1. Study planning– includes the selection and testing of methods and techniques, taking into account factors that may affect the result of the study. Planning is drawing up a logical and chronological research scheme, selecting subjects, determining their number and the required number of measurements, determining a method for processing the data obtained and describing the entire study.
2. Location of the study. Isolation from external disturbances, a certain level of comfort and a relaxed working environment must be ensured.
3. Technical equipment must correspond to the tasks being solved.
4. Selection of subjects must ensure their qualitative homogeneity.
5. Instructions is compiled at the work planning stage. The instructions must be clear, concise, and unambiguous.
6. Researcher behavior.
7. Maintaining a research protocol.
8. Processing of research results– this is a quantitative and qualitative analysis of the data obtained during the study.
Stages of psychological research
1. Preparatory. Studying the state of the issue. Formulation of a working hypothesis. Selection of research methods.
2. Collection of evidence. For this purpose, various methods are used; this stage can be divided into several series.
3. Quantitative data processing. Determination of average values, measures of data dispersion, correlation coefficients, plotting graphs, etc.
4. Interpretation of data and drawing conclusions.
The main function of the method is internal organization and regulation of the process of cognition or practical transformation of a particular object.
The method disciplines the search for truth, saves energy and time, and allows you to move towards the goal in the shortest possible way.
Psychological Research Strategies
A psychological study may study the same people and only once. This method is called by cutting method. However, if researchers want to understand how this or that ability develops, how certain qualities and properties of people change with age, they study the same people for several years. This method is called longitudinal study (from English longitude - longitude), or longitudinally.
Longitudinal research can be conducted over 2, 3, 5 years. The longest longitudinal study in the history of psychology is the California Longitudinal Study, which followed the development of more than 1,000 gifted children over 40 years.
Observation
LECTURE PLAN
1. Observation as a research method in psychology
2. Classification of observations
3. Advantages and disadvantages of the observation method
Scientific knowledge as a way of reflecting reality invariably involves the perception of the characteristics of natural phenomena and spheres of human activity. Broadly speaking, any method of empirical research contains elements of observation of objects in order to study their specificity and changes. Moreover, experiment, testing, oral or written survey, expert assessment, content analysis, etc. can well be considered as types of observations, differing in their conditions and the nature of the procedures performed. However, the scientific tradition has long been entrenched in the identification of a special observational method, relatively independent from all others, combining observation and introspection (introspection).
Of course, within the framework of a particular science, this method acquires its specific content. However, it is certainly based on two principles:
· passivity of the subject of cognition, expressed in the refusal to interfere in the processes being studied in order to preserve the naturalness of their flow;
· immediacy of perception, which implies limiting the possibility of obtaining data within the limits of a clearly defined situation of the present time (what is usually observed is what is happening “here and now”).
In psychology, observation is understood as a method of studying the mental characteristics of individuals based on recording manifestations of their behavior.
Observation is a purposeful and systematic perception of phenomena, the results of which are recorded by the observer.
It is impossible to observe the internal, subjective essences of thinking, imagination, will, temperament, character, abilities, etc., taken by themselves, outside of specific external manifestations. The subject of observation is verbal and non-verbal acts of behavior that take place in a certain situation or environment. It is they, properly identified and registered, that become characteristics of intellectual and personal development, the dynamics of achievements, the severity of states and much more.
Thus, when studying people, a researcher can observe:
1) speech activity (content, sequence, duration, frequency, direction, intensity);
2) expressive reactions (expressive movements of the face, body);
3) position of bodies in space (movement, immobility, distance, speed, direction of movement...);
4) physical contacts (touching, pushing, hitting, passing, joint efforts...).
In this case, a lot depends, naturally, on observation skills– the ability to notice significant, characteristic, including subtle, properties of objects and phenomena. Without developing this quality in oneself, it is impossible to effectively carry out research activities. However, the matter does not stop there.
If, for example, a very observant person looks around, without having specific goals for observation and without recording its results in any way, then he will only see many faces and witness various events. The information he collects cannot be considered as evidence or refutation of facts, patterns, or theories. Such a person saw and heard a lot, but did not conduct observations in the strict sense of the word.
