On October 18, 1721, the members of the Synod “had a secret discussion.” Having examined the “deeds”, “works” and “leadership” of His Royal Majesty in connection with the “eternal peace” concluded with Sweden after the Northern War, they decided that they should “invent something decent” for the monarch “from a person common to all subjects.” This “decent” was the decision to “beg the Tsar” to “accept the title of Father of the Fatherland, Peter the Great and Emperor of All Russia.”
Realizing that we were talking about a state matter, the members of the Synod “decided” to report it “secretly” to the secular authorities - the Senate. On October 19, this was done through the vice-president of the Synod, Feofan Prokopovich. On October 20, 21 and the morning of October 22, joint meetings of the Senate and the Synod were held in the audience chamber, that is, in the main throne room of St. Petersburg, located in the building of the “muzanka collegiums” on Trinity Square. On October 22, 1721 (in the new style - November 2) in St. Petersburg in the Trinity Cathedral, Tsar Peter I was presented with the title “emperor”. It is generally accepted that it was on this day that the Russian kingdom, Muscovy, officially turned into the Russian Empire and the countdown of a new, imperial period in the country began.
During the era of the Tatar-Mongol yoke and before it, the eldest among the appanage princes bore the title of Grand Duke. Ya.N. Shchapov notes that the mention of princes as kings refers to two major figures of Rus' in the 12th–13th centuries: Mstislav the Great and Andrei Bogolyubsky.
After Rus' became dependent on the Golden Horde, the Great Khan of the Golden Horde began to be called king (derived from the Latin caesar). The title king, first of all, indicated that its owner is a completely sovereign ruler and does not depend on anyone. That is, the Grand Duke, being a tributary of the Horde, naturally stood lower in the hierarchy.
It is worth noting, by the way, that until a certain moment (before the reign of Dmitry Donskoy), the legitimacy of the Great Khan as the commander of the Russian princes in Rus' was not questioned, and the Tatar-Mongol yoke itself was perceived as God’s punishment for sins, which must be humbly endured.
The era of Ivan III, when Rus' freed itself from the yoke and became a completely independent state, also marks the first cases of the Grand Duke using the title “Tsar” (or “Caesar”) in diplomatic correspondence - so far only in relations with petty German princes and the Livonian Order; The royal title begins to be widely used in literary works.
It was possible to accept any title, but foreign rulers might not recognize it - that is why Ivan III tries out the royal title in diplomatic correspondence with smaller states.
In 1489, the ambassador of the Holy Roman Emperor Nikolai Poppel, on behalf of his overlord, offered Ivan III the royal title. The Grand Duke refused, pointing out that “by God’s grace we are sovereigns on our land from the beginning, from our first ancestors, and we have the appointment from God, both our ancestors and we... and just as we didn’t want the appointment from anyone before, we don’t want it now.” we want."
It is worth noting that, deriving the word “tsar” from caesar, the Russian rulers considered this title to be the same as the emperor (“Caesar” in the Byzantine Empire), but after the fall of Byzantium under the onslaught of the Turks in 1453, Rus' was perceived as its the heiress and the only stronghold of Orthodoxy (or more broadly, of all Christianity, since other Christian denominations were considered “wrong”). Hence the famous “Moscow - the Third Rome”.
Western monarchs interpreted this title similarly - but not always, but when it was beneficial for them.
In the treaty between the Muscovite state and Denmark in 1493, Ivan III was called “totius rutzci Imperator”. Vasily III was also named Emperor in the agreement with Emperor Maximilian I, concluded in Moscow in 1514: “Kayser und Herscher alter Reussen”. In the Latin charter of Albrecht of Brandenburg in 1517, Basil III was also called "Imperator ac Doniinator totius Russiae".
Only the grandson of Ivan III, Ivan the Terrible, decided to officially take on the royal title. On January 16, 1547, the Grand Duke of Moscow and All Rus' Ivan Vasilyevich was solemnly crowned with the title of Tsar. In his speech at the royal wedding, the Metropolitan described the height of the powers of the royal rank with the words of Joseph Volotsky: “Hear the kings and understand that power was given to you from God and strength from the Most High, for the Lord has chosen you in Himself for a place on earth...”.
The royal title allowed him to take a significantly different position in diplomatic relations with Western Europe. The grand ducal title was translated as “prince” or even “grand duke.” The title “king” was either not translated at all, or translated as “emperor”. The Russian autocrat thereby stood on a par with the only Holy Roman Emperor in Europe.
The boyars did not immediately inform foreign states about the coronation of the 16-year-old grandson of Ivan III. Only two years later, the Polish ambassadors in Moscow learned that Ivan IV “was crowned king” following the example of his ancestor Monomakh, and that he “took not someone else’s” name. Having heard this extremely important statement, the ambassadors immediately demanded written evidence. But the cunning boyars refused, fearing that the Poles, having received a written answer, would be able to consider their objections, and then it would be difficult to argue with them. The messengers sent to Poland tried to explain the meaning of the Moscow changes so as not to cause displeasure at the Polish court.
Now, they said, our sovereign alone owns the Russian land, which is why the metropolitan crowned him king with the Monomakh crown. In the eyes of the Muscovites, the coronation thus symbolized the beginning of Ivan's autocratic rule in the fourteenth year of his reign.
