Ecology is the science that studies the life of various organisms in their natural habitat, or environment. The environment is everything living and nonliving around us. Your own environment is everything you see, and much of what you don't see around you (like what you breathe). It is basically unchanged, but its individual details are constantly changing. Your body is, in a sense, also an environment for many thousands of tiny creatures - bacteria that help you digest food. Your body is their natural habitat.
General characteristics of ecology as a branch of general biology and complex science
At the present stage of development of civilization, ecology is a complex integrated discipline based on various areas of human knowledge: biology, chemistry, physics, sociology, environmental protection, various types of technology, etc.
The concept of “ecology” was first introduced into science by the German biologist E. Haeckel (1886). This concept was originally purely biological. Literally translated, “ecology” means “the science of housing” and implied the study of the relationships between various organisms in natural conditions. Currently, this concept has become very complicated and different scientists put different meanings into this concept. Let's look at some of the proposed concepts.
1. According to V. A. Radkevich: “Ecology is a science that studies the patterns of life of organisms (in all its manifestations, at all levels of integration) in their natural habitat, taking into account changes introduced into the environment by human activity.” This concept corresponds to biological science and cannot be considered fully consistent with the field of knowledge that ecology studies.
2. According to N.F. Reimers: “Ecology (universal, “big”) is a scientific direction that considers a certain set of natural and partly social (for humans) phenomena and objects that are significant for the central member of the analysis (subject, living object) from the point of view view of the interests (with or without quotation marks) of this central subject or living object.” This concept is universal, but it is difficult to perceive and reproduce. It shows the diversity and complexity of environmental science at the present stage.
Currently, ecology is divided into several areas and scientific disciplines. Let's look at some of them.
1. Bioecology is a branch of biological science that studies the relationships of organisms with each other; habitat and the impact of human activities on these organisms and their habitat.
2. Population ecology (demographic ecology) - a branch of ecology that studies the patterns of functioning of populations of organisms in their habitat.
3. Autecology (autoecology) - a branch of ecology that studies the relationship of an organism (individual, species) with the environment.
4. Synecology is a branch of ecology that studies the relationships of populations, communities and ecosystems with the environment.
5. Human ecology is a complex science that studies the general laws of the relationship between the biosphere and the anthroposystem, the influence of the natural environment (including the social) on an individual and groups of people. This is the most complete definition of human ecology; it can be attributed to both the ecology of an individual and the ecology of human populations, in particular, to the ecology of various ethnic groups (peoples, nationalities). Social ecology plays a major role in human ecology.
6. Social ecology is a multi-valued concept, one of which is the following: a section of ecology that studies the interactions and relationships of human society with the natural environment, developing the scientific foundations of rational environmental management, involving the protection of nature and the optimization of the human living environment.
There are also applied, industrial, chemical, oncological (carcinogenic), historical, evolutionary ecology, ecology of microorganisms, fungi, animals, plants, etc.
All of the above shows that ecology is a complex of scientific disciplines that have Nature as an object of study, taking into account the interrelation and interaction of individual components of the living world in the form of individuals, populations, individual species, the relationship of ecosystems, the role of individuals and humanity as a whole, as well as ways and means of rational environmental management, measures to protect Nature.
Relationships
Ecology is the study of how plants and animals, including humans, live together and influence each other and their environment. Let's start with you. Consider how you are connected to the environment. What do you eat? Where do you throw waste and garbage? What plants and animals live near you. The way you impact the environment has an impact on you and everyone who lives around you. The relationships between you and them form a complex and extensive network.
Habitat
The natural environment of a group of plants and animals is called a habitat, and the group living in it is called a community. Turn the stone over and see what lives on the floor above it. Nice little communities are always part of larger communities. Thus, a stone can be part of a stream if it lies on its bank, and the stream can be part of the forest in which it flows. Each major habitat is home to a variety of plants and animals. Try to find several different types of habitats around you. Look around: up, down - in all directions. But do not forget that you must leave life as you found it.
Current state of environmental science
The term “ecology” was first used in 1866 in the work of the German biologist E. Haeckel “The General Morphology of Organisms.” An original evolutionary biologist, physician, botanist, zoologist and morphologist, supporter and propagandist of the teachings of Charles Darwin, he not only introduced a new term into scientific use, but also applied all his strength and knowledge to the formation of a new scientific direction. The scientist believed that “ecology is the science of the relationship of organisms to the environment.” Speaking at the opening of the philosophical faculty of the University of Jena with a lecture “The path of development and tasks of zoology” in 1869, E. Haeckel noted that ecology “examines the general attitude of animals to both their organic and inorganic environments, their friendly and hostile attitudes towards others animals and plants with which they come into direct and indirect contact, or, in a word, all those intricate interactions that Charles Darwin conventionally designated as the struggle for existence.” By environment he understood the conditions created by inorganic and organic nature. Haeckel included the physical and chemical characteristics of the habitats of living organisms as inorganic conditions: climate (heat, humidity, light), composition and soil, characteristics, as well as inorganic food (minerals and chemical compounds). By organic conditions, the scientist meant the relationships between organisms existing within the same community or ecological niche. The name of ecological science comes from two Greek words: “ekoe” - house, dwelling, habitat and “logos” - word, doctrine.