Scientific observation is different from everyday life with the following properties:
· focus ; the observer must clearly understand what he is going to perceive and why, otherwise his activity will turn into the registration of individual bright and distinct secondary stimuli, and essential material will remain unaccounted for;
· systematic , which will reliably distinguish the random from the typical, natural;
· systematic , since following the plan and program helps to increase the efficiency of the study by determining how the observation will be carried out; when, where, under what conditions;
· analyticity , because it involves not only a statement of observed facts, but also their explanation, the identification of their psychological nature;
· registration of results , which allows you to eliminate memory errors, thereby reducing the subjectivity of conclusions and generalizations;
· operating with a system of unambiguous concepts , special terms that contribute to a clear and unambiguous designation of the observed material, as well as the uniformity of possible interpretations.
Because of this, scientific observation acquires fundamental repeatability of results. The data that a researcher obtained under certain conditions will most likely be confirmed by another researcher if he works under the same conditions and the object of observation has not changed. For the results of scientific observation, while maintaining a certain subjectivity, depend less on the personality of the perceiver than the results of everyday observation.
As a method of psychological research, observation has its strengths and weaknesses. Let's look at their approximate list:
Psychological research is not complete without using the observation method at any stage, but it is extremely rare that the matter is limited to using only this method, without including others. The study of complex mental phenomena requires the researcher, as a rule, to consistently apply a whole complex of empirical methods of cognition.
So far we have been talking about the general characteristics of psychological observation. However, this method has many varieties, distinguished for one reason or another. Let's move on to the question of classification of observations.
Depending on the degree of involvement of the researcher in the environment being studied There are two types of observations:
· included, when there is personal participation of the observer in the activity perceived and recorded by him. At the same time, other people usually consider him a participant in the event, and not an observer;
· third party, when an event occurs without the direct participation of an observer acting as if “from the outside.”
It should be noted that in most cases, people's behavior changes dramatically if they notice that they have become the object of research. This violates the requirement to preserve the naturalness of the conditions of the activity being studied. But in practice, for ethical or other reasons, it is not always possible to study their mental characteristics unnoticed by the subjects.
That's why by the nature of interactions with the object There are the following types of observations:
· hidden, in which people do not know that they are being observed. (In this case, the psychologist is either “disguised” as an ordinary participant in events, that is, his behavior for others is quite consistent with what is expected in a given situation, does not arouse suspicion, or he observes them indirectly, “from the outside,” using, say, Gesell’s mirror or a hidden video camera);
· open, in which people are aware of the observation being made. Usually, after some time, they get used to the presence of a psychologist and begin to behave more naturally, unless, of course, the observer provokes close attention to themselves.
· external, the behavior of other people;
· introspection(from Latin “I look inside”, “I peer”), that is, introspection. The results of the latter in modern psychology are not taken for granted, but are taken into account as facts that require objective scientific interpretation.
Regarding the research time observation is distinguished:
· one-time, single, produced only once;
· periodic carried out over certain periods of time;
· longitudinal(in English “longitude”), characterized by a special extent, constancy of contact between the researcher and the object for a long time.
By the nature of perception observation could be:
· solid when the researcher turns his attention equally to all objects available to him;
· selective, when he is only interested in certain parameters (say, such as the frequency of manifestations of aggression, the time of interaction between mother and child during the day, the characteristics of speech contacts between children and teachers, etc.).
By the nature of data registration observation is divided into:
· stating, where the researcher’s task is to clearly record the presence and characteristics of significant forms of behavior and collect facts;
· evaluative, where the researcher compares facts according to the degree of their expression in a certain range.
And finally, in terms of the degree of standardization of procedures in distinguished: free or exploratory observation, which is associated with a specific goal, but is devoid of clear restrictions in the choice of what to pay attention to, what moments to record. It is permissible to change the subject of research and rules if the need arises. This type of observation is usually used in the early stages of scientific work.
Structured or standardized, when events occurring are recorded without the slightest deviation from given programs. At the same time, the rules of observation are clearly defined, the entire content of research activities is prescribed, and uniform methods of recording and analyzing data are introduced. Such observation is usually used where the researcher is required to highlight already known and definable characteristics of reality, and not to look for new ones. This, of course, narrows the field of observation to some extent, but increases the comparability of the results obtained.
Let us now move on to a description of the stages of scientific observation. Traditionally, the following stages are distinguished:
1. Determining the purpose of observation.
2. Selection of the object of research (what individual or what kind of group is to be studied?)
3. Clarification of the subject of research (which aspects of behavior reveal the content of the mental phenomena being studied?)