Ivan the Terrible was crowned king in 1547, but his foreign colleagues did not immediately recognize this title for him. 7 years later, in 1554, England unconditionally recognized it. The question of the title was more difficult in Catholic countries, in which the theory of a single “sacred empire” was firmly held. In 1576, Emperor Maximilian II, wanting to attract Ivan the Terrible to an alliance against Turkey, offered him the throne and the title of “emerging [Eastern] Caesar” in the future. John IV was completely indifferent to the “Greek kingdom”, but demanded immediate recognition of himself as the king of “all Rus'”, and the emperor conceded on this important fundamental issue, especially since Maximilian I recognized the royal title for Vasily III, calling him “by God’s grace Tsar and the owner of the All-Russian and Grand Duke." The papal throne turned out to be much more stubborn, which defended the exclusive right of popes to grant royal and other titles to sovereigns, and on the other hand, did not allow the principle of a “single empire” to be violated. In this irreconcilable position, the papal throne found support from the Polish king, who perfectly understood the significance of the claims of the Moscow Sovereign. Sigismund II Augustus presented a note to the papal throne in which he warned that the papacy’s recognition of Ivan IV’s title of “Tsar of All Rus'” would lead to the separation from Poland and Lithuania of lands inhabited by “Rusyns” related to the Muscovites, and would attract Moldovans and Wallachians to his side. For his part, John IV attached particular importance to the recognition of his royal title by the Polish-Lithuanian state, but Poland throughout the 16th century never agreed to his demand.
It is known that in the correspondence of 1580 between the famous Flemish cartographer G. Mercator and the English geographer R. Hakluyt, the Russian monarch was called “le grand emperior de Moscovie”.
So, the title “tsar” was perceived by the Russian rulers as equal to the imperial one. True, not all of their foreign colleagues agreed with this - at that time there was only one empire in Europe - the Holy Roman Empire and an emperor, which means there should have been only one.
False Dmitry I, oriented towards Poland, wanted to be called emperor. In a letter to the Polish king Sigismund III, False Dmitry I, “according to the ancient custom of great and powerful kings and emperors,” announced his accession to the throne. He indicated that he received a blessing as an heir from “our most serene mother.” Then followed an explanation of the new royal title, unusual for the previous tradition: “we are crowned and anointed with the sacred chrism by our most holy patriarch, not only to the rank of emperor of our vast domains, but also to the rank of king of all the Tatar kingdoms, which have obeyed our monarchy since ancient times.”
Having studied all the formulas of the title of False Dmitry I in foreign correspondence (messages to the Pope, the Polish king and nobles), N.N. Bantysh-Kamensky pointed out that since the autumn of 1605 they have had the same symbolism of names: “We, the Most Serene and Invincible Monarch, Dimitri Ivanovich, by the grace of God, Tsar and Grand Duke of all Russia, and all Tatar states, and many other lands, to the monarchy Muscovite belonging to the sovereign and king." All of the listed titles claimed to recognize the power of False Dmitry I as the highest and most powerful among earthly monarchs and pointed to its Divine counterpart - the King of kings.
It is clear that these symbols and names immediately gave rise to a sharply negative reaction in Western courts, among foreign politicians and diplomats. They were also assessed negatively by their contemporaries in Russia. Konrad Bussow noted the reaction of foreigners in Moscow: “vanity increased daily... with him... it manifested itself not only in the fact that in all luxury and pomp they surpassed all other former kings, but he even ordered to call himself “the king of all kings.” " It is interesting that the Pretender initially distributed this title only for internal use (that is, at court). Stanislav Borsha, speaking about the murder of False Dmitry I, summarized: “Apparently it was so pleasing to God, who did not want to tolerate any longer the pride and arrogance of this Dmitry, who did not recognize any sovereign in the world as his equal and almost equaled himself to God.”
The Poles, naturally, rejected the imperial title of False Dmitry. You can read more about the history of False Dmitry I’s claim to the imperial title on our website in an excerpt from Vasily Ulyanovsky’s book “Time of Troubles.”
As is known, the full royal title (“Great Title”) included a list of lands subject to the king. In 1645, that is, during the death of the first sovereign from the Romanov dynasty, Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich, and the rise to power of his son, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, the “Great Title” sounded as follows: “By the grace of God, we, the great sovereign, the king and Grand Duke Alexei Mikhailovich , Autocrat of All Russia, Vladimir, Moscow and Novgorod, Tsar of Kazan, Tsar of Astrakhan, Tsar of Siberia, Sovereign of Pskov and Grand Duke of Tver, Yugorsk, Perm, Vyatka, Bulgaria and others, Sovereign and Grand Duke of Novagorod, Nizovsky lands, Ryazan, Rostov, Yaroslavl , Beloozersky, Udorsky, Obdorsky, Kondiysky and all northern countries, ruler and sovereign of the Iveron land, Kartalin and Georgian kings and Kabardian lands, Cherkasy and Mountain Princes and many other states, sovereign and owner."
The mention of the Caucasus and Transcaucasia, which was not subordinated at that time, in the title of the king may cause surprise. In this case, what was desired was presented as reality.