It should be noted that E. Haeckel and many of his followers used the term “ecology” not to describe changing environmental conditions and the relationships between organisms and the environment changing over time, but only to record existing, unchanged environmental conditions and phenomena. As S.V. Klubov and L.L. Prozorov (1993) believe, the physiological mechanism of the relationship between living organisms was actually studied, their relationship to the environment was highlighted exclusively within the framework of physiological reactions.
Ecology existed within the framework of biological science until the middle of the 20th century. The emphasis in it was on the study of living matter, the patterns of its functioning depending on environmental factors.
In the modern era, the ecological paradigm is based on the concept of ecosystems. As is known, this term was introduced into science by A. Tansley in 1935. An ecosystem means a functional unity formed by a biotope, i.e. a set of abiotic conditions and the organisms inhabiting it. The ecosystem is the main object of study of general ecology. The subject of its knowledge is not only the laws of formation of the structure, functioning, development and death of ecosystems, but also the state of the integrity of systems, in particular their stability, productivity, circulation of substances and energy balance.
Thus, within the framework of biological science, general ecology took shape and finally emerged as an independent science, which is based on the study of the properties of the whole, which cannot be reduced to a simple sum of the properties of its parts. Consequently, ecology in the biological content of this term implies the science of the relationships of plant and animal organisms and the communities they form among themselves and with the environment. Objects of bioecology can be genes, cells, individuals, populations of organisms, species, communities, ecosystems and the biosphere as a whole.
The formulated laws of general ecology are widely used in so-called private ecologies. In the same way as in biology, unique taxonomic directions are developing in general ecology. The ecology of animals and plants, the ecology of individual representatives of the plant and animal world (algae, diatoms, certain genera of algae), the ecology of the inhabitants of the World Ocean, the ecology of communities of individual seas and water bodies, the ecology of certain areas of water bodies, the ecology of land animals and plants, the ecology of freshwater exist independently. communities of individual rivers and reservoirs (lakes and reservoirs), ecology of inhabitants of mountains and hills, ecology of communities of individual landscape units, etc.
Depending on the level of organization of the living matter of ecosystems as a whole, the ecology of individuals (autoecology), the ecology of populations (demecology), the ecology of associations, the ecology of biocenoses and the ecology of communities (synecology) are distinguished.
When considering the levels of organization of living matter, many scientists believe that its lowest ranks - genome, cell, tissue, organ - are studied by purely biological sciences - molecular genetics, cytology, histology, physiology, and the highest ranks - organism (individual), species, population , association and biocenosis - both biology and physiology, and ecology. Only in one case are the morphology and systematics of individual individuals and the communities they form considered, and in the other - their relationship with each other and with the environment.
To date, the environmental direction has covered almost all existing areas of scientific knowledge. Not only natural sciences, but also purely humanities, when studying their objects, began to widely use environmental terminology and, most importantly, research methods. Many “ecologies” have emerged (environmental geochemistry, environmental geophysics, ecological soil science, geoecology, environmental geology, physical and radiation ecology, medical ecology and many others). In this regard, a certain structuring was carried out. Thus, in his works (1990-1994) N. F. Reimers made an attempt to present the structure of modern ecology.
The structure of Ecological Science looks simpler from other methodological positions. The structuring is based on the division of ecology into four largest and at the same time fundamental areas: bioecology, human ecology, geoecology and applied ecology. All of these areas use almost the same methods and methodological foundations of a unified ecological science. In this case, we can talk about analytical ecology with its corresponding divisions into physical, chemical, geological, geographical, geochemical, radiation and mathematical, or systemic, ecology.
Within the framework of bioecology, there are two equally important and important areas: endoecology and exoecology. According to N.F. Reimers (1990), endoecology includes genetic, molecular, morphological and physiological ecologies. Exoecology includes the following areas: autoecology, or the ecology of individuals and organisms as representatives of a certain species; demecology, or ecology of individual groups; population ecology, which studies the behavior and relationships within a particular population (ecology of individual species); synecology, or ecology of organic communities; ecology of biocenoses, which considers the relationship of communities or populations of organisms that make up the biocenosis with each other and with the environment. The highest rank of exoecological direction is the study of ecosystems, the study of the biosphere and global ecology. The latter covers all areas of existence of living organisms - from the soil cover to the troposphere inclusive.