4. Planning observation situations (in what cases or under what conditions does the subject of research reveal itself most clearly?)
5. Selection of an observation method that has the least impact on the object and ensures the collection of the necessary information to the greatest extent.
6. Establishing the duration of the total research time and the number of observations.
7. Selecting methods for recording the material under study (how to keep records?).
8. Forecasting possible observation errors and searching for ways to prevent them.
9. Carrying out a preliminary, trial observation session necessary to clarify the actions of the previous stages and identify organizational shortcomings.
10. Correction of the monitoring program.
11. Observation stage.
12. Processing and interpretation of received information.
We should dwell in more detail on the question of methods for recording the observed material.
Let's start with the fact that the process of effective observation is not possible without artificially isolating certain units of object activity from the general course of events. This refers to the designation of what he is doing at the moment, how he is doing it. Such units of activity are expressed using ordinary words or scientific terminology. They are recorded in the observation protocol.
Typically, there are 3 types of results registration procedures. Namely:
1.Usage feature (sign) systems. At the same time, in advance, during the preparation of observation forms, specific types of behavior characteristic of this area are described. In the future, they record which of them appeared and how often during the observation period. Each sign must be formulated unambiguously for understanding by different people and not require additional explanation.
For example, what signs of student interest in the content of the lesson can you name? What are the signs that they are not interested in the material they are learning? Of course, among the meanings you named there should not be words like “attentive”, “interested”, “understanding”, which need to be specified in meaning. And such signs as animated gestures, “chewing a pencil” indicate both the intensity of interest and the complete absence of the latter.
It is obvious that the proposed system of features is not exhaustive. During the observation, some significant characteristic may well emerge that we had previously missed. With this method of recording results, the set of characteristics is considered open. If necessary, it is allowed to make certain additions to it after the start of observation.
2. Application category systems. Such a system contains a complete description of all types of possible behavior. You cannot add anything new to it during the observation process.
The fact is that the set of categories is compiled on a certain scientific basis. It is assumed that it covers all theoretical possible manifestations of the process being studied.
Bales, through free observation of the work of groups, identified more than 80 signs of interpersonal communication, which, when systematized, were combined into 12 categories, and the last into 4 classes. Here's what they look like (according to Kornilova):
Class A. Positive emotions:
1. Expresses solidarity, increases the status of another, rewards;
2. Expresses relaxation of tension, jokes, laughs, expresses satisfaction;
3. Agrees, expresses passive acceptance, gives in;
Class B. Problem solving:
4. Gives advice, direction, implying the autonomy of the other;
5. Expresses an opinion, evaluates, analyzes, expresses feelings, desires;
6. Gives orientation, information, clarifies, confirms;
Class C. Statement of problems:
9. Asks for advice, direction, possible course of action;
Class D. Negative emotions:
10. Objects, gives passive rejection, is formal, refuses help;
11. Expresses tension, asks for help, gives in to a problem;
12. Expresses antagonism, undermines the status of another, defends or asserts oneself;
3. Rating scale, (from the English “assessment”, “order”, “classification”). With this method of recording results, the researcher’s attention is drawn not to the presence of this or that characteristic, but to the quantitative or qualitative degree of its presence and representation. In this case, the work is carried out according to a pre-prepared ordinal scale.
For example: What interest does the student show during classes?
The specificity of the rating scale is that it is usually filled out either at the last stage of observation or at its end. Of all the data recording methods, this is the most subjective. The researcher acts here not so much as an observer, but as an expert, comparing behavioral signs with “standard” samples known only to him. Therefore, the rating scale is often used not independently of other registration methods, but along with them. Then filling it out based on a system of signs or a system of categories becomes the beginning of the procedure for interpreting the observation results.
Observation logging allows you to return to observed facts. The protocol is the basis and starting point for further analysis:
· Records must be sufficiently detailed to permit objective analysis.
· Take notes at the observation site or immediately after the study. After observation, review the records, correct them and supplement them.
· The form of keeping the protocol is determined by:
The subject, task and purity of the research;
Availability of prepared symbols for registering facts;
Availability of technical means.
· Write down only the facts and not their interpretation.
· Perceive each response and action not in isolation, but in connection with other actions, words, and accompanying phenomena.
· All records must be processed immediately. Do not accumulate a large amount of observational material, since processing requires more time than the observation itself.