This issue was studied by G.K. Kotoshikhin in his essay “About Russia during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich.” The inclusion of non-ruled territories in the royal title meant illegal claims to other people's prerogatives. Such actions could threaten diplomatic complications. Because of this, the royal court was forced to resort to tricks. In the charters addressed to Christian sovereigns, the great royal title was reproduced in full with a listing of the eastern lands; in the charters to the “Busurman states” and, first of all, to the Persian Shah, the “eastern” titles were not indicated. Otherwise, “as if he were written with those titles by everyone... and for that all the Busurman states would start a war against him.” Kotoshikhin points out that the Russian Tsar was written to the Turkish Sultan and the Persian Shah “not with the entire title, only as “sovereign.” That is, the final phrase in the title remained “and the ruler of all northern countries,” the phrase “Iveron lands of Kartalinsky and Georgian kings, the Kabardian lands of the Cherkasy and Mountain princes, and many other states, the sovereign and owner" was removed. If you ask the question about the reasons for the sequence of listing territories in the royal title of the 17th century, then we can assume that not only the significance and status of the lands or their sequence of occurrence it was predetermined into the state, but also by practical considerations: it is worth putting at the end what is most controversial, which, if necessary, can always be removed. Given this fact, we can say that a big title in the 17th century is not so much a reflection in consciousness. rights to territory or the expression of ideas about the territorial integrity of the state, as a means of diplomatic play in a situation in which there is a certain fragmentation of the West and the East, the existence of two worlds that are not well informed about each other due to the relatively weak interest in each other and the underdevelopment of diplomatic and trade ties , gave Russia a chance to raise the prestige of the power of its kings at the expense of one part of Eurasia in relations with another.
As noted above, not everyone in Europe recognized the equality of the imperial title with the tsar, and such equality did not exist in relations between Russia and the Holy Roman Empire. In the “Record made in Moscow between the Russian and Tsar’s courts,” the Tsar’s extraordinary envoys clearly indicated that the existing in the 17th century. tradition consolidates the higher status of the emperor in relation to other sovereigns and is expressed in the fact that not only the Russian Tsar, but also other European kings, the title “Eminence” is always written from the emperor.
In the minds of Russian diplomats and the Russian court of Alexei Mikhailovich, the task of achieving for their sovereign recognition by the Empire of his title “Majesty” meant the opportunity to put the Russian Tsar on a par with the Emperor. In fact, in the international practice of that period, the term “tsar” = “king” = “Eminence”; the term "emperor" = "majesty".
The problem was solved only after the sharp strengthening of Russia in the international arena after the victory over Sweden in the Northern War. However, it is worth noting that Peter I was called emperor until 1721. During his stay in England in 1698, the imperial resident Hoffmann reported that everyone here “calls the Russian monarch the Emperor of Russia,” and after the tsar visited parliament, someone made a joke that he saw “the king on the throne and the emperor on the roof” - Peter, through The window watched as the English king approved the land tax bill. Peter I was also called Emperor by people from Western Europe who served in Russia. This is the only way, for example, that the brilliant French architect J.B.A. Leblon addressed him in numerous letters and projects.
As was said at the very beginning, Peter I did not arbitrarily assume the imperial title, but it was the initiative of the Synod. It is known that before this act, negotiations took place between the tsar and some senators and archbishops of Novgorod and Pskov, Theodosius Yanovsky and Feofan Prokopovich. Negotiations with the monarch turned out to be necessary, since the king “refused for a long time” to accept the title and gave many “reasons” for this. However, the “important ideas” of the senators and bishops prevailed and Peter “inclined to do so.”
Perhaps this behavior of the king was nothing more than a tribute to tradition and some kind of theatrical modesty - not to immediately accept what was offered. Or perhaps there were more compelling reasons for Peter’s objections. After all, the introduction of differences between the titles “emperor” and “tsar” meant that Russia recognizes that the imperial title is higher than the royal title - contrary to the ideas that have existed in Rus' since the time of Ivan the Terrible. It is likely that this was not entirely to the liking of Peter I.
It should be noted that Feofan Prokopovich, in “A Word in Praise... to the Memory of Peter the Great,” noted that even before the title “Great Emperor” was adopted in 1721, this title “had previously existed and was bestowed on everyone.”
EMPERORS
Emperor (from Latin imperator - ruler) is the title of the monarch, head of state (empire).
There were emperors in Russia from 1721 to 1917. The title All-Russian Emperor (Emperor All-Russian) was adopted for the first time after the victory in the Northern War by Peter I the Great on October 22, 1721 at the request of the Senate “as usual from the Roman Senate for the noble deeds of emperors, such titles were publicly presented to them as a gift and on statutes for memory in eternal birth is signed.” The last Emperor Nicholas II was overthrown during the February Revolution of 1917.
The Emperor had supreme autocratic power (since 1906 - legislative power together with the State Duma and the State Council), he was officially titled “His Imperial Majesty” (in abbreviated form - “Sovereign” or “E.I.V.”).
Article 1 of the Basic Laws of the Russian Empire indicated that “The All-Russian Emperor is an autocratic and unlimited Monarch. God himself commands to obey his supreme authority not only out of fear, but also out of conscience.” The terms “autocratic” and “unlimited”, coinciding in their meaning, indicate that all functions of state power on legal formation, expedient activities within the law (administrative-executive) and the administration of justice are performed undividedly and without the obligatory participation of other institutions by the head of state, who transfers the implementation of some of them by certain bodies acting on his behalf and with his authority (Article 81).