An independent area of environmental research is human ecology. In fact, if we strictly adhere to the rules of the hierarchy, this direction should be an integral part of bioecology, in particular as an analogue of autoecology within the framework of animal ecology. However, given the enormous role that humanity plays in the life of the modern biosphere, this direction is singled out as independent. In human ecology, it is advisable to distinguish the evolutionary ecology of man, archaeoecology, which considers the relationship of man with the environment since the times of primitive society, the ecology of ethnosocial groups, social ecology, environmental demography, the ecology of cultural landscapes and medical ecology.
In the middle of the 20th century. In connection with in-depth studies of the human environment and the organic world, scientific directions of ecological orientation arose, closely related to the geographical and geological sciences. Their goal is to study not the organisms themselves, but only their reaction to changing environmental conditions and to trace the reverse impact of the activities of human society and the biosphere on the environment. These studies were united within the framework of geoecology, which was given a purely geographical direction. However, it seems appropriate to distinguish at least four independent areas within both geological and geographical ecologies - landscape ecology, ecological geography, ecological geology and space (planetary) ecology. It should be especially emphasized that not all scientists agree with this division.
Within the framework of applied ecology, as its name suggests, multidimensional environmental issues related to purely practical problems are considered. It includes commercial ecology, i.e., environmental research related to the extraction of certain biological resources (valuable species of animals or wood), agricultural ecology and engineering ecology. The last branch of ecology has many aspects. The objects of study of engineering ecology are the state of urbanized systems, agglomerations of cities and towns, cultural landscapes, technological systems, the ecological state of megacities, science cities and individual cities.
The concept of system ecology arose during the intensive development of experimental and theoretical research in the field of ecology in the 20s and 30s of the 20th century. These studies showed the need for an integrated approach to the study of biocenosis and biotope. The need for such an approach was first formulated by the English geobotanist A. Tansley (1935), who introduced the term “ecosystem” into ecology. The main significance of the ecosystem approach for ecological theory lies in the obligatory presence of relationships, interdependence and cause-and-effect relationships, i.e., the unification of individual components into a functional whole.
A certain logical completeness of the concept of ecosystems is expressed by the quantitative level of their study. An outstanding role in the study of ecosystems belongs to the Austrian theoretical biologist L. Bertalanffy (1901-1972). He developed a general theory that makes it possible to describe systems of various types using mathematical tools. The basis of the ecosystem concept is the axiom of system integrity.
Despite all the completeness and depth of coverage in the classification rubric of environmental studies, which includes all modern aspects of the life of human society, there is no such important link of knowledge as historical ecology. Indeed, when studying the current state of the environmental situation, the researcher, in order to determine patterns of development and forecast environmental conditions on a global or regional scale, needs to compare existing environmental situations with the state of the environment of the historical and geological past. This information is concentrated in historical ecology, which, within the framework of environmental geology, makes it possible, using geological and paleogeographical methods, to determine the physical and geographical conditions of the geological and historical past and to trace their development and changes up to the modern era.
Beginning with the research of E. Haeckel, the terms “ecology” and “ecological science” have become widely used in scientific research. In the second half of the 20th century. ecology was divided into two directions: purely biological (general and system ecology) and geological-geographical (geoecology and environmental geology).
Ecological soil science
Ecological soil science arose in the 20s of the 20th century. In some works, soil scientists began to use the terms “soil ecology” and “pedoecology”. However, the essence of the terms, as well as the main direction of environmental research in soil science, were revealed only in recent decades. G.V. Dobrovolsky and E.D. Nikitin (1990) introduced the concepts of “ecological soil science” and “ecological functions of large geospheres” into the scientific literature. The authors interpret the latter direction in relation to soils and consider it as a doctrine of the ecological functions of soils. This refers to the role and significance of soil cover and soil processes in the emergence, maintenance and evolution of ecosystems and the biosphere. Considering the ecological role and functions of soils, the authors consider it logical and necessary to identify and characterize the ecological functions of other shells, as well as the biosphere as a whole. This will make it possible to consider the unity of the human environment and all existing biota, to better understand the inseparability and indispensability of individual components of the biosphere. Throughout the Earth's geological history, the fates of these components have been highly intertwined. They penetrated each other and interact through cycles of matter and energy, which determines their development.
Applied aspects of ecological soil science are also being developed, mainly related to the protection and control of the state of the soil cover. The authors of works in this direction strive to show the principles of preserving and creating such soil properties that determine their high sustainable and high-quality fertility, without causing damage to the associated components of the biosphere (G.V. Dobrovolsky, N.N. Grishina, 1985).
