarcastic, mocking Vicious, cruel Often angry Insensitive, indifferent |
| V. Embittered Complainant Jealous Remembers grievances for a long time |
IV. vindictive Imbued with the spirit contradicted Distrustful and suspicious |
| V. Prone to self-flagellation Shy Uninitiative |
VI. Timid Shy Is overly willing to obey Spineless |
| VII. Dependent, dependent Likes to obey Lets others make decisions Gets into trouble easily |
VI. Almost never objects to anyone Unobtrusive Loves to be looked after Overly trusting |
| VIII. Easily influenced by friends Ready to trust someone else Everyone likes it |
VII. Strive to ingratiate yourself with everyone. He agrees with everyone. Always friendly loves everyone |
| IX. Forgives everything Filled with excessive sympathy Generous and tolerant of shortcomings Strive to patronize |
VIII. Too lenient towards others. Tries to comfort everyone Caring about others at the expense of oneself Spoils people with excessive kindness |
Personal profile discogram
Domination
Aggressiveness Friendliness
Subordination
Literature
Baron R.S. Social psychology of groups: Processes, decisions, actions / R.S. Baron, N.L. Kerr, N. Miller; lane from English Y. Akhmedova, D. Tsiruleva. - St. Petersburg. and others: Peter, 2003. - 269 p.
Krichevsky R.L. Social psychology of a small group: textbook. aid for students universities / R.L. Krichevsky, E.M. Dubovskaya. – M.: Aspect-Press, 2001. 0-318 p.
Macionis J. Sociology / J. Macionis. – St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2004. – P.224-237.
Levin J. Group processes / J. Levin, R.E. Moreland. – M.: Prime-EVROZNAK, 2003. – 395 p.
Pines E Workshop on social psychology / E. Pines, K. Maslach. – St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2000. – P.208-281.
Sidorenkov A.V. The state of foreign psychology of a small group: development trends and problems / A.V. Sidorenkov // Issue. psychology. – 2005. - No. 6. - P.120-131.
Slavka N.V. Psychology of the small group: textbook. manual for universities /
S.P. Warbler. – M.: Exam, 2004. – 157 p.
Topic 11. Dynamic processes in a small group
Basic concepts: interpersonal relationships in a small group, team, psychology of decision-making, leadership, leader styles, group
effects, minority influence, conformist behavior, nonconformism.
Control questions
1. What is the nature of leadership, leadership styles?
2. What role set should an effective team have?
3. Name group psychological effects
4. What are the conditions and factors of minority influence?
5. What is conformist behavior of a person?
Literature
Avdeev V.V. Team formation / V.V. Avdeev. - M.:
Aspect-Press, 1999. – 369 p.
Baron R. Social psychology of the group: processes, decisions, actions / R. Baron, N. Kerr, N. Miller. – St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2003. – 272 p.
Galkin T.P. Sociology of management: from group to team: textbook. allowance / T.P. Galkin. - M.: Finance and Statistics, 2001. – 224 p.
Ilyin G.L. Sociology and psychology of management: textbook. allowance / G.L. Ilyin. – M.: Publishing house. Center "Academy", 2005. - 192 p.
Cartwright D. Group dynamics: research and theory / D. Cartwright, A. Zander. – M.: OLMA-PRESS, 2004. - 471 p.
Levin J. Group processes / J. Levin, R.E. Moreland. – M.: Prime-EVROZNAK, 2003. – 395 p.
Muchinski P. Psychology, profession, career / P. Muchinski. – St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2004. – 539 p.
Sidorenkov A.V. Psychological mechanism of the dynamics of small
groups: integration and disintegration / A.V. Sidorenko // Issue. psychology. – 2004. - No. 5. - P.63-72.
Sidorenkov A.V. Psychological contradictions in a small group
/ A.V. Sidorenko // Issue. psychology. – 2003. - No. 1. - P.41-50.
Fopel A. Team creation / A. Fopel. – M.: Genesis, 2003. – 346 p.
Shcherbatykh Yu.V. Psychology of elections / Yu.V. Shcherbatykh. – M.: Eksmo Publishing House, 2005. – 400 p.
Topic 12. Natural groups and methods of influence in them
Basic Concepts: collective behavior, spontaneous groups, mass, crowd, public, audience, circular reaction, infection, suggestion, imitation, panic.
Control questions
1. What are the characteristic properties of spontaneous groups?
2. What are the distinctive features of mass, crowd, public and audience?
3. What important ideas about mass and crowd were expressed by scientists in
XIX-XX centuries?
4. Name the main psychological traits of a person in the mass.
5. Give a psychological analysis of the mechanisms of spontaneous behavior and communication in a crowd?
6. What are the main forms of spontaneous behavior - mass panic and aggression?
7. Describe the types of crowds.
8. What is the significance of the structure, shape and density of the crowd?
9. What are crowd control techniques?
Literature
Aravina T.I. The phenomenon of the crowd in research perspectives of social psychology / T.I. Aravina // Psychol. magazine - 1999. - T.20. - No. 3. – P.59-69.
Aggressive crowd, mass panic, rumors. Lectures on social and political psychology / A.P. Nazaretyan. – St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2003. – 192 p.
Bloomer G. Collective behavior / G. Bloomer // American sociological thought: Texts. – M.: Nauka, 1994. - P.168-214.
Lebon G. Leaders of the crowds / G. Lebon // Psychology and psychoanalysis of power: a reader / comp. D.Ya. Raigorodsky. – Samara: Publishing house. House "BAKHRAH", 1999. - T.2. – P.195-212.
Moscovici S. Century of Crowds: Historical Treatise on the Psychology of the Masses
/ S. Moscovici. – M.: Center for Psychology and Psychiatry, 1996. – 439 p.
Naumenko T.V. Psychological methods of influencing mass
audience / T.V. Naumenko // Question. psychology. – 2003. - No. 6. - P.63-71.
Olshansky D.V. Psychology of masses / D.V. Olshansky. – St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2001. – 368 p.
Olshansky D.V. Political psychology: textbook / D.V. Olshansky. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2002. – 576 p.
Psychology of the masses: a reader / comp. D.Ya. Raigorodsky. – Samara: Publishing house. House "BAKHRAH", 1998. – 592 p.