Russia under the emperors was a rule of law state with a monarchical-unlimited form of government.
Full title of the emperor at the beginning of the 20th century. was like this (Article 37 of the Basic Laws of the Russian Empire):
By God's hastening mercy, We, ΝΝ, Emperor and Autocrat of All Russia, Moscow, Kiev, Vladimir, Novgorod; Tsar of Kazan, Tsar of Astrakhan, Tsar of Poland, Tsar of Siberia, Tsar of Tauride Chersonis, Tsar of Georgia; Sovereign of Pskov and Grand Duke of Smolensk, Lithuania, Volyn, Podolsk and Finland; Prince of Estland, Livonia, Courland and Semigal, Samogit, Bialystok, Korel, Tver, Yugorsk, Perm, Vyatka, Bulgarian and others; Sovereign and Grand Duke of Novagorod of the Nizovsky lands, Chernigov, Ryazan, Polotsk, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Belozersky, Udora, Obdorsky, Kondiysky, Vitebsk, Mstislavsky and all northern countries Sovereign; and Sovereign of Iversk, Kartalinsky and Kasardinsky lands and regions of Armenia; Cherkasy and Mountain Princes and other Hereditary Sovereign and Possessor; Sovereign of Turkestan; Heir to Norway, Duke of Schleswig-Holstin, Stormarn, Ditmarsen and Oldenburg, and so on, and so on, and so on.
In some cases determined by law, an abbreviated form of title was used: “By God's hastening grace, We, ΝΝ, Emperor and Autocrat of All Russia, Moscow, Kiev, Vladimir, Novgorod; Tsar of Kazan, Tsar of Astrakhan, Tsar of Poland, Tsar of Siberia, Tsar of Tauride Chersonis, Tsar of Georgia, Grand Duke of Finland and so on, and so on, and so on.”
After Peter the Great accepted the title of Emperor on October 22 (November 2), 1721 and the recognition of his title by other countries, the Russian state began to be called the Russian Empire (Russian Empire).
On February 5 (16), 1722, Peter the Great issued a Decree on Succession to the Throne, in which he abolished the ancient custom of transferring the throne to direct descendants in the male line, but allowed, at the will of the monarch, the appointment of any worthy person as heir.
On April 5 (16), 1797, Paul I established a new order of inheritance. From that time on, the order of succession to the Russian throne was based on the principle of primogeniture, i.e. with the accession to the throne by descendants of their ascendants in the event of death or abdication of the latter by the time of the opening of the succession. In the absence of direct heirs, the throne should pass to the lateral ones. Within each line (straight or side), males are preferred over females, and male sidelines are called before females. Accession to the throne for those who are called must be limited to the confession of the Orthodox faith. The reigning emperor (and heir) comes of age at the age of sixteen; until this age (as well as in other cases of incapacity), his power is exercised by the ruler, who can be (if there is no person specially appointed by the previously reigning emperor), the surviving father or mother of the emperor , and in their absence - the closest adult heir.
All the emperors who ruled Russia belonged to the same imperial family - the House of Romanov, the first representative of which became monarch in 1613. Since 1761, the descendants of the daughter of Peter I Anna and the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp Karl-Friedrich, who descended from the family in the male line, reigned Holstein-Gottorp (a branch of the Oldenburg dynasty), and in the genealogy these representatives of the House of Romanov, starting with Peter III, are called Romanov-Holstein-Gottorp.
By right of birth and by the scope of his powers, the emperor was the supreme leader of a great world power, the first official in the state. All laws were issued on behalf of the emperor and he was appointed to positions.
All government ministers, governors and other senior officials. It was the emperor who determined the most important areas of government activity, including issues of war and peace, and had almost no control over public finances.
The organic nature of the Russian autocracy is inextricably linked with the historical conditions of development and the fate of the Russian Empire, and the peculiarities of the Russian national mentality. The supreme power had support in the minds and souls of the Russian people. The monarchical idea was popular and accepted by society.
In terms of their objective role, all the emperors of Russia were major political figures, whose activities reflected both public interests and contradictions, as well as their personal qualities.
Intelligence and education, political preferences, moral principles, life principles and psychological characteristics of the monarch largely determined the direction and nature of the domestic and foreign policy of the Russian state and, ultimately, were of great importance for the fate of the entire country.
In 1917, with the abdication of Nicholas II for himself and his son Tsarevich Alexei, the imperial title and the empire itself were abolished.
Y. Pantyukhin "Prince Alexander Nevsky"
But first, let’s deal with the concept of “nobility” itself. “What is nobility? – wrote A.S. Pushkin. “The hereditary class of the people is the highest, that is, awarded with great advantages regarding property and private freedom.”
The emergence of the nobility in Russia
The word "nobleman" literally means "a person from the princely court", or "courtier".
In Russia, the nobility arose in the 12th century. as the lowest part of the military service class, which made up the court of a prince or a major boyar.
The Code of Laws of the Russian Empire states that belonging to the nobility “ is a consequence flowing from the quality and virtue of the men in command in ancient times, who distinguished themselves by merit, by which, turning the service itself into merit, they acquired a noble name for their offspring. Noble means all those who were born from noble ancestors, or were granted this dignity by monarchs.”