Currently, some higher educational institutions teach special courses “Soil Ecology” or “Ecological Soil Science”. In this case, we are talking about science, which examines the patterns of functional relationships between soil and the environment. From an ecological perspective, soil-forming processes, processes of accumulation of plant matter and humus formation are studied. However, soils are considered as the “center of the geosystem.” The applied significance of ecological soil science is reduced to the development of measures for the rational use of land resources.
Flowing Pond
A pond is an example of a larger habitat ideal for observing an ecosystem. It is home to a large community of different plants and animals. The pond, its communities and the inanimate nature around it form the so-called ecological system. The depths of a pond are a good environment for studying the communities of its inhabitants. Move the net carefully in different parts of the pond. Write down everything that ends up in the net when you remove it. Put the most interesting finds in a jar to study them in more detail. Use any manual that describes the life of the inhabitants of the pond to determine the names of the organisms you find. And when you finish the experiments, do not forget to release the living creatures back into the pond. You can buy a net or make it yourself. Take a piece of thick wire and bend it into a ring, and stick the ends into one of the edges of a long bamboo stick. Then cover the wire ring with a nylon stocking and tie it at the bottom with a knot. These days, ponds are much less common than forty years ago. Many of them have become shallow and overgrown. This had an adverse effect on the lives of the inhabitants of the ponds: only a few of them managed to survive. When the pond dries out, its last inhabitants also die.
Make a pond yourself
By digging a pond, you can create a corner of wild nature for yourself. This will attract many species of animals to it and will not become a burden to you. However, the pond will need to be constantly maintained in good condition. It will take a lot of time and effort to create it, but once various animals live in it, you can study them at any time. A homemade tube for underwater observations will allow you to become better acquainted with the life of the inhabitants of the pond. Carefully cut off the neck and bottom of the plastic bottle. Place a clear plastic bag over one end and secure it around the neck with a rubber band. Now through this tube you can observe the life of the inhabitants of the pond. For safety, it is best to cover the free edge of the tube with adhesive tape.
1. Which scientist coined the term “Ecology”?
* + E. Haeckel
2. What does ecology study?
* + patterns of relationships and interactions of all living organisms with the environment
3. Period of dissemination of environmental science
* + late 18th century
4. The period of formation of environmental science as a separate independent science
* + late XIX and mid-XX
5. The period of prosperity of environmental science
* early XIX and mid XX
* late 18th century
* mid-19th and early 20th
* beginning of the 21st century
6. Object of environmental study:
* + biological and geographical micro and macro systems, and their life rhythm (dynamics) in time and space
7. What is the name of the section that studies the relationship between individual organisms and their natural environment?
* +autoecology
8. Branch of science that studies the community of populations belonging to different species at the level of the integrity of organisms?
* + synecology
9. A branch of ecology that studies ways to implement human plans that are constantly evolving on the border between man and the biosphere?
* + nooecology
10. Purpose of protecting nature:
* + ensuring environmental safety
11. Effective use of nature is:
* + the most effective and rational technologies for the use of natural resources and their renewal for humans
12. B. Commoner’s first law:
* + everything is connected to everything
13. B. Commoner's third law
* + nature “knows” better
14. The section of ecology that interconnects populations, that is, organisms belonging to the same type, with the environment:
* +demecology
15. Section of ecology that studies environmental rights and environmental problems of people:
* + human ecology
16. What is nature conservation?
* +international, state and public measures aimed at finding effective ways against pollution, depletion and renewal of natural resources
17. The main goal of protecting nature:
* + using natural resources effectively, pass on to the future generation in the same form
18. Conservation Science:
* + a set of state and public measures to implement the basic concepts of environmental science
19. B. Commoner’s second law:
* +everything has to go somewhere
20. B. Commoner's fourth law:
* +nothing comes for free
21. Modern ecology studies:
* + Relationships of organisms, including humans, with the environment
22. What does medical ecology study?
* + interaction of man as a biological and social being with a complex multi-component environment, with an ever-complicated habitat
23. Direct and indirect effects of the element on the body:
* +Environmental factor
24. What are abiotic factors?
* + set of environmental conditions affecting organisms
25.
* + the influence of the body’s vital functions on others
26. Anthropogenic factors:
* +human action that directly or indirectly affects the environment
27. Edaphic factors include:
* + chemical composition of soils
28. Trophicpower supply chain links- This:
* + one species feeds on live individuals, carrion or their end products
29. Metabolism in the ecosystem takes place:
* + through the producer from the consumer to the decomposer;
30. The essence of the law of optimum is that:
* + any environmental factor has certain limits of positive influence on the life of organisms;
31. Law of pessimum of environmental factors:
* + dangerous zone for the existence or distribution of organisms.