For example, an observation protocol for a training session might look like this:
The observer records in the protocol only what directly or indirectly contributes to the solution of the problem being studied. These are genuine facts that most accurately represent a specific situation.
In addition to protocols, other forms of recording are possible, for example, a diary, kept chronologically and, if possible, without interruption. Diaries are usually used for long-term observation. Technical means are of great assistance in surveillance: tape recorder, hidden camera, etc.
The observation results must necessarily be supported by data obtained using other methods of psychological and pedagogical research.
EXPERIMENT
LECTURE PLAN
1. Experiment as the main method of psychological research.
2. Types of experiment.
3. Reasons for distortion of experimental data.
4. Quasi-experimental studies.
E experiment from lat. “test, experiment” - the leading method of scientific knowledge, including psychological research, is aimed at identifying cause-and-effect relationships. It is characterized by the creation of optimal conditions for the study of certain phenomena, as well as targeted and controlled changes in these conditions.
Related information.
A test is a special type of non-experimental research, which is a special task or system of tasks. The subject performs a task, the completion time of which is usually taken into account. Tests are used to study abilities, level of mental development, skills, level of knowledge acquisition, as well as to study individual characteristics of mental processes.
Testing is usually a time-limited test with the help of which the level of development or degree of expression of certain mental properties of an individual, group or community is measured.
Test classification:
- 1) in form:
- a) oral and written;
- b) individual and group;
- c) hardware and blank;
- d) subject and computer;
- e) verbal and non-verbal (the completion of tasks is based on non-verbal abilities (perceptual, motor), and the speech abilities of the subjects are included in them only in terms of understanding instructions. Non-verbal tests include most instrumental tests, subject tests, drawing tests, etc.);
- 2) by content:
- a) studying the properties of intelligence;
- b) abilities;
- c) individual personality characteristics, etc.;
- 3) for testing purposes:
- a) tests for self-knowledge are not strictly scientific, they are small in volume, they are distinguished by the simplicity of testing and calculating results, they are published in popular newspapers, magazines, and book publications;
- b) tests for diagnosis by a specialist are the most stringent in terms of standardization of the testing procedure and structure, the content of test tasks (stimulus material), as well as the processing of information and its interpretation, they are characterized by validity, they must have standards for basic groups;
- c) tests for examination are carried out on the initiative of officials (for example, an administration that wants to test its employees for professional suitability or hire the most worthy ones who have the best test results); the requirements are similar to the requirements for tests for specialists. A feature of these tests is the use of questions that minimize insincere answers;
- 4) according to time restrictions:
- a) tests that take into account the speed of completing tasks;
- b) performance tests;
- 5) according to the methodological principle underlying the methodology:
- a) objective tests;
- b) standardized self-report methods, including:
- - questionnaire tests consist of several dozen questions (statements), regarding which subjects make their judgments (usually “yes” or “no”, less often a three-alternative choice of answers);
- - open questionnaires that require follow-up
tent analysis;
- - scale techniques built according to the type of semantic differential of Ch. Osgood, classification techniques;
- - individually oriented techniques such as role repertoire grids;
- c) projective techniques, in which the stimulus material presented to the test subject is characterized by uncertainty, suggesting a wide variety of interpretations (Rorschach test, TAT, Szondi, etc.);
- d) dialogical (interactive) techniques (conversations, interviews, diagnostic games).
Requirements for test research methods:
- 1) representativeness (representativeness) is the possibility of extending the results obtained from the study of a sample set of objects to the entire set of these objects;
- 2) unambiguity of the technique - characterized by the extent to which the data obtained with its help reflect changes in precisely and only the property for which the given technique is used. Usually this quality is checked by repeated measurements;
- 3) validity (validity) - this is the validity of the conclusions obtained as a result of the application of this technique;
- 4) accuracy - the ability of the technique to sensitively respond to the slightest changes in the assessed property that occur during the socio-psychological diagnostic experiment;
- 5) reliability - the possibility of obtaining stable indicators using this technique.
The test study is distinguished by its comparative simplicity of procedure; it is short-term, carried out without complex technical devices, and requires the simplest equipment (often just a form with the texts of the tasks). The result of the test solution allows for quantitative expression and thereby opens up the possibility of mathematical processing. We also note that in the process of test research the influence of numerous conditions that in one way or another influence the results is not taken into account - the mood of the subject, his well-being, attitude towards testing. It is unacceptable to try to use tests to establish a limit, a ceiling of a given person’s capabilities, to forecast, to predict the level of his future successes.