Rise of the nobility
Since the 14th century nobles began to receive land for their diligent service. This is how the class of landowners - landowners - emerged. Later they were allowed to buy land.
The Code of Law of 1497 limited the right of peasants to move and thereby strengthened the position of the nobles.
In February 1549, the first Zemsky Sobor took place in the Kremlin Palace. Ivan IV (the Terrible) gave a speech there. The Tsar set a course towards building a centralized monarchy (autocracy) based on the nobility, which meant a struggle with the old (boyar) aristocracy. He accused the boyars of abuse of power and called on everyone to work together to strengthen the unity of the Russian state.
G. Sedov “Ivan the Terrible and Malyuta Skuratov”
In 1550 chosen thousand Moscow nobles (1071 people) were placed within 60-70 km around Moscow.
In the middle of the 16th century. The Kazan Khanate was annexed, and the patrimonial people were evicted from the oprichnina region, which was declared the property of the tsar. The vacated lands were distributed to the nobles under the condition of service.
In the 80s of the 16th century. were introduced reserved summers(the period during which in some regions of the Russian state peasants were prohibited from going out on the autumn St. George’s Day, provided for in the Code of Laws of 1497. Reserved summers began to be introduced by the government of Ivan IV (the Terrible) in 1581.
The “Conciliar Code” of 1649 secured the right of nobles to perpetual possession and indefinite search for fugitive peasants.
But Peter I began a decisive struggle against the old boyar aristocracy, making the nobles his support. In 1722 he introduced Table of ranks.
Monument to Peter I in Voronezh
The table of ranks replaced the principle of birth with the principle of personal service. The table of ranks influenced the official routine and the historical destinies of the noble class.
Personal length of service became the only regulator of service; “fatherly honor”, the breed has lost all meaning in this regard. Under Peter I, the rank of the lowest XIV class in military service gave the right to hereditary nobility. Civil service in the rank up to VIII class gave only personal nobility, and the right to hereditary nobility began with the rank of VIII class. “For this reason, we do not allow anyone of any rank,” wrote Peter, “until they show us and the fatherland any services.”
The table of ranks was subject to numerous changes, but in general it existed until 1917.
After Peter I, the nobles received one privilege after another. Catherine II actually freed the nobles from compulsory service while maintaining serfdom for the peasants, which created a real gap between the nobles and the people. The pressure of the nobles on the peasantry and their embitterment became one of the reasons for Pugachev's uprising.
The apogee of the power of the Russian nobility was the receipt of “noble liberties” - a charter from Catherine II, which freed nobles from compulsory service. But this began the decline of the nobility, which gradually turned into a “leisure class,” and the slow ruin of the lower nobility. And after the peasant reform of 1861, the economic position of the nobility weakened even more.
By the beginning of the 20th century. the hereditary nobility, “the first support of the throne” and “one of the most reliable tools of the government,” is gradually losing its economic and administrative dominance.
Noble titles
In Muscovite Rus' there was only one aristocratic title - “prince”. It came from the word “to reign” and meant that his ancestors had once ruled some part of Russia. Not only Russians had this title; foreigners who converted to Orthodoxy were also allowed to become princes.
Foreign titles in Russia appeared under Peter I: “baron” and “count”. There is the following explanation for this: in the territories annexed by Peter there were already people with such titles, and these titles were also borne by foreigners whom Peter attracted to Russia. But the title “count” was initially burdened with the words “Holy Roman Empire”, i.e. this title was assigned at the request of the Russian monarch by the German emperor. In January 1776, Catherine II petitioned the “Roman Emperor” Grigory Orlov “ give the Roman Empire princely dignity, for which he greatly obliged himself».
Golovin (1701) and Menshikov (1702) become the first counts of the Holy Roman Empire in Russia, and under Catherine II, four of her favorites received the titles of princes of the Holy Roman Empire: Orlov, Potemkin, Bezborodko and Zubov. But the assignment of such titles ceased in 1796.
Title "Count"
Earl's heraldic crown
Graph(German) Graf) - a royal official in the Early Middle Ages in Western Europe. The title arose in the 4th century. in the Roman Empire and was originally assigned to high dignitaries.
During the period of feudal fragmentation graph– feudal lord of a county, then becomes a title of the highest nobility. Woman - countess. It continues to be formally retained as a title in most European countries with a monarchical form of government.
Sheremetyev became the first Russian count in 1706.
Boris Petrovich Sheremetyev (1652-1719)
Russian commander during the Northern War, diplomat, one of the first Russian field marshals.
Born into the old boyar family of the Sheremetyevs.
In 1681 he commanded troops against the Tatars. He proved himself in the military and diplomatic fields. In 1686 he participated in the conclusion of the “Eternal Peace” with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and then was sent to Warsaw to ratify the concluded peace.
Protected Russia from Crimean raids. In 1695 he took part in the first Azov campaign of Peter I.
In 1697-1699. visited Poland, Austria, Italy, the island of Malta, carrying out diplomatic assignments of Peter I. During the Northern War of 1700-1721. proved himself to be a cautious and talented commander who earned the trust of Peter I. In 1701 he inflicted a defeat on the Swedes, from which they “remained ignorant and would not recover for a long time,” for which he was awarded the Order of St. Andrew the First-Called and granted the rank of Field Marshal. Subsequently he won several victories over the Swedes.