32. Fan actor who has certain limits of positive influence on the life activity of organisms
* + limit
33. Which scientist introduced the law of tolerance?
* +W. Shelford
34. Which scientist introduced the limit factor?
* +Y. Liebig
35. Environmental valency is:
* + the ability of organisms to tolerate quantitative fluctuations in environmental factors
36. Refers totenobiont organisms:
* + low tolerance range for all environmental factors.
37. K eVribiontic organisms include:
* + high range of tolerance to all environmental factors.
38. Photoperiodism is:
* + the body’s reaction to the length of the day
39. What are abiotic factors?
* +temperature, voltage, background radiation
40. What are abiotic factors?
* factors of inanimate nature
* release of harmful substances into the atmosphere
* suspended animation, symbiosis, commensalism
* disturbance of soil layers
41. What are biotic factors?
42. What are biotic factors?
* +factors of living nature
43. What are anthropogenic factors?
*+ release of harmful substances into the atmosphere
44. What are anthropogenic factors?
*+ factors created by humanity
45. A population is called:
* + a set of individuals of the same species that exchange genetic information and exist in the same territory for quite a long time
46. Populations are divided according to the volume of territory:
* +elementary, ecological, geographical
47. Elementary population:
* + a collection of individuals of the same species existing in a small area
48. Ecological population is:
* + position that the species occupies within the biocenosis
49. Geographic population is:
* + a collection of individuals of different species that exist for a long time in the same territory
50. The static characteristics of a population include:
* + number, density, biomass, age and sex composition
51. The dynamic characteristics of the population include:
* + ecological birth and mortality
52. What is the nature of temporary changes in the basic biological indicators of a population called??
* + population dynamics
53. An ecological niche is:
* + the totality of all environmental factors within which the existence of a species in nature is possible
54. Population size is:
* + total number of organisms existing in a certain area or territory
55. Population density is:
* + ratio of the number of organisms per unit area or population volume
56. According to types of distribution, the population is divided into:
* + random, identical, group
57. What types of population reproduction exist?
* +exponential, logistic
58. What ecological communities are the age groups of organisms in the population divided into?
* + pre-reproductive, reproductive, post-reproductive
59. Biocenosis is:
60. Which scientist proposed the concept of “Biocenosis”?
* +K. Moebius
61. Biogeocenosis is:
* + community of vegetation, fauna, microorganisms and their habitat
62. What applies tobiogeocenosis?
* + community of vegetation, fauna, microorganisms and their habitat
63. The scientist who proposed the concept of “Biogeocenosis”
* +V.N.Sukachev
64. What is the name of a formed natural system consisting of living organisms into which material and energy currents of the earth continuously flow?
* +ecosystem
65. Name the ecologist who first proposed the term “Ecosystem”:
* +A. Tansley
66. How do we understand the term “Ecosystem”?
* + biotope and biocenosis
67. The composition of the biotope, as one of the components of the ecosystem:
* + atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, pedosphere
68. Basic principles of sustainabilityecosystems:
* + metabolism, holding energy flows
69. What is formed at the first stage of all ecosystems?
* + producers
70. What does this mean for producers?
* +plants
71. What is formed at the second stage of all ecosystems?
* + consumers are phytophages of the 1st order
72. What is formed at the third stage of all ecosystems?
* +consumers are zoophages of the 2nd order
73. Based on the type of nutrition, living organisms are divided into:
* +autotrophs and heterotrophs
74. Autotrophic organisms are
* + conversion of inorganic substances into organic substances
75. Heterotrophic organisms are
* + organisms that feed on ready-made organic substances
76. Ecological succession is:
* + transformation of a biocenosis into another biocenosis in one territory as a consequence of natural factors or human actions