Tests are specialized methods of psychodiagnostic examination, using which you can obtain an accurate quantitative or qualitative characteristic of the phenomenon being studied. Tests differ from other research methods in that they require a clear procedure for collecting and processing primary data, as well as the originality of their subsequent interpretation. With the help of tests, you can study and compare the psychology of different people, give differentiated and comparable assessments.
Test options: questionnaire test, task test, projective tests
- 1. The test questionnaire is based on a system of pre-thought-out, carefully selected and tested questions from the point of view of their validity and reliability, the answers to which can be used to judge the psychological qualities of the subjects.
- 2. The test task involves assessing a person’s psychology and behavior based on what he does. In tests of this type, the subject is offered a series of special tasks, based on the results of which they judge the presence or absence and degree of development of the quality being studied.
The test questionnaire and test task are applicable to people of different ages, belonging to different cultures, having different levels of education, different professions and different life experiences. This is their positive side. But the disadvantage is that when using tests, the subject can consciously influence the results obtained at will, especially if he knows in advance how the test is structured and how his psychology and behavior will be assessed based on its results. In addition, the test questionnaire and test task are not applicable in cases where psychological properties and characteristics are to be studied, the existence of which the subject cannot be completely sure of, is not aware of, or does not consciously want to admit their presence in himself. Such characteristics include, for example, many negative personal qualities and motives of behavior.
3. Projective tests. The basis of such tests is the mechanism of projection, according to which a person tends to attribute his unconscious qualities, especially shortcomings, to other people. Projective tests are designed to study the psychological and behavioral characteristics of people that cause negative attitudes. Using tests of this kind, the psychology of the subject is judged on the basis of how he perceives the surrounding community and the environment in which he is located.
This drawback applies to all research methods based on self-control, i.e. associated with the use of speech and behavioral consciously controlled reactions.
Using a projective test, the psychologist uses it to introduce the subject into an imaginary, plot-undefined situation, subject to arbitrary interpretation. Such a situation could be, for example, the search for a certain meaning in a picture that depicts unknown people, who are not clear about what they are doing. We need to answer the questions of who these people are, what they are concerned about, what they think, and what will happen next. Based on the meaningful interpretation of the answers, the respondents’ own psychology is judged.
Projective type tests place increased demands on the level of education and intellectual maturity of the test takers, and this is the main practical limitation of their applicability. In addition, such tests require a lot of special training and high professional qualifications on the part of the psychologist himself.
4. Additional methods. Compared to a conversation, which is characterized by protractedness and slow accumulation of data during mass surveys, questioning is more time-efficient, which ensures its widespread use in practice.
The method of expert assessments involves asking specialists about certain elements of the work situation or the personality of a professional in order to draw a responsible conclusion. Expert assessment can be individual, when its subject is one person, or group. One of the types of group assessment is the method of generalization of independent characteristics, which is used to describe the professionally important qualities of a particular professional
A specific method of expert assessment of a professional used in labor psychology is the method of critical incidents - its essence lies in the fact that workers who know the profession well give real examples of the behavior of specialists that characterize high or low efficiency of professional activity.
The anamnesis method involves collecting data about the history of the development of a specific individual as a subject of labor activity. It is usually used in professional counseling to determine the degree of stability of motives, to identify certain abilities and personal characteristics that are not directly observable, and to make forecasts for an individual’s professional career. This method is applicable to the problem of retrospective analysis of situations of choice of professions, professional reorientation, and typology of professional career, which is little developed in our science.
There are certain rules that must be followed when starting research:
1. The research methods used must be scientific, i.e., tested repeatedly to obtain truthful, objective, reliable and provable information that can be used for the benefit of the person examined. Only then can they be used again.
The modern development of psychology allows for an alternative study of the causes of mental phenomena. Pluralism can in this case provoke an unscientific interpretation of the influence of one person on another or, for example, a desire to explain the child’s needs as the influence of heredity, and character traits as follows: “It’s written in the family, nothing can be done,” etc.
2. The methods used must be valid and must provide reliable, truthful information. Methods for studying mental phenomena that emerged in the process and result of activity and communication should provide the qualitative information they are aimed at. Validity combines the purpose, standard and real picture of the research being conducted. A psychologist needs to understand that the research method used must correspond to the expected results.