In 1705-1706 Sheremetyev suppressed the mutiny of the archers in Astrakhan, for which I was first in Russia awarded the title of count.
In recent years, he expressed a desire to become a monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, but the tsar did not allow this, just as he did not allow Sheremetyev’s will to be buried in the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra to be fulfilled: Peter I ordered Sheremetev to be buried in the Alexander Nevsky Lavra, forcing even the dead to serve the state companion.
At the end of the 19th century. There were over 300 count families in Russia. The title of count in Soviet Russia was abolished by the Decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars of November 11, 1917.
Title "baron"
English baronial crown
Baron(from Late Lat. baro with the original meaning “man, man”). In medieval feudal Western Europe, a major ruling nobleman and feudal lord, later simply an honorary title of nobility. Woman - Baroness. The title of baron in England continues to this day and is located in the hierarchical system below the title of viscount. In Germany, this title was lower than the count's.
In the Russian Empire, the title of baron was introduced by Peter I, and P. P. Shafirov was the first to receive it in 1710. Then A. I. Osterman (1721), A. G., N. G. and S. G. Stroganov (1722), A.-E. Stambken (1726). The families of the barons were divided into Russian, Baltic and foreign.
Pyotr Pavlovich Shafirov (1669-1739)
Diplomat of Peter's time, vice-chancellor. Knight of the Order of St. Andrew the First-Called (1719). In 1701-1722 in fact, he was in charge of the Russian postal service. In 1723 he was sentenced to death on charges of abuse, but after the death of Peter he was able to return to diplomatic activity.
He came from a family of Polish Jews who settled in Smolensk and converted to Orthodoxy. He began serving as a translator in 1691 in the same embassy department where his father served. Accompanying Peter the Great during his travels and campaigns, he took part in concluding an agreement with the Polish king Augustus II (1701) and with the ambassadors of the Sedmigrad prince Rakoczi. In 1709 he became a privy councilor and promoted to vice-chancellor. In 1711 he concluded the Prut Peace Treaty with the Turks and he himself, together with Count M. B. Sheremetev, remained hostage with them. He concluded agreements with Denmark, Prussia, and France to maintain peace in Europe.
In 1723, Shafirov quarreled with the powerful Prince A.D. Menshikov and Chief Prosecutor Skornyakov-Pisarev, convicting them of embezzlement. In response, he was accused of embezzlement and sentenced to death, which Peter I replaced with exile to Siberia, but on the way there he allowed him to stop “to live” in Nizhny Novgorod “under a strong guard.”
Empress Catherine I, upon her accession to the throne, returned Shafirov from exile, returned his baronial title, awarded him the rank of actual state councilor, made him president of the commerce board and commissioned the compilation of the history of Peter the Great.
Barons enjoyed the right to appeal "your honor"(like untitled nobles) or "Mr. Baron".
At the end of the 19th century. in Russia there were about 240 baronial families (including extinct ones), mainly representatives of the Baltic (Baltic) nobility. The title was abolished by the Decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars of November 11, 1917.
Baron P.N. Wrangel
Title "prince"
Prince- head of a feudal monarchical state or a separate political entity (appanage prince) in the 9th-16th centuries. among the Slavs and some other peoples; representative of the feudal aristocracy. Later it became the highest noble title, equivalent to a prince or duke in Western and Southern Europe, in Central Europe (the former Holy Roman Empire), this title is called Fürst, and in Northern Europe - konung.
In Russia Grand Duke(or princess) is a noble title for members of the royal family. Princess also called the prince's wife, prince(among the Slavs) - the son of a prince, princess- daughter of a prince.
Y. Pantyukhin “Prince Alexander Nevsky” (“For the Russian Land!”)
Princely power, at first most often elective, gradually becomes hereditary (Rurikovich in Rus', Gediminovich and Jagiellon in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Piasts in Poland, etc.). With the formation of a centralized state, appanage princes gradually became part of the grand ducal (from 1547 - royal) court in the Moscow principality. In Russia until the 18th century. the title of prince was only generic. From the beginning of the 18th century. The title of prince also began to be granted by the tsar to the highest dignitaries for special merits (the first prince granted was A.D. Menshikov).
Russian princes
Before Peter I, there were 47 princely families in Russia, some of which traced their origins to Rurik. Princely titles were divided into "His Excellency" And "his lordship", which was considered higher.
Until 1797, no new princely families appeared, with the exception of Menshikov, who was granted the title of Prince of Izhora in 1707.
Under Paul I, awards with this title began, and the annexation of Georgia literally “exploded” the Russian nobility - 86 families recognized the princely title.
By the end of the 19th century. in the Russian Empire there were 250 princely families, 40 of which traced their origins to Rurik or Gediminas. 56% of the princely families in the empire were Georgian.
In addition, there were about 30 Tatar, Kalmyk and Mordovian princes; the status of these princes was considered lower than that of barons.
Did you know?
Portrait of A.V. Suvorov. Unknown artist of the 19th century.