77. In what cases does exogenetic succession appear?
* + external biotic or anthropogenic influences
78. In what cases does endogenetic succession occur?
* + structural change and change in community communication systems
79. Types of ecological pyramids:
* + number, biomass, energy
80. What is ecosystem homeostasis?
* + ability for self-maintenance and self-regulation
81. What are the names of natural substances, phenomena that people use to satisfy their needs to achieve goals?
* + natural resources
82. Natural resources are divided into:
83. Exhaustible non-renewable resources:
* + minerals
84. Exhaustible renewable resources:
* + plants, animals, microorganisms
85. Inexhaustible resources:
* + solar, air, wind energy
86. Leads to a decrease in the number of species preserved through conservation measures:
* + renewed resources
87. Natural resources according to use are divided into:
* + industrial, scientific, aesthetic, recreational
88. Natural resources by origin are divided into:
* + energy, raw materials, food
89. Minerals that are classified as non-renewable natural resources?
* + metal ores, metal-free compounds
90. Natural resources by source of origin and location are divided into:
* + earth, water, plant, forest
91. Natural resources according to their chemical nature are divided into:
* +organic, mineral
92. What is the name of the total stock of forest products, wooden and non-wooden, and their beneficial properties?
* + forest resources
93. Natural resources from human impact are divided into:
* + 3 groups
94. Non-renewable natural resources:
* +disappearing, spreading
95. Exhaustible natural resources:
* + renewable, non-renewable, relatively renewable
96. According to exhaustibility, natural resources are divided into:
* + exhaustible, inexhaustible
97. Nature reserves are:
* + completely protected area with a natural complex and a research area
98. How many state reserves are there in Kazakhstan?
99. Nature reserves that have ceased operations
* + Barsakelmes-Burabay
100. The first reserve in Kazakhstan:
* + Aksu-Zhabagyly
101. In what year did the first reserve open?
102 . Reserve in Southern Kazakhstan:
* + Aksu-Zhabagyly
103. The reserve, which is also called “Island of Kulans”:
* + Barsakelmes
104. Reserve on the Aral Sea:
* + Barsakelmes
105. In what year was the Markakol Nature Reserve established?
106. In what year was the Nauryzym nature reserve organized?
107. In what year was the Almaty nature reserve organized?
108. In what year was the Korgalzhyn reserve organized?
109. In what region is the Korgalzhyn nature reserve located?
* +In North Kazakhstan
110. In which reserve is the relic gull found?
* + Alakol
111. What is prohibited from doing in zoological reserves?
* + Collect plants
112. How many national reserves are there in Kazakhstan?
113. How many national parks are there in Almaty region?
114. How many nature reserves are there in Kazakhstan?
115. How many reserves are there in Kazakhstan?
116. National gardens of Kazakhstan:
* + Bayanauyl, Altynemil
117. Biosphere Reserve - what is it?
* + natural complex of different regions of the earth
118. State natural monument is:
* + unique natural object for cultural, educational and health purposes
119. Term used for conservation of natural conditions
* + Reserve
120. Recreational and environmental protection areas:
* + National Park
Biosphere
121. "Biosphere" is:
* + area of active life of all living organisms on earth, water and atmosphere
122. Who introduced the term “Biosphere” into science?
* + V.I.Vernadsky
124. “Living matter” according to V.I. Vernadsky:
* + community of all living organisms, strong geological force
125. Name the functions of living organisms in the biosphere:
* +energetic, destructive, concentration
126. What part of the atmosphere does the biosphere cover?
* + Troposphere
127. Types of metabolism:
* + large (biosphere), small (biological)
128. Which scientist introduced the term “Noosphere” into science?
* + E. Leroy and P. T. Chardin
129. “Noosphere” is:
* + “Intellectual” sphere
130. Geological layer of the earth where living organisms live:
* + Biosphere
131. The main difference between the biosphere?
* + Presence of living substances
132. Component of the biosphere:
* + Living organisms and biogenic, biocurve bodies
133. Vertical volume of the biosphere?
134. Pollution of the biosphere with chemicals leads to........:
* + endemic diseases
Atmosphere
135. The atmosphere is:
* + gaseous layer of the earth, consisting of different gas particles
136. Air pollution includes:
* +Anthropogenic, background
137. Background air pollution is:
* +State of atmospheric air away from sources of pollution
138. Anthropogenic air pollution is:
* + changes in atmospheric quality as a result of human economic activity
139. Depending on the scale of distribution of atmospheric air pollution, there are:
* +Global, local, regional
140. Sources of anthropogenic air pollution:
* +Industrial, energy, transport enterprises
141. Chemical factors of atmospheric air pollution include:
* +gas emissions, heavy metals
142. Particularly toxic substances in atmospheric pollution include:
* +organic peroxides
143. Carcinogenic air pollutants include:
* +radionuclides, benz(a)pyrene
144. Radioactive pollution of the atmosphere is:
* + presence of natural and artificial radioactive substances in the atmosphere
145. What is background air pollution?
* + concentration of cadmium in the air as a result of volcanic activity
146. Concentrations of atmospheric pollutants are expressed in:
147. Environmental consequences of global air pollution:
* +Development of the “Greenhouse effect”, violation of the ozone layer, acid rain