Lack of validity manifests itself in different ways: when the task is too complex and does not reflect the level of age or mental development; when it examines only one detail, but pretends to illustrate a general property; when the task does not correspond to the level of national culture.
There are rules for testing a method for validity: first, they test a particular technique on a small sample or on the researcher himself, then attract a group of experts who are most competent in this matter. You can also use any fragment of the technique. In any case, the psychologist is obliged to use proven methods obtained in the professional community.
3. The method should facilitate obtaining unambiguous information, which can be confirmed by other means of research.
An educational psychologist needs to be sure that the data obtained from the study is significant, can be trusted and used for correction purposes. Very often, he strives to use as many techniques as possible, which naturally highlight a diverse picture of the examined quality. This leads to the fact that the main properties and their causes are dissolved in the context of many characteristics. Sometimes it happens that when the situation changes, the method leads to different results.
If a teacher conducts a study (most often it is a survey), the children behave as usual. A psychologist comes and the picture changes. Some children are curious and enjoy “solving scientific problems”; others can carry out a research task only in private with a psychologist, afraid to advertise their actions. It also happens that personality questionnaires provide information that is not detected during observation.
4. Research methods must be interdependent despite their independence. It is necessary to indicate the logic and sequence of their use: what the psychologist needs to do first, what at the end, why the chosen research method is used, what are its stages, what information should be checked and how. It is important to reveal a mental phenomenon consistently, thoroughly, and multifacetedly. It is necessary and qualified to operate using the chosen method.
Currently, a lot of materials have appeared on the study of methods “at home”. Questionnaires and other tasks that have not been tested for validity can cause harm rather than benefit. A professional psychologist must always be very careful in choosing a research method, because he is dealing with the human psyche.
5. Method must extract representative information. This is the correspondence of the characteristics obtained as a result of sample observation to those that characterize the entire total sample. Representativeness is the representativeness of data obtained in one way or another.
In order to draw a conclusion about the development of verbal-logical memory of primary school students, it is not enough to study its features only in first-graders. Sometimes a psychologist examines some aspect, involving ten people in the work, and draws a conclusion about a hundred subjects. The more complex and significant the research problem, the more accurate it must be solved with the involvement of a larger number of subjects. The method of studying a phenomenon must show a significant property in some subjects, and then be confirmed in others.
6. Clarity of the requirement presented to the subjects. Sometimes you can see how the instructions are communicated incorrectly, how the task is complicated or simplified. For example, a psychologist says to a child: “Now let’s see whether you are smart or just seem so, otherwise in class you behave as if no one can cope with you.” What turns out in this case is not scientific research, but its falsification, and even with a threat and in the form of punishment.
It happens that the subject does not understand what is required of him, because he does not understand the language or professional slang. For example: “Answer the questions and I will tell you whether you are an introvert or an extrovert.”
7. Conducted research, should not be spontaneous, random and chaotic. A research program is needed that outlines a clear purpose, objectives, hypotheses and proposed research methods. The program also specifies the research sample, explains why it is necessary to study a certain number of people, who will conduct the research - a psychologist or experimental teachers, how the results will be discussed, whether it is necessary to involve other specialists in the research - for example, is it planned to involve various school services (methodological , speech therapy, medical).
Methodology and methods of psychological research
2.1. Basic requirements for methods of psychological research
To solve the complex of problems described in the previous chapter, science has a developed system of means, directions, paths, and techniques.
Method- this is the path of scientific knowledge. As one of the founders of Soviet psychology wrote, S.L. Rubinstein (1779-1960), this is the way through which the subject of science is learned.
Methodology - This is an option, a particular implementation of the method in specific conditions: organizational, social, historical.
The set or system of methods and techniques of any science are not random or arbitrary. They develop historically, change, develop, obeying certain patterns and methodological rules.
Methodology- this is not only a teaching about methods, rules for their selection or use. This is a systematic description of the philosophy itself, ideology, strategy and tactics of scientific research, standing above the particular theory of science. The methodology specifies What exactly,How And For what we explore how we interpret the results obtained and how we implement them in practice. A study may, for example, be completely correct methodologically, but illiterate, theoretically and methodologically untenable, and therefore essentially erroneous. Therefore, compliance with certain methodological requirements, or principles, is a necessary condition for the effectiveness of scientific and psychological research.