Did you know that Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov, the national hero of Russia, the great Russian commander, who did not suffer a single defeat in his military career (more than 60 battles), one of the founders of Russian military art, had several titles at the same time: prince Italian (1799), graph Rymniksky (1789), graph Holy Roman Empire, Generalissimo of the Russian land and naval forces, Field Marshal General of the Austrian and Sardinian troops, Grandee of the Kingdom of Sardinia and Prince of the Royal Blood (with the title "King's Cousin"), Knight of all Russian orders of his time awarded to men, as well as many foreign military orders
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The title of All-Russian Emperor was introduced under Peter I. After the victory in the Northern War and the signing of the Nystadt Peace Treaty in September 1721, the Senate and Synod decided to present Peter with the title of Emperor of All Russia with the following wording: “ as usual, from the Roman Senate, for the noble deeds of emperors, such titles were publicly presented to them as a gift and signed on statutes for memory for eternal generations.» .
By the same act, the Basic Laws were supplemented with provisions “more precisely delimiting the area of the inseparable power of the supreme government from the legislative power”, describing the powers of the monarch (previously this was not necessary due to the unlimited nature of the imperial power, see above). The emperor now exercised legislative power “in unity with the State Council and the State Duma” (Article 7). He approved the laws, and without his approval no law could have its completion (v. 9); The emperor was assigned the right of legislative initiative - in relation to all laws and exclusively in relation to the revision of the Fundamental Laws (Article 8). The executive power in the country (“The power of administration in its entirety”) belonged entirely to the emperor, while in the “supreme administration” the head of state exercised it directly, and in matters of “subordinate administration” a certain degree of power was entrusted from him, according to the law, to the appropriate places and persons acting in his name and at his commands (v. 10). In the order of supreme administration, the emperor issued, in accordance with the laws, decrees “for the organization and operation of various parts of government,” as well as orders necessary for the execution of laws.
The Emperor was the supreme leader of all external relations of Russia with foreign states and determined the direction of the country's international policy (Article 12), declared war and concluded peace, as well as treaties with foreign states (Article 13). In addition, the emperor, according to Article 14, was the “sovereign leader” of the Russian Armed Forces, he had supreme command over all land and naval armed forces of the Russian state and the exclusive right to issue decrees and commands “on everything generally related to the structure of the armed forces and defense of the Russian state”, as well as establishing restrictions on the right of residence and acquisition of real estate in areas that constitute fortress areas and strongholds for the army and navy. The emperor declared areas under martial law or a state of exception (Article 15). He also had the right to mint coins and determine its appearance (Article 16).
According to Article 17, the emperor appointed and dismissed the chairman and members of the Council of Ministers, the chief administrators of individual units, as well as other officials, unless a different procedure for appointment and dismissal was established for the latter. In relation to employees, the emperor established restrictions caused by the requirements of public service (Article 18). He granted state awards and state rights, and also determined the conditions and procedure for awarding state awards (Article 19).
The emperor issued direct decrees and commands both in relation to his personal property and in relation to sovereign property (assigned not to a specific monarch, but to the emperor as the head of state; such property cannot be bequeathed, divided up or subject to other types of alienation) . Both those and other properties were exempt from taxes and fees (Article 20). As the head of the imperial house, the monarch had, according to the Institution on the Imperial Family, the disposal of appanage property; he also determined the structure of the institutions and institutions under the jurisdiction of the minister of the imperial court, as well as the procedure for managing them. (v. 21).
On behalf of the emperor, judicial power in the state was exercised (Article 22), and he also had the right to pardon “and in general to grant favors in special cases that do not fall within the scope of general laws, when this does not violate anyone’s legally protected interests and civil rights” (Article 23).
Article 23 of the Basic Laws provided for the consolidation of the decrees and commands of the emperor by the chairman of the Council of Ministers or the subject minister or the chief administrator of a separate part and their promulgation by the Governing Senate.
Sovereign title
Full title of the emperor at the beginning of the 20th century (Article 37 of the main Law):
“By God's swift grace, We, NN, Emperor and Autocrat of All Russia, Moscow, Kiev, Vladimir, Novgorod; Tsar of Kazan, Tsar of Astrakhan, Tsar of Poland, Tsar of Siberia, Tsar of Taurian Chersonis, Tsar of Georgia; Sovereign of Pskov and Grand Duke of Smolensk, Lithuania, Volyn,
Peter - “The Great, Father of the Fatherland, Emperor of All Russia”
During the celebration of the Peace of Nystadt in October 1721, Peter was proclaimed “Great”, “Father of the Fatherland”, “Emperor of All Russia”. Since then, it is believed that Russia has become an empire. The imperial title of the Russian ruler was not immediately recognized by other countries (Turkey recognized Russia as an empire only in 1772), but already under Peter I, Russia de facto became one of the leading countries of Europe and, as an empire, began to participate in the division of the world. Since the time of Peter I, the official title of the Russian emperor has changed, but still, even by 1917, it was based on the conquests made by Peter the Great and his predecessors, with some “minor” additions like the Caucasus and Central Asia:
By God's hastening mercy, We are the name of the Emperor and Autocrat of All Russia, Moscow, Kiev, Vladimir, Novgorod, Tsar of Astrakhan, Tsar of Siberia, Tsar of Chersonese Tauride, Tsar of Georgia; Sovereign of Pskov and Grand Duke of Smolensk, Lithuania, Volyn, Podolsk and Finland; Prince of Estland, Livonia, Courland and Semigal, Samogit, Bialystok, Karelian, Tver, Yugorsk, Perm, Vyatka, Bulgarian and others; Sovereign and Grand Duke of Novogorod of the Nizovsky land, Chernigov, Ryazan, Polotsk, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Belozersky, Udora, Obdorsky, Kondiysky, Vitebsk, Mstislavsky and all northern countries Sovereign; and the Sovereign of the Iveron, Kartalin and Kabardian lands and Armenian regions; Cherkasy and Mountain Princes and other Hereditary Sovereign and Possessor; Sovereign of Turkestan; Heir to Norway; Duke of Schleswig-Holstein, Stornmarn, Ditmarsen and Oldenburg and so on, and so on, and so on.