148. Based on their physical state, atmospheric air pollutants are divided into:
* +Gaseous, dust of complex chemical composition, aerosols
149. The largest anthropogenic contribution of heavy metals to air pollution is:
* + lead, antimony
150. The main sources of anthropogenic air pollution include:
* +transport and industry
151. The main source of oxygen entering the Earth's atmosphere is:
* + process of photosynthesis
152. On what layer of the atmosphere is the ozone shield located?
* + Stratosphere;
153. Life layer of the atmosphere:
154. Global atmospheric problems include:
* + thermal effect
155. Depletion of the atmospheric ozone layer is affected by:
* + chlorofluorine, carbon
156. Anthropogenic influences increase the concentration of gas compounds, which leads to the rapid formation of an atmospheric thermal effect. Name these connections:
* + carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen oxide, freons;
157. Global atmospheric problem:
* +Photochemical smog
158. The share of harmful substances entering the atmosphere from cars in Almaty from the total share of other harmful substances is:
159. Name the most dangerous gas emitted into the atmosphere:
* + carbon monoxide
160. The atmosphere includes:
* + nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide
161. Industrial emissions from enterprises by technological processes are divided into:
* + organized, unorganized, mixed
162. Cities with heavily polluted atmospheric air include:
* + Almaty, Zhambyl, Ust-Kamenogorsk, Temirtau
163. Cities with polluted atmospheric air include
* +Shymkent, Karaganda, Balkhash, Aktyubinsk
164. Cities with moderately polluted atmospheric air include:
* +Zhezkazgan, Kostanay, Pavlodar, Semey
165. Cities with slightly polluted atmospheric air include:
* +Astana, Uralsk, Petropavlovsk, Aktau
166. Consequences of increased concentrations of cadmium on the human body:
* + Itai-itai disease and kidney damage
167. Consequences of increased concentrations of chromium on the human body:
* + causes ulcers of the nasal mucosa
168. When the human body is poisoned by mercury:
* + nervous diseases, renal dysfunction
169. When the dose of copper in the human body exceeds the norm:
* + capillaries of the liver and kidneys are damaged
170. The effect of lead on the human body:
* + nervous diseases, anemia, amnesia, infertility
171. Emissions from industrial enterprises include:
* +Unorganized, organized, mixed
172. Gross emissions are:
* + a certain emission rate into the atmosphere
173. What applies to organized emissions:
* + emissions through centralized routes
174. What applies to fugitive emissions:
* + emissions due to lack of sealing
Hydrosphere
175. Hydrosphere is:
* + set of seas, oceans, continental waters, glaciers, atomosphere precipitation
176. Volume of the hydrosphere in the globe:
177. Volume of seas and oceans in the hydrosphere:
178. Acid rain acidifies the waters of the ecosystem, they affect:
* + to reduce biological diversity
179. Organisms that float freely on the surface of water:
* + Plankton;
180. Benthos is:
* + Organism that exists at the bottom of the sea
181. What organisms belong to benthos:
* + crustaceans, that is, aquatic crayfish;
182. Autotrophic organisms in an aquatic ecosystem:
* + algae;
183. What reaction occurs when plant leaves are exposed to sunlight?
* + Photosynthesis;