The first methodological requirement is the need for the method used to correspond to the theoretical one. beforestatement about the subject Sciences. This position is clearly visible and illustrated by the material discussed in Chapter. 2 historical stages of changing ideas about the subject of psychology. For example, the soul can only be studied by introspection - introspection. When studying the phenomena of consciousness, conditioned reflexes or behavior, the experimental method becomes acceptable, although its methodological implementation in such cases may be fundamentally different. If we believe that the psyche is always a conscious and expressed in words representation of it by the bearer himself, then to study it it is enough to ask the subject the appropriate questions through verbal tests and questionnaires. The main thing is to understand that any method of psychology highlights only a particular aspect of its subject, specific facts or manifestations, features of their existence and functioning. But one cannot take the particular for the general, the phenomenon for the essence, and reliably judge, for example, the properties of a person’s temperament based on his answers to self-assessment questions about the speed of movement of the arms or legs.
The method used must be objective, those. the result obtained must have the property of verifiability and repeatability, therefore, any psychological research requires ensuring unity external and internal manifestations of the psyche. For example, the results of the experiment are supplemented by self-report data from the subject, and objective physiological parameters are correlated with verbal test responses. The methodological expression of this approach is the principle of the unity of consciousness and activity, developed in Russian psychology, which will be discussed in subsequent chapters.
When studying the psyche, it is desirable to realize geneticschecheskogo or evolutionary approach, i.e. study of a phenomenon in the process of its genesis, development, in the process of purposeful formation. This is the methodology of a “longitudinal slice” (in time), the logic of a formative, transformative experiment, clearly worked out, for example, in the scientific school of P.Ya. Halperin (see section IV).
Almost any psychological study needs to take into account social, cultural, historical factors in which the psyche really exists. Each person carries within himself not only the individual, but also the social: family, profession, nation. The human psyche is essentially social, so the results of social interactions can manifest themselves in the most unexpected and significant ways. For example, you should not interview people in the presence of their boss. You cannot use unadapted foreign methods in Russia. When assigning a school grade, social comparison of students is necessary.
5. Each method used by psychology must, on the one hand, be deeply individual, for every person is unique. But on the other hand, scientific generalizations systematized conclusions, extended recommendations. How many and which subjects should be taken to obtain reliable conclusions? What methods should be selected and what mathematical apparatus should be used?
Such questions are solved in psychology using probability theory and mathematical statistics. This is a special probabilistic methodology, according to which there are no unambiguous, linear cause-and-effect relationships in the world. One system of conditions corresponds to a certain varying set of coherent consequences, subject to the laws of probability.
6. Another requirement for psychological methods is comcomplexity And interdisciplinarity. Any serious scientific problem is interdisciplinary, and therefore requires the participation of specialists of different profiles for its solution: psychologists, teachers, philosophers, sociologists, lawyers, doctors, and so on, depending on the problems being solved. Each science brings some specific aspects to psychology, but the mental is not reducible to the social, physiological, behavioral, or their sum. The requirement for complexity also means the presence of a variety of complementary research methods and techniques that are adequate to the understanding of the subject and the problems being solved. There are no good or bad methods. Each is specific and in some way irreplaceable in the general structure of scientific knowledge. Moreover, modern psychological research is characterized by systematic, conditioned by the complex, hierarchized structure of the psyche itself.
The choice of research methods is determined primarily by the specific objectives of scientific work. About what they mean for the success of the planned research, I.P. Pavlov said: “...method is the very first, basic thing. The whole seriousness of the research depends on the method, on the method of action. It’s all about a good method. With a good method, even a not very talented person can do a lot. And with a bad method, even a brilliant person will work in vain and will not receive valuable, accurate data."
It is necessary to apply certain research methods in accordance with their appropriateness in each specific case. Therefore, we can only talk about some general requirements in determining the suitability of a particular method.
1st requirement. The method must have a certain resistance to the effects of associated factors. This should be understood in the sense of the method’s ability to reflect only that state of the subjects that is caused by the action of the experimental factor, and not by factors that arose unforeseen. For example, having established the greater effectiveness of a new method of teaching, the experimenter must be sure that the method he used reflected the changes that occurred under the influence of the new method, and not unforeseen factors. In accordance with this requirement, it is necessary to assess the reliability of the change that has occurred in one or another indicator: whether persistent changes in the results have really occurred or is this an accident. In determining the stability of the method, mathematical processing of the research results plays a significant role.