Roshchin S.K. Crowd psychology: Analysis of past research and problems of today / S.K. Roshchin // Psychologist. magazine – 1990. – T.11. - No. 5. - P.3-15.
Sosnin V.A. Psychology of religion: American experience / V.A. Sosnin // Psychologist. magazine – 2002. – T.23. - No. 2. – P.47-59.
Topic 13 Mental makeup of an ethnic community
Basic Concepts: “emic” approach, “ethical” approach, ethnic consciousness, ethnic identity, mentality, national character, autostereotypes, heterostereotypes, ethnocentrism.
Questions for the discussion on the topic “Russian national character and modern socio-psychological processes”
1. How does the human factor influence the course of reform in modern Russia, to what extent, how specifically?
2. Do mental foundations change or does the cultural code of the national psyche remain unchanged? If “yes”, then in what way?
3. Is Russian national character a condition or an obstacle to the modern effective socio-political development of the country?
4. There is world experience in the reconstruction of national character (Germany). Does Russia need such experience? Is it necessary to accept the emerging realities of mass psychology as a given?
5. What are the prospects for the development of the country in connection with the mental manifestations of mass consciousness and behavior?
Literature
Aleksakhina N.A. Trends in changing the national identity of the peoples of Russia / N.A. Aleksakhina // Sociol. isisled. - 1998. - No. 2. - P.49-54.
Volkov Yu.G. Russian identity: features of formation and manifestation / Yu.G. Volkov // Sociol. research – 2006. - No. 7. – P.13-22.
Dontsov A.I. Language as a factor of ethnic identity / A.I. Dontsov, T.G. Stefanenko, Zh.T. Utalieva // Question. psychology. - 1997. - No. 4. -
pp. 75-86.
Dubov I.G. Social and psychological aspect of the national idea in Russia / I.G. Dubov, T.B. Zatylkina // Psychologist. magazine - 1999. - T.20. - No. 5. - P.49-57.
Karaulov Yu. N. Russian language and linguistic personality / Yu.N. Karaulov. - M.: URSS, 2004. - 261 p.
Kochetkov V.V. Psychology of intercultural differences / V.V. Kochetkov. - M.: PER SE, 2002. – 416 p.
Latova N.V. What does a fairy tale teach? (About Russian mentality) /
N.V. Latova // Society. science and modernity. - 2002. - No. 2. - P.180-191.
Lebedeva N.M. Social identity in the post-Soviet space: from the search for self-esteem to the search for meaning / N.M. Lebedeva
// Psychol. magazine - 1999. - T.20. - No. 3. - P.58-70.
Moiseeva N.A. Mentality and national character / N.A. Moiseeva, V.I. Sorokovikova // Sociol. research – 2003. - No. 2. – P.45-55.
Nalchadzhyan A.A. Ethnopsychology: textbook. allowance / A.A. Nalchadzhyan. – St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2004. – 380 p.
Panesh E.H. Ethnic psychology and interethnic relations. Interaction and features of evolution (on the example of the Western Caucasus) / E.Kh. Panesh. – St. Petersburg. : European House, 1996. – 303 p.
Psychology of national intolerance: a reader / comp.
Yu.V. Chernyavskaya. – Minsk: Harvest, 1998. – 560 p.
Sedykh A.P. Linguistic personality and ethnicity: (national and cultural characteristics of the communicative behavior of Russians and French)
/ A. P. Sedykh. - M.: company<Спутник+>, 2004. - 268 p.
Stefanenko T.G. Ethnopsychology: a textbook for students. universities / T.G. Stefanenko. – M.: Aspect Press, 2003. – 367 p.
Sikevich Z.V. Sociology and psychology of national relations: textbook. allowance. - St. Petersburg. : Publishing house Mikhailov V.A., 1999. – 203 p.
Khotinets V.Yu. Psychological characteristics of human ethnocultural development / V.Yu. Khotinets // Question. psychology. – 2001. - No. 5. -
P.60-73.
Topic 14. Social and psychological characteristics
intergroup relations
Basic Concepts: intragroup bias, intergroup hostility, group cohesion, ethnic stereotypes, interethnic relations, gender stereotypes, gender relations.
Control questions
1. What is in-group bias as a social phenomenon?
2. Describe group defense mechanisms
3. What is group cohesion as a psychological phenomenon?
4. How are interethnic relations built in modern Russia?
6. What are the features of gender relations in modern Russia?
7. Name ways to optimize intergroup relations
Literature
Ageev V.S. Intergroup interaction: Social and psychological problems / V.S. Ageev. - M.: Publishing house Mosk. University, 1990. – 240 p.
Bern S. Gender psychology / S. Bern. – St. Petersburg. : prime-EUROZNAK, 2001. – 320 p.
Gasanov I.B. National stereotypes and the “image of the enemy” / I.B. Hasanov // Psychology of national intolerance: a textbook. – Minsk: Harvest, 1998. - P.187-208.
Gulevich O.A. Methods for optimizing intergroup interaction: directions and research results / O.A. Gulevich // Question. psychology. – 2004. - No. 6. - P.103-118.
Nalchadzhyan A.A. Ethnopsychology: textbook. allowance / A.A. Nalchadzhyan. – St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2004. – P.340-378.
Nelson T. Psychology of prejudice: secrets of patterns of thinking, perception and behavior. - St. Petersburg. : prime-EUROZNAK, 2003. – 384 p.
Pines E Workshop on social psychology / E. Pines, K. Maslach. – St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2000. – 326-365.
Workshop on gender psychology / ed. I.S. Kletsina. –
St. Petersburg : Peter, 2003. – 480 p.
Dictionary of gender terms / ed. A.A. Denisova. – M.: Information – XXI century, 2002. – 256 p.
Sosnin V.A. Culture and intergroup processes: ethnocentrism, conflicts and trends in national identification / V.A. Sosnin
// Psychol. magazine – 1997. – T.18. - No. 1. – P.87-95.
Stefanenko T.G. Ethnopsychology: a textbook for students. universities / T.G. Stefanenko. – M.: Aspect Press, 2003. – P.236-278.
Shtroo V.A. Research on group defense mechanisms /
V.A. Shtroo // Psychol. magazine - 2001. - T.22. - No. 1. P.86-97.
Ethnic groups and social boundaries. Social organization of cultural differences = Ethnic groups and boudaries. The social organization of cultural difference / ed. F. Barta; lane from English I. Pilshchikova. - M.: New publishing house, 2006. - 198 p.
Abstract topics
1. K. Levin as a social psychologist
2. Processes in a small group in the estimates and experiments of K. Levin
3. Psychoanalytic orientation in social psychology: history and modernity
4. Ideas of “T-groups” and modern training practice
5. E. Fromm’s theory of human aggressiveness and modern Russian reality
6. L. Festinger’s cognitive dissonance and ways to reduce it
7. The concept of social ideas by S. Moscovici and the types of socio-political ideas in Russia at the beginning of the 21st century.
8. Transactional analysis by E. Bern
9. Experiment in social psychology
10. Focus group method in applied research in social psychology
11. Method of content analysis in the study of socio-psychological phenomena
12. Aggressive personality behavior and its characteristics
13. Verbal behavior in interpersonal communication
14. The role of nonverbal behavior in communication
15. Expression of face and gaze
16. Gestures, facial expressions, pantomimes in the structure of nonverbal interaction
17. Olfactory components in communication
18. Interpersonal conflicts and ways to regulate them
19. Role behavior in an organization: characteristics of roles
20. Interpersonal relationships in an organization from the perspective of transactional analysis
21. Conflict personality: properties and behavioral traits
22. The phenomena of conformism and non-conformism: theory and modern practice
23. The essence and nature of ethnic character
24. Prejudices and stereotypes: influence on human interaction
25. Criminal groups and their psychological characteristics
26. The phenomenon of intergroup hostility and modern Russia
27. Gender roles and their impact on human life
28. Attachment and close relationships
29. Practical application of social psychology
30. Fundamental attribution error
31. Psychology of religion: theoretical and practical aspects
32. Psychology of fashion
33. Psychology of rumors and gossip
34. Mass sentiment in politics
Questions for testing
1. The subject of social psychology and its specifics
2. Methods of social psychology
3. Main periods of development of social psychology and their characteristics
4. Theoretical orientations in social psychology
5. Classification of sign systems
6. Features of speech as a means of exchanging information (persuasion, conflict speech, political speech)
7. Nonverbal communication
8. Conflict interaction: content, typology
9. Ways to manage conflicts
10. Mechanisms of interpersonal perception
11. The phenomenon of causal attribution
12. Accuracy of perception of another person
13. Role behavior: characteristics of personality roles
14. Interpersonal relationships from the perspective of transactional analysis
15. Small groups: concept, typology
16. Small group communication models and their effectiveness
17. Conformism and conformist behavior
18. Intragroup conflicts and ways to regulate them
19. Small Group Leadership
20. Image of a modern political leader
21. Spontaneous groups: concept and content
22. Characteristics of a person in spontaneous groups
23. Mechanisms of spontaneous behavior
24. Crowd: content, typology, methods of influence
25. Ethnic identity and its role in human life
26. Ethnic stereotypes and prejudices
27. National character: concept and content
28. Russian national character
29. The process of intergroup differentiation and modernity
30. Gender relations: content and practical manifestation
Glossary
Autostereotype– an emotionally charged, stable image of one’s own people.
Aggression– any form of behavior that is harmful or intended to cause harm to others.
Verbal sign system– speech (meaning of words, nature of their use, selection of expressions, correctness of speech, jargon).
In-group bias- a tendency to have a favorable attitude towards one's own group.
Suggestion- a mechanism of communication in a spontaneous group, manifested in a conscious, unreasoned influence on the group, which aims to change the state, attitude towards something and predisposition to certain actions.
Hostile aggression- behavior prompted by anger, which is an end in itself.
Gender role– a set of expected behavior patterns for women and men.
Gender stereotypes– generalized ideas formed in culture about how men and women behave.
Heterostereotype- an emotionally charged, stable image of another people.
Group polarization– the psychological effect of a small group, manifested in the strengthening of previously existing opinions of group members, a shift in the average tendency towards its pole during the discussion.
Groupthink (groupthink)- a psychological effect that occurs in a small group when the search for consensus becomes so dominant in a close-knit group that realistic assessments of what is happening are discarded.
Deviant behavior - social behavior deviating from generally accepted norms of behavior in society or in a social context.
Deindividuation– the psychological effect of the group, manifested in the loss of self-awareness and fear of evaluation, occurs in situations where anonymity is ensured and attention is not concentrated on the individual.
Infection- a psychological mechanism of communication in a spontaneous group, manifested in the transfer of a state or attitude to a group that adopts this state or attitude. Transfer and assimilation are both voluntary and involuntary.
Psychological game- unconsciously performed manipulation, most often mutual.
Identification– a psychological mechanism of interpersonal perception, consisting in an individual’s identification of himself with another person.
Instrumental aggression- behavior that causes harm, but is a means to achieve some other goal.
Internalization– a mental process through which people find themselves under social influence, when the “external” demands of the subject of influence are reinforced by the individual’s demands on himself (a feeling of trust arises).
Catharsis- emotional release.
Kinesics – field of study of the system of gestures, facial expressions and pantomimes.
The cognitive dissonance- a feeling of mental discomfort in the mind of an individual that occurs when two information (cognitions) collide, related to the same issue, but incompatible with each other.
Team– a limited association of workers with identifiable membership, interdependence and a clearly defined task.
Content analysis– a method of collecting data contained in texts (books, articles, television speeches, official documents, advertising messages, etc.) about the socio-psychological phenomenon or process being studied.
Conflict from a socio-psychological point of view, it is a process of sharp aggravation of contradictions between two or more parties involved in solving problems that are significant to them (perceived incompatibility of actions or goals).
Conformity – an individual's willingness to yield to real or perceived pressure from another person or group of people.
Leadership– the process by which certain group members motivate and lead others.
Personality- a person included in a system of social relations, with the integrity of social and individual properties causally related to relatively stable specific behavior.
Locus of control– the extent to which people perceive their lives as being controlled “internally” through their own efforts and actions, or controlled “externally” by chance or external forces.
Small group– a small group based on direct and regular personal contact, influence on each other and a sense of “we”.
Manipulation- an impulse hidden from the addressee to experience certain states, change his attitude towards something, make decisions and perform actions necessary for the initiator to achieve his own goals.
Mentality ethnic group- a specific complex of ideological and behavioral models of people belonging to one or another ethnic integrity.
National character– a set of specific mental traits, peculiarities of perception of the world, which have become a property of a socio-ethnic community.
Olfactory signals – system of odors (body, cosmetics, etc.).
Optical-kinetic system of signs includes general motor skills of all parts of the body - gestures, facial expressions, pantomime.
Paralinguistic signals– features of pronunciation of speech, individual words and sounds.
Imitation- a psychological mechanism of communication in a spontaneous group, manifested in the reproduction of words, deeds, and actions of the leader.
Prejudice– an unjustifiably negative attitude towards social groups and individuals.
Proxemics– field of study of the spatial and temporal organization of communication (spatial psychology).
Mental makeup of an ethnic group- a set of mental traits that are inherent in representatives of an ethnic community, a specific way of perceiving and reflecting the surrounding reality.
Reactance– motivation to protect or restore one’s own sense of freedom.
Reference group – a small group whose values serve as a kind of standard for an individual who is not a direct member of it.
Solution– a mental operation that reduces the uncertainty of a problem situation, the process of choosing an action option in order to achieve a result.
Socialization– the process of familiarization with the culture of society - the individual’s assimilation of patterns of behavior, psychological mechanisms, social norms and values.
Social identity– awareness of belonging to a social group or social category (life path, gender, religion, occupation), which is the result of categorization and comparison.
Social laziness– the psychological effect of a group, consisting in the tendency of group members to make less effort for a common goal than in the case of individual responsibility.
Social norm– a generally accepted way of thinking, feeling, and behaving that is approved.
Social perception (perception)– active reflection in the human mind of other people, events, information with their direct impact on the senses. There is an ordering and unification of individual sensations into holistic images.
Social Psychology is an attempt to understand and explain how the thoughts, feelings and behavior of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined or perceived behavior of others.
Social role - a pattern of behavior focused on a person's status in accordance with people's expectations.
Social facilitation – strengthening of dominant reactions in the presence of other people in the group.
Social influence– the process by which people directly or indirectly change the thoughts, feelings, or actions of others.
Social stereotype- an image of a social phenomenon or process that has the following characteristics: emotionality, schematicity, simplicity, symbolism.
Social representations – ideas, thoughts, images and “common sense” knowledge shared by people and formed in social interaction.
Sociometry- a method of collecting and analyzing information in the process of socio-psychological research, with the help of which interpersonal relationships and the status of an individual in a small group are studied.
Cohesion– the state of a small group, when a feeling of “we” arises and the degree of connection between group members is high.
Spontaneous behavior - spontaneous and unorganized actions of a mass of individuals.
Attribution theory- a system of ideas about how people explain the behavior of others.
Crowd– spontaneous group , the condition for the formation of which is the direct interaction of individuals on the basis of an acutely experienced factor.
Focus group - a method of collecting and analyzing information in the process of socio-psychological research, a semi-standardized interview in the form of a group discussion.
Fundamental attribution error - reassessment of dispositional causes of observed behavior.
Charisma– psychological attractiveness, the ability to arouse in people commitment to their goals and enthusiasm in achieving them.
Circular reaction- a mental mechanism that contributes to the emergence and development of spontaneous behavior, consisting of picking up an emotion and circling it in the mass.
Extralinguistic system of signs– tempo of speech, inclusion of pauses and inclusions in speech (coughing, laughter, interjections “um”, “well”, “uh-uh”, etc.).
Empathy– a psychological mechanism of perception, consisting of empathy with the feelings of another person (“feeling”).
Ethnos – a large social group that has specific cultural patterns (language, history, origin, religion, customs) that distinguish and isolate this group of people.
Ethnic identification– awareness of belonging to one’s ethnic group, a sense of kinship with it.
Ethnic consciousness – a system of ideas, assessments, images, feelings that reflect national-ethnic existence.
Ethnocentrism- a way of perceiving one’s own social group as a standard, often as more valuable and significant than other cultural groups.
Self-concept– a dynamic system of a person’s emotionally charged ideas about himself (images, schemes, theories), responsible for the comprehension and organization of experiences, thoughts and actions.
Guidelines for studying the course “Social Psychology”
Educational and methodological manual for universities
Compiled by Krasova Elena Yurievna
Editor Tulupov Vladimir Vasilievich
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE
RUSSIAN FEDERATION
KAZAN STATE ARCHITECTURAL AND CONSTRUCTION UNIVERSITY
Department of Vocational Education, Pedagogy and Sociology
PSYCHOLOGY OF SOCIAL INTERACTION
Guidelines
on writing an essay
for full-time and part-time students
in the field of study 08.03.01 “Construction”
Shigapova D.K.
Ш 89. Psychology of social interaction. Guidelines for completing the abstract / Comp. Shigapova D.K. Kazan: Publishing house Kazansk. state architect-build University, 2016.- 71 p.
Published by decision of the Editorial and Publishing Council of the Kazan State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering
The guidelines are intended for full-time and part-time students in the field of study 03/08/01 “Construction”.
Reviewer:
Candidate of Psychological Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Vocational Training, Pedagogy and Sociology
T.V. Suchkova
Kazan State
architectural and construction
university, 2016
Shigapova D.K.
INTRODUCTION
The discipline “Psychology of Social Interaction” is part of the humanitarian, social and economic cycle of disciplines provided for by the federal state educational standards of higher professional education in the preparation of bachelors in the field of “Construction”. Social interaction psychology is a branch of social psychology that studies the psychological aspects of the exchange of social actions between two or more people. As an academic discipline, it involves studying the history of the formation of psychology, the main directions of domestic and foreign psychology, socio-psychological problems of personality and communication, the foundations of team and role interaction, organizational behavior and management, strategies of behavior in a conflict situation. The goal of mastering the discipline is to form a systematic and holistic understanding of the psychological mechanisms of establishing and maintaining socio-psychological relationships in a team, developing the ability to constructively use social knowledge, skills and abilities in the process of interpersonal interaction.
The guidelines provide a brief summary of the topics of the sections. At the end of each section, assignment topics and a list of recommended literature are given.
Requirements for the abstract
1. The essay consists of four tasks.
2. The topic of assignments is selected for each section according to the last number in the grade book (i.e. four topics).
3. At the end of the work, a list of used literature is presented. It is advisable to write the work based on at least four sources.
4. The volume of one task must be at least two printed pages.
6. The work may be rejected by the teacher on the basis of non-compliance with the requirements, both in content and design.
7. At the request of the teacher, the student is obliged to defend the provisions of the essay orally.
8. Font size – 14; line spacing – single, font alignment width.
SECTION 1. SOCIAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL PROPERTIES
PERSONALITY
History of the formation of social psychology as a science. Development of psychology in Russia 19-20 centuries. Main directions of foreign psychology of the 20th century. Methods of socio-psychological research. The concept of personality. Socio-psychological structure and personality characteristics. Socially - psychological aspects of socialization.
History of the formation of social psychology as a science. Social interaction psychology is a branch of social psychology that studies the psychological aspects of the exchange of social actions between two or more people.
The word “psychology” translated into Russian means “the science of the soul” (Greek psyche – “soul”, logos – “concept”, “teaching”). From a linguistic point of view, “soul” and “psyche” are one and the same. However, with the development of culture and science, the meanings of these concepts diverged. Traditionally, the psyche is characterized as the property of living, highly organized matter to reflect with its states the surrounding objective world in its connections and relationships. The functions of the psyche are a reflection of the surrounding world and regulation of behavior and activity of a living creature in order to ensure its survival.
The psyche is complex and diverse in its manifestations. Usually there are three large groups of mental phenomena: mental processes, mental states and mental properties.
Mental process– dynamic reflection of reality in various forms of mental phenomena. A mental process is the course of a mental phenomenon that has a beginning, development and end, manifested in the form of a reaction. The end of a mental process is closely related to the beginning of a new process. Mental processes are caused both by external influences and by stimulation of the nervous system coming from the internal environment of the body.
All mental processes are divided into educational(sensations and perceptions, ideas and memory, thinking and imagination); emotional– active and passive experiences; strong-willed– decision, execution, volitional effort.
Mental processes ensure the formation of knowledge and the primary regulation of human behavior and activity.
Mental condition- this is a relatively stable level of mental activity that has been determined at a given time, which manifests itself in increased or decreased activity of the individual.
Under mental properties a person should be understood as stable formations that provide a certain qualitative and quantitative level of activity and behavior typical for a given person.
Mental processes (sensation, perception, memory, thinking, imagination, attention), mental properties (temperament, character, abilities) and mental states of a person (affect, euphoria, apathy, fear, anger, etc.) collectively determine behavior person.
Thus, psychology studies the inner world of subjective phenomena, processes and states, conscious or unconscious of the person himself, as well as his behavior, studies objective patterns and manifestations of the psyche.
Modern psychology is a widely developed field of knowledge, including a number of individual disciplines and scientific areas. This includes, for example, educational psychology, developmental psychology, engineering psychology, medical psychology, etc.
Social Psychology explores the socio-psychological manifestations of a person’s personality, his relationships with people, the psychological compatibility of people, patterns of behavior and activities of people determined by their inclusion in social groups, as well as the psychological characteristics of these groups and socio-psychological manifestations in large groups (actions of the media, fashion, rumors about various communities of people).
The object of study of social psychology can be: an individual, a social group (both small and large, including representatives of the entire ethnic group). The subject of social psychology is the study of the development processes of the individual and a specific group, the processes of interpersonal and intergroup interaction.
In the history of the formation of the subject of psychology, several stages can be distinguished.
The first ideas about the psyche were associated with animism (Latin anima - spirit, soul).
The soul was understood as an entity independent of the body that controls all living and inanimate objects.
According to the ancient Greek philosopher Plato (427-347 BC), a person’s soul exists before it enters into union with the body. Mental phenomena are divided by Plato into reason, courage (in the modern sense - will) and lust (motivation). The harmonious unity of reason, noble aspirations and lust gives integrity to a person’s mental life.
The great philosopher Aristotle, in his treatise “On the Soul,” singled out psychology as a unique field of knowledge and for the first time put forward the idea of the inseparability of the soul and the living body. The soul, according to Aristotle, is incorporeal; it is the form of a living body, the cause and goal of all its vital functions. The soul has three different levels: vegetative - the soul of plants; sensual, predominant in the souls of animals, and rational, inherent only in humans. Aristotle characterizes the rational soul as that part of the soul that thinks and knows. The mind is eternal and is in close connection with the universal mind. Aristotle first characterizes man as a “political animal”, existing and dependent on society and the state.
During the Middle Ages, the idea was established that the soul is a divine, supernatural principle, and therefore the study of mental life should be subordinated to the tasks of theology.
From the XYII century. a new era begins in the development of psychological knowledge.
Psychology began to develop as a science of consciousness. It is characterized by attempts to comprehend the human spiritual world primarily from general philosophical, speculative positions, without the necessary experimental basis.
The German philosopher G. Leibniz (1646-1716), rejecting the equality of psyche and consciousness established by Descartes, introduced the concept of the unconscious psyche. The hidden work of psychic forces—countless “small perceptions” (perceptions)—continuously goes on in the human soul. From them arise conscious desires and passions.
The term “empirical psychology” was introduced by the German philosopher of the 18th century.
H. Wolf to denote a direction in psychological science, the main principle of which is the observation of specific mental phenomena, their classification and the establishment of an experimentally verifiable natural connection between them.
Psychology became an independent science in the 60s of the nineteenth century. It was associated with the creation of special research institutions: psychological laboratories and institutes, departments in higher educational institutions, as well as with the introduction of experiments to study mental phenomena. In 1879 in Leipzig, the German scientist W. Wundt opened the world's first experimental psychological laboratory.
Topics of assignments for section 1
1. The history of the formation of social psychology as a science.
2. Development of psychology in Russia 19-20 centuries.
3. Methods of socio-psychological research.
4. Z. Freud's psychoanalytic approach to understanding personality.
5. Analytical psychology of K. G. Jung.
6. Basic principles of humanistic psychology
7. Basic principles of behaviorism
8. Formation of self-concept and self-esteem.
9. Motivation as a manifestation of individual needs
10. Social and psychological aspects of socialization.
List of references for section 1
1. Andreeva G.M. Social psychology: textbook for universities.-5th ed., revised. and additional – M.: Aspect-Press, 2013. - 363 p.
2. Introduction to psychology / ed. ed. prof. A.V.Petrovsky. – M., 2012. - 496 p.
3. Gippenreiter Yu.B. Introduction to general psychology. Lecture course. M., 2012. – 336 p.
4. Zhdan A.N. History of psychology: from antiquity to the present day: a textbook for students of psychological faculties. M.: Academic project, 2013. - 576 p.
5. Nemov R.S. Psychology: a textbook for students. higher Pedagogical education establishments. In 3 books. -5th ed. – M., 2013. – Book 1: General fundamentals of psychology. – 687s.
6. Stolyarenko L.D. Basics of psychology. – Rostov n/d.: Phoenix, 2013. – 672 p.
7. Kjell L., Ziegler D. Theories of personality. – St. Petersburg, 2011. – 607 p.
INTERACTIONS
Communication as a socio-psychological phenomenon. Unity of communication with activity. Types of communication. Psychological features of business communication. Structure of interpersonal communication The communicative side of communication. Communication barriers. The interactive side of communication. The perceptual side of communication. Mechanisms of social perception.
Types of communication.
1. " Contact masks"- formal communication, when there is no desire to understand and take into account the personality characteristics of the interlocutor, the usual masks are used (politeness, severity, indifference, modesty, etc.) - a set of facial expressions, gestures, standard phrases that allow one to hide true emotions, attitude towards the interlocutor .
2. Primitive communication when they evaluate another person as a necessary or interfering object: if necessary, they actively come into contact, if it interferes, they will push away or aggressive, rude remarks will follow.
3. Formal-role communication, when both the content and means of communication are regulated and instead of knowing the personality of the interlocutor, they make do with knowledge of his social role.
4. Business conversation, when the personality, character, age, and mood of the interlocutor are taken into account, but the interests of the matter are more significant than possible personal differences.
5. Spiritual, personal communication is concentrated mainly around psychological problems of an internal nature, those interests and needs that deeply and intimately affect a person’s personality.
6. Manipulative communication is aimed at extracting benefits from the interlocutor using various techniques (flattery, intimidation, deception, demonstration of kindness, etc.) depending on the personality characteristics of the interlocutor.
7. Social communication.
Communication barriers
A communication barrier is a psychological obstacle that arises in the way of transmitting adequate information. In modern social psychology, different types of communication barriers are distinguished. The most common are the following: barriers of misunderstanding (phonetic, semantic, stylistic, logical, etc.); barriers of socio-cultural differences (social, political, religious, professional, etc.); relationship barriers (occur when negative feelings and emotions interfere with interaction).
An important feature of interpersonal communication is the availability of opportunities for the emergence of phenomena of interpersonal influence , which, in particular, include: suggestion, infection, persuasion. Influence in interpersonal communication is aimed at satisfying one's motives and needs with the help of other people or through them.
Topics of assignments for section 2
1. Functions and structure of communication.
2. Strategies and types of communication.
3. Factors that hinder communication.
4. Verbal and non-verbal means of communication.
5. Mechanisms of interpersonal perception.
6.Effects of interpersonal perception.
7. Interpersonal attraction.
8. Communication as interaction.
9. Transactional analysis of E. Berne about the structure of human relationships.
10.Business communication and its forms.
List of references for section 2
1. Andreeva G.M. Social psychology: textbook for universities.-5th ed., revised. and additional – M., 2013. -364 p.
2. Andrienko E.V. Social psychology: a textbook for students. higher ped. textbook institutions / ed. V.A. Slastenin. -M., 2012.-264 p.
3. Bern E. Games that people play. Psychology of human relationships. People who play games or you said "Hello". What's next? Psychology of human destiny. - Ekaterinburg, 2013. - 576 p.
4. Kupriyanova N.V. Business culture and psychology of communication: textbook. allowance. – Kazan: KazGASU, 2010. -255 p.
5. Leontiev A.A. Psychology of communication: textbook. – 5th ed. erased –M., 2013. -368 p.
6. Nemov R.S. Psychology: textbook for students of higher pedagogical educational institutions in 3 books. – 5th ed. – M., 2013. – Book 1: General fundamentals of psychology. -687 pp.
7. General psychology. Dictionary / edited by A.V. Petrovsky // Psychological Lexicon. Encyclopedic dictionary in six volumes/ed.-compiled by L.A. Karpenko. Under general ed. A.V.Petrovsky. – M., 2012. -251 p.
8. Psychology: textbook for pedagogical universities / ed. B.A. Sosnovsky. –M., 2012. -660 p.
9. Stolyarenko L.D. Basics of psychology. 12th ed. Textbook / L.D. Stolyarenko. – Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 2013. -672 p.
Small group.
A small group is an association of people who have direct contact with each other, are united by joint activities, emotional or family closeness, are aware of their belonging to the group and are recognized by other people. (for example: sports team, school class, nuclear family, youth party, production team).
A small group has the following characteristics:
Integrity– a measure of unity, cohesion, community of group members.
Microclimate– the psychological well-being of each individual in the group, his satisfaction with the group, the comfort of staying in it.
Referentiality– acceptance by group members of common standards.
Leadership – the degree of influence of certain group members on the group as a whole for the sake of achieving common goals.
Intragroup activity – a measure within the group activity of its members.
Intergroup activity – the degree of activity of the group as a whole and its members with external groups.
Group focus – the social value of its adopted goals, motives for activity, value orientations and group norms.
Organization– the group’s real ability to self-govern.
Emotionality – interpersonal emotional relationships of group members; the prevailing emotional mood of the group.
Intellectual communication – the nature of interpersonal perception and establishing mutual understanding, finding a common language of communication.
Strong-willed communication– the group’s ability to withstand difficulties and obstacles; its reliability in activities and behavior in extreme situations.
The simplest parameters of any group include: composition and structure of the group; group expectations, processes, norms and values, sanctions and rewards. Each of these parameters may take on different meanings depending on the type of group being studied. For example, the composition of a group can be described by age, professional, social and other characteristics.
Small group structure.
The structure of a group is understood as the totality of connections that develop between individuals in it.
Sociometric structure of a small group– is a set of connections and relationships between its members, based on mutual preferences and rejections, known from the results of a sociometric test D. Moreno. The sociometric structure of the group is built on emotional relationships, likes and dislikes, and the phenomena of interpersonal attractiveness and popularity.
Main characteristics of the sociometric structure of a small group:
1) characteristics of the sociometric status of group members - the position they occupy in the system of interpersonal choices and rejections;
2) characteristics of mutual, emotional preferences and rejections of group members;
3) the presence of microgroups whose members are connected by mutual elections, and the nature of the relations between them;
4) sociometric cohesion of the group - the ratio of the number of mutual choices and rejections to the number of maximum possible ones.
The structure of interpersonal choices and rejections in a group, presented graphically, is called a group sociogram.
Communicative structure of a small group– this is a set of connections between its members in systems of information flows circulating in the group.
Role structure of a small group– it is a set of connections and relationships between individuals, depending on the distribution of group roles between them.
When analyzing the interaction process in a group, the following stand out:
1) roles related to problem solving:
a) initiator - offers new ideas and approaches to the problems and goals of the group;
b) developer – is engaged in the development of ideas and proposals;
c) coordinator – coordinates the activities of group members;
d) controller - controls the direction of the group towards its goals;
e) evaluator - evaluates the work of the group according to existing standards for completing the assigned task;
f) driver - stimulates the group;
2) roles related to providing support to other group members:
a) inspirer - supports the endeavors of others;
b) harmonizer - serves as a mediator and peacemaker in conflict situations;
c) dispatcher – promotes and regulates communication processes;
d) standardizer - normalizes the processes occurring in the group;
e) follower - passively follows the group.
Analysis of the role structure of a small group shows what roles each participant in group interaction plays.
Structure of social power and influence in a small group it is a set of connections between individuals, which is based on the direction and intensity of their mutual influence.
Components of social power structures:
1) the roles of those in power - are expressed in directive influence on the status and behavior of subordinates;
2) the roles of subordinates - are expressed in obedience and depend on the roles of the rulers.
The main characteristic of the structure of social power and influence of a formal group is the officially established system of connections that underlies the leadership of the group - the phenomenon of leadership.
Topics of assignments for section 3
1. Characteristics of the concept of “social group”. Small group and its structure.
2. Classification of small groups.
3. Concept and distinctive characteristics of a team. Types of commands.
4. Stages of team formation.
5. Typology of team roles.
6. Power as a psychological phenomenon.
7. Leadership theories.
8. Leadership and leadership styles.
9. Typology of leadership.
10. Personal traits of a leader.
List of references for section 3
1. Andreeva G.M. Social psychology: textbook for universities. – 5th ed., revised. and additional – M.: Aspect-Press, 2013. – 363 p.
2. Galkina T.P. Sociology of management: from group to team: textbook. manual. – M.: Finance and Statistics, 2011. – 224 p.
3. Efimova N. S., Litvinova A. V. Social psychology. – M.: Yurayt, 2012.– 448 p.
4. Krichevsky R. L., Dubovskaya E. M. Social psychology of a small group: textbook. manual for universities. – M.: Aspect-Press, 2012. – 318 p.
5. MeisterD. Practice what you preach. What leaders must do to create an organizational culture focused on excellence. Practice What You Preach: What Managers Must Do to Create a High Achievement Culture. M.: Alpina Business Books, 2012. – 164 p.
6. Pfeffer J. Power and influence. Politics and management in organizations. – M., 2009. – 512 p.
7. Personnel management of an organization: Textbook / Under. ed. AND I. Kibanova, 9th ed., add. and processed M.: INFA-M. – 2013.- 547 p.
8. Cherednichenko I.P., Telnykh N.V. Psychology of management / Series “Textbooks for Higher School”. – Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 2012. – 608 p.
9. Shane E.G. Organizational culture and leadership: a textbook for students studying in the Master of Business Administration programs: Trans. from English. St. Petersburg: Peter, 2011. – 315 p.
Organization as a social system. Organizational behavior. Personality in the organization. Qualities of a leader and performer. Corporate culture of the organization. Conflicts in the organization. Work team. Career: types, models. Planning and stages of a business career.
Organizational behavior.
Organizational behavior- a field of knowledge, a discipline that studies the behavior of people and groups in organizations in order to find the most effective methods of managing them to achieve the organization's goals. Organizational behavior deals with the formation of behavioral models, the development of behavior management skills, and the practical use of acquired skills.
The main practical tasks of organizational behavior are:
Formation of basic theoretical ideas about human behavior in an organization;
Determining ways to increase the efficiency of a person’s work activity, both individually and in groups;
Studying methods of describing employees and groups, the ability to praise oneself;
Development of organizational culture and management image.
Organizational behavior is influenced by internal (subjective) and external (objective) factors.
There are the following models of organizational behavior: authorization, guardianship, supportive, collegial.
Characteristics of the models are presented in Table 1.
Human behavior - a set of conscious, socially significant actions determined by the position occupied, i.e. understanding of one's own functions.
Table 1.
Models of organizational behavior
| Characteristics | Authorizations | Guardianship | Supportive | Collegiate |
| Model basis | Power | Economic resources | Management | Partnership |
| Management orientation | Authority | Money | Support | Teamwork |
| Worker orientation | Subordination | Safety and benefits | Completing work assignments | Responsible Behavior |
| Psychological result | Dependence on immediate superior | Organization Dependency | Participation in management | Self-discipline |
| Satisfying employee needs | In existence | In safety | In recognition status | In self-realization |
| Participation of workers in the labor process | Minimum | Passive cooperation | Awakened Stimuli | Moderate Enthusiasm |
Depending on how the fundamental components of behavior are combined, it can be distinguished four types human behavior in an organization.
First type behavior (a dedicated and disciplined member of the organization) is characterized by the fact that a person fully accepts the values and norms of behavior and tries to behave in such a way that his actions do not in any way conflict with the interests of the organization. Second type behavior ( "opportunist") is characterized by the fact that a person does not accept the values of the organization, but tries to behave according to the norms and forms of behavior accepted in the organization. Third type behavior ("original") is characterized by the fact that a person accepts the values of the organization, but does not accept the norms of behavior existing in it. In this case, he may have many difficulties in relationships with colleagues and management. Fourth type behavior ( "Rebel") is characterized by the fact that a person does not accept either the norms of behavior or the values of the organization, constantly comes into conflict with the organizational environment and creates conflict situations.
Personality in the organization.
Personality - this is, firstly, a systemic quality of an individual, explained by his involvement in social relations and manifested in joint activities and communication; secondly, the subject and product of social relations.
Individuality- This is a type of relatively stable manifestation of how a person thinks, feels, sees himself.
Personality structure. K.K. Platonov identified four substructures or levels in the personality structure:
1) biologically determined substructure (which includes temperament, gender, age, and sometimes pathological properties of the psyche);
2) psychological substructure, including individual properties of individual mental processes that have become properties of the individual (memory, emotions, sensations, thinking, perception, feelings and will);
3) the substructure of social experience (which includes the knowledge, skills, abilities and habits acquired by a person);
4) substructure of personality orientation (within which there is, in turn, a special hierarchically interconnected series of substructures: drives, desires, interests, inclinations, ideals, individual picture of the world and the highest form of orientation - beliefs).
Additional personality characteristics.
1) Locus control is a quality characterizing a person’s tendency to attribute responsibility for the results of his activities to external forces or his own efforts.
2) Self-esteem.
3) The need to achieve involvement in power.
6) Positions of a person.
7) Level of aspiration.
Corporate culture.
Corporate culture defined as a set of values, customs, traditions, norms, beliefs and assumptions embodied in various aspects of the organization's activities, and which make this or that organization unique.
Corporate culture is a set of ideas, views, and values accepted by all members of the organization, which serve as guidelines for their behavior and actions. The main indicator of a developed corporate culture: the conviction of all employees that their organization is the best. When people of different character and content unite to achieve a common goal and at the same time identify themselves with the organization, we can talk about corporate spirit.
Components corporate culture are:
Behavior and Communication;
Values;
Work culture;
Symbols (artifacts): slogans, rituals, etc.
Corporate culture consists of a set of behavior patterns that are acquired by an organization in the process of adaptation to the external environment and internal integration, which have shown their effectiveness and are shared by the majority of members of the organization.
Functions corporate culture.
At the stage of getting to know the team, a fixed system of values and goals helps the new employee quickly adapt to life in this team, thereby fulfilling educational function;
Culture in a team is an indicator of the norms of behavior in it - regulating function;
The accumulation of existing values, their embodiment in the actions of employees is a function public memory;
Often, corporate culture influences a person’s worldview, and it comes into conflict with personal values. But perhaps a person adopts the value system of the collective for his life - meaning-forming function;
-Communicative function – due to common elements of culture, norms of behavior and goals, the interaction of the corporation’s employees occurs;
Embracing a culture can awaken hidden potential in an employee - motivational function;
Culture in a team serves as a kind of obstacle to undesirable tendencies, fulfilling security function;
-Image formation the company - clients or external partners do not need to delve into the intricacies of the process, get acquainted with the documentation, they form their opinion about it based on its system of values and guidelines;
-Educational function – culture involves constant self-improvement and learning, which has a beneficial effect on the employee’s work activities;
Over time, only the most acceptable functions remain in the team and unnecessary ones are forced out.
Typology of corporate culture. There is an extensive typology of corporate cultures, we will present some of them.
Some Russian researchers identify the following types of modern Russian corporate culture: “friends”, “family”, “boss” culture.
Cameron and Quinn's typology divides corporate culture into 4 types. Clan culture. Adhocratic culture. Hierarchical (bureaucratic) culture. Market culture.
Conflicts in the organization.
Conflict - lack of agreement between two or more parties, each party does everything to ensure that its point of view is accepted, and prevents the other party from doing the same.
Causes of conflicts in organizations.
-Resource distribution.
-Interdependence of tasks and responsibilities.
-Differences in goals.
-Differences in ideas and values.
-Differences in life experiences and behavior patterns.
-Poor communications.
Highlight four types of conflicts In the organisation:
1. Intrapersonal conflict or a conflict of mental levels. One of its most common forms is role conflict, when conflicting demands are made on a person regarding what the result of his work should be. It may arise from work demands that are inconsistent with personal needs or values, or as a response to work overload or underwork. It is associated with low job satisfaction, low self-confidence and organization, and stress.
2.Interpersonal conflict . This type of conflict is perhaps the most common. Most often, this is a struggle between managers over limited resources, capital or labor, time to use equipment, or approval of a project. Interpersonal conflict can also manifest itself as a clash of personalities. As a rule, the views and goals of such people differ radically.
3. Conflict between a person and a group. Production groups set standards for behavior and performance. Everyone must comply with them in order to be accepted by the informal group and thereby satisfy their social needs. However, if the group's expectations conflict with the individual's expectations, conflict may arise. It may arise from the manager's job responsibilities: between the need to ensure adequate performance and adhere to the rules and procedures of the organization.
4.Intergroup conflict. Organizations are made up of many groups, both formal and informal. Even in the best organizations, conflicts can arise between such groups. These are disagreements between line and staff personnel. Line managers may reject the recommendations of staff specialists and express dissatisfaction with their dependence on them for everything related to information. In extreme situations, line managers may deliberately choose to implement the specialists' proposal in such a way that the whole undertaking will end in failure.
Strategies for behavior in conflict situations. When a person finds himself in a conflict situation, in order to more effectively solve the problem, he needs to choose a certain style of behavior.
1. Device: the most important task is to restore calm and stability, not to resolve the conflict; the subject of disagreement involves more complex issues than those currently being considered, but in the meantime it is necessary to strengthen mutual trust; you need to admit that you are wrong; you understand that the outcome is much more important for your opponent than for you.
2. Compromise(resolution of disagreements through mutual concessions): the parties have equally convincing arguments; it takes time to resolve complex issues; it is necessary to make an urgent decision when there is a shortage of time; you may be satisfied with a temporary solution; compromise will allow you to maintain your relationship with your opponent, and you would rather gain something than lose everything.
3. Cooperation(joint decision making, satisfaction