184. When was the Water Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan adopted?
185. The main indicators of natural self-purification of water in reservoirs include:
* +biochemical oxygen consumption, nitrification products
186. Physical water pollutants:
* + solid particles, swamp, radioactive elements
187. The main sources of water surface pollution are:
* + distribution of oil and petroleum products
188. The main sources of groundwater pollution are:
* + places of accumulation of municipal and household waste
189. Eutrophication of water bodies is:
* +excessive intake of organic and mineral substances into water bodies
190. Radioactive sources of water pollution include:
* +nuclear test sites, accidents at nuclear power plants,
191. What method of wastewater treatment is used if it contains acids:
* +neutralization
192. The totality of the world’s water resources:
* +hydrosphere
193. Total volume of the hydrosphere:
* +1455 million km3
194. Domestic wastewater is characterized by a high content of:
* +organic substances, pathogenic microflora, helminths
195. Sources of biological water pollution are:
* +Agricultural wastewater, domestic wastewater
196. Water contamination with chemicals can lead to:
* + diseases of bone tissue, damage to the central nervous system
197. Biological contaminants in water can lead to:
* + diseases of typhoid fever
198. The main water pollutants include:
* + Chemical, physical, biological
199. Chemical water pollutants are:
* + Surfactants (Synthetic surfactants), pesticides, acids
200. Biological water pollutants include:
* +Algae, viruses, bacteria
201. What diseases are caused by water?
* + typhoid fever, tularemia
202. Wastewater from livestock farms is characterized by a high content of:
* + ammonia, pathogenic microflora
203. Risk factorswhatdiseases of the population is the mineral composition of water?
* +fluorosis, caries
204. Risk factorswhatdiseases of the population is pathogenic microflora of water?
* + hepatitis A, typhoid fever
Lithosphere
205. The earth's crust is:
* + Lithosphere
206. Routes of entry of chemicals from soil into the human body:
* + translocation
207. When soil self-purifies, the following are formed:
* + methane, hydrogen sulfide
208. What infectious diseases are caused by pathogenic soil bacteria?
* + anthrax, gas gangrene, cholera, botulism
209. Tdislocation path of pollution- This:
* +Migration of pollutants from soil to plants through the root system
210. What diseases can be caused by increased concentrations of cadmium in the soil:
* +bone damage, renal dysfunction, proteinuria
211. Name the territories of Kazakhstan where the soils are poorest in iodine:
* + Southern and Eastern Kazakhstan
212. Alienation of land is:
* +use of land for non-agricultural needs
213. To prevent soil salinization, the following measures are used:
* + drainage device, sprinkling irrigation
214. Measures aimed at the formation of plant properties of soils:
* +reclamation
215. Edaphic factors include:
* + chemical composition of soils
216. Humus is:
* + colloidal organic fraction of soil
217. Why is it necessary to regulate chemical pollutants in the soil:
* + to guarantee the harmlessness and nutritional value of plants growing on the soil
Ecology as a science that studies the relationships between organisms and their relationships with the environment. Subject and tasks of ecology. Organism and supraorganismal systems: populations, communities, ecosystems as objects of ecology. Bioecology and its main sections (autechology, de-ecology, synecology). Landscape ecology. Human ecology and social ecology.
Increasing the role of ecology at the present stage of human development. The main disturbances in the biosphere caused by human activity. The threat of global environmental disasters. Ecology as a scientific basis for overcoming global crises.
Ecological knowledge is the basis of environmental management. Ecological principles of conservation and rational use of natural resources. Red books. International cooperation in nature conservation. Environmental legislation of the Russian Federation.
Ecology is the science of the relationships of living beings among themselves and with the nature around them, of the structure and functioning of supraorganismal systems.
The term “ecology” was introduced in 1866 by the German evolutionist Ernst Haeckel. E. Haeckel believed that ecology should study various forms of the struggle for existence. In the primary sense, ecology is the science of the relationship of organisms to the environment(from the Greek “oikos” - dwelling, residence, refuge).
Ecology, like any science, is characterized by the presence of its own object, subject, tasks and methods (an object is a part of the surrounding world that is studied by a given science; the subject of a science is the most important essential aspects of its object).
The object of ecology is biological systems at the supraorganism level: populations, communities, ecosystems (Yu. Odum, 1986).
The subject of ecology is the relationship of organisms and superorganismal systems with the surrounding organic and inorganic environment (E. Haeckel, 1870; R. Whittaker, 1980; T. Fenchil, 1987).
According to the definition of R. Ricklefs (1979), ecology can be represented “... as a three-dimensional structure of horizontal layers lying one above the other, corresponding to different levels of biological organization - from individual through population and community to ecosystem; vertical sections passing through all layers divide the entire structure into sections corresponding form, function, development, regulation and adaptation. Each level of ecological organization has its own special structural and functional characteristics.”
From the many definitions of the subject of ecology follows many tasks, facing modern ecology:
– Study of the structure of space-time s x associations of organisms (populations, communities, ecosystems, biosphere).
– Study of the circulation of substances and energy flows in supraorganismal systems.
– Study of the patterns of functioning of ecosystems and the biosphere as a whole.
– Study of the reaction of supraorganismal systems to the influence of various environmental factors.
– Modeling of biological phenomena for environmental forecasting.
– Creation of a theoretical basis for nature conservation.
– Scientific justification of production and socio-economic programs.
Methods of environmental research
When studying supraorganismal systems, ecology uses a variety of methods from both biological and non-biological sciences. However, a specific method of ecology is the quantitative analysis of the structure and functioning of supraorganismal systems . Modern ecology is one of the most accurate, most mathematically advanced branches of biology.
The structure of modern ecology
Ecology is divided into fundamental And applied. Fundamental ecology studies the most general environmental patterns, while applied ecology uses the acquired knowledge to ensure sustainable development of society.
The basis of ecology is bioecology as a section of general biology. “Saving a person is, first of all, saving nature. And here only biologists can provide the necessary arguments to prove the legitimacy of the thesis expressed.”
Bioecology (like any science) is divided into general And private. Part general bioecology includes sections:
1. Autecology– studies the interaction with the habitat of individual organisms of certain species.
2. Ecology of populations (demecology)– studies the structure of populations and its changes under the influence of environmental factors.
3. Synecology– studies the structure and functioning of communities and ecosystems.
Other sections include general bioecology:
– evolutionary ecology– studies the ecological mechanisms of evolutionary transformation of populations;
– paleoecology– studies the ecological connections of extinct groups of organisms and communities;
– morphological ecology– studies patterns of changes in the structure of organs and structures depending on living conditions;
– physiological ecology– studies the patterns of physiological changes underlying the adaptation of organisms;
– biochemical ecology– studies the molecular mechanisms of adaptive transformations in organisms in response to environmental changes;
– mathematical ecology– based on identified patterns, develops mathematical models that make it possible to predict the state