The proclamation of the tsar as emperor did not simply reflect the well-known foreign policy aspirations characteristic of all empires that divided the world into pieces. The fact is that the ideology of autocracy underwent a significant renewal under Peter in the spirit of the times. The divine origin of royal power was supplemented by the then popular ideas of “social contract” and “natural law”. Ideological documents and journalism of that time speak of a certain “position”, “duty” of the sovereign to the people. Thus, in “Truth of the Will of the Monarchs” of 1722 it is said:
The duty of kings is... to keep their subjects in carelessness and to provide them with every best instruction for piety" or "The duty of the king's office... is to preserve, protect, support in all carelessness, instruct and correct their subjects.
Tsar Peter I takes the title of Father of the Fatherland, All-Russian Emperor and Great. 1721
This definition fit well into the then widespread concept of the monarch as the “Father” of his subjects.
Naturally, discussions about the duties of the monarch were pure rhetoric, clothed in a deliberately vague, legally vague form, behind which, in essence, there were no real obligations and responsibilities. Peter I, despite his special love for lawmaking and regulatory passion, did not strive to sufficiently accurately define the nature of his power as the power of the first emperor, much less to outline his responsibilities. In the same way, the competence of the Senate in relations with the supreme power, and subsequently (after the death of Peter I) and the competence of various “Councils under the person of the sovereign” were not specified. The right to execute and pardon at one's own discretion was and remained the indisputable prerogative of the sovereign, sanctified by God and tradition. In this, the Russian tsars of the 16th-17th centuries and the emperors of the 18th centuries were similar: for example, the mediocre Empress Anna Ioannovna expressed herself in one of her letters in exactly the same way as the extraordinary Ivan the Terrible: “And whoever I want to welcome, I am free to do so.” Peter the Great spoke in the same spirit. In the history of Peter's autocracy there is a lot of evidence that speaks of the unlimited autocracy of one person. Westernization and amazing innovations in economics, military affairs, everyday life, morals, and art radically changed Russia in the 18th century. And only in two areas did nothing change: in serfdom and in the right of autocracy. Moreover, the transfer and perception in Russia of the 18th century of Western experience, institutions and ideas that were advanced at that time served the purposes of strengthening both serfdom and autocracy. It seems that Peter, who knew very well the peculiarities of the political system of those countries whose experience he highly valued, proceeded from the conviction that in Russia there should be no other form of government other than autocracy. Therefore, during the Peter the Great period, which was marked by the creation of a new state apparatus, there was no talk not only of any representation of class groups, but also of the delegation of the autocrat’s power to some institutions.
Regalia of imperial power
Crown.The Monomakh hat was not the only ceremonial headdress of the Russian tsars. The Diamond Fund still contains the Diamond Cap of Tsar Ivan V Alekseevich, and there is also the Diamond Cap of Peter I Alekseevich. Both were made in 1682, when the kings became co-rulers. The first European crown in Russia was made in 1724 in preparation for the coronation of Empress Ekaterina Alekseevna. On the arc of this crown was mounted a ruby, exported from China, decorated with a diamond cross. Peter II was also crowned with the crown of Catherine I. For Anna Ioannovna, the crown was redone, it now contained 2,605 precious stones, but the ruby and cross were retained. The crown was changed again in 1742, when Elizabeth Petrovna was crowned. For her coronation in 1762, Catherine II ordered a new crown, and the old one was apparently dismantled. Paul I was crowned king with his mother's crown (after partial alterations). All descendants of Paul I, including Nicholas II, took part in the coronation ceremony with this crown. It has safely survived to this day and is kept in the Diamond Fund. The crown was made by the jeweler Pozier, it contains 58 large and 3878 small diamonds, 75 large pearls and a large ruby.
Scepter.In pre-Petrine Rus' it was replaced by a staff - a symbol of the “shepherd of men.” It was with his terrible staff that people remembered Ivan the Terrible. Several scepters have survived. The most famous is the scepter of Paul I in the form of a golden rod studded with precious stones. The Orlov diamond is attached to its top. The scepter was held in the right hand.
Power- a hollow golden ball decorated with a cross was a symbol of dominion over the world. It appeared in Russia from Poland, and in 1606, False Dmitry I was crowned with an orb in his left hand. Since the era of Paul, Russian emperors have held an orb in their hand, decorated with yachts and diamonds.
There were other symbols of royal and imperial power:Barmy- mantles with precious embroidery, which under Peter were replaced by a European mantle lined with ermine, Porphyry, throne, State shield, State sword, State Banner, Large, medium and small State seals.
The Sword, Banner and Seal first appeared during the coronation of Elizabeth Petrovna. Symbols also include:State Eagleand Large, Middle and Small State Emblems.
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