2nd requirement. The method must have a certain selectivity in relation to the phenomena being studied. In other words, it must correspond to the phenomenon being studied, and therefore reflect what it is intended to reflect according to the purpose of the study. For example, if a control exercise is used to determine the level of development of speed, then the experimenter must be sure that the selected test reflects precisely the level of development of speed, and not, say, speed endurance.
The selectivity of the method is established in two ways: a) through theoretical analysis of the results of motor activity in which they cannot be expressed in metric units of measurement (gymnastics, games, etc.); b) by calculating a measure of the relationship between the indicators of the research method and the effectiveness of the activity that is the subject of special training (for example, running, throwing).
The first path is the only one for the specified actions. The selectivity of the method in this case is established on the basis of knowledge of the psychophysiological patterns underlying the human activity being studied. Having determined the leading support systems for a given activity, methods are selected that can be used to evaluate the functioning of these particular systems. The second way does not exclude the need for theoretical analysis. but the advantage of this path is that mathematical calculations can be used to objectify it.
3rd requirement. The method must have capacity, i.e. give as much information as possible. Sufficient capacity of the method will allow us to obtain the amount of information that will make it possible to characterize the true state of the phenomenon. The large capacity of the method makes it more resistant to the effects of accompanying factors.
4th requirement. The method must be reproducible (reliable), i.e. the ability to give identical results provided: a) multiple studies by the same experimenter of the same students; b) conducting research by the same experimenter, on different (but similar) groups of students; c) conducting research by different experimenters, but on the same groups of students. The degree of reproducibility of a method is determined in cases where it allows one to evaluate the phenomenon being studied in some quantitative terms. There are two ways to determine the degree of reproducibility of a method.
5th requirement. If the research in its essence allows the use of a pedagogical experiment, then it must be introduced into scientific work. I.P. Pavlov wrote about the advantages of experiment over observation: “Observation collects what nature offers it, but experience takes from nature what it wants.”
6th requirement. To the extent feasible, it is necessary to use not one research method, but several, and, if the research objectives require it, in combination with physiological methods and methods of psychological analysis. the integrated application of methods allows for a more versatile and objective study of the phenomenon.
When combining pedagogical and physiological research methods, as well as methods of psychological analysis, the focus of pedagogical research should certainly not be violated. The direction of the research is determined not by the fact of using certain methods, but by the objectives of the scientific work. With this formulation of the question, pedagogical methods are leading in any pedagogical research. They are the ones who can most fully reveal the pedagogical essence of the problem being developed. Other research methods in this case play only a supporting role. Of course, the nature of the phenomenon being studied can reduce or increase the significance of, for example, physiological methods in pedagogical research. Thus, when studying the work experience of teachers, the importance of physiological methods, as a rule, is reduced to zero, but when comparatively characterizing the methods of developing motor qualities, the role of these methods in obtaining objective data increases immeasurably.
All science is based on facts. She collects facts, compares them and draws conclusions; she establishes the laws of the field of activity that she studies. The methods of obtaining these facts are called methods of scientific research. The main methods of scientific research in psychology are observation and experiment. So, psychology uses a number of methods. Which of them is rational to apply is decided in each individual case, depending on the tasks and object of study. In this case, they usually use not just one method, but a number of methods that mutually complement and control each other.
Of course, introducing elements of psychological and physiological research into pedagogical research is not a formal, not a mechanical act. It is justified only if without this the objectivity of pedagogical data cannot be achieved.
7th requirement. The experimenter must master the research methods perfectly before starting to collect the main material.
8th requirement. Each new method must be previously tested to determine its effectiveness. This will make it possible to compare the indicators obtained by the new methods with the indicators that were obtained previously. Such a comparison, in turn, will make it possible to determine to what extent the results obtained can be compared with those results that were obtained when studying a similar phenomenon or a similar function using the old method.
9-2 requirement. Any research method requires careful preliminary organization of conditions, including the development of documentation to record the data obtained.
10th requirement. When repeating studies, it is necessary to create identical conditions for using the methods.
Compliance with the listed requirements when choosing research methods creates the basis for the objectification of the data obtained and increases the reliability of the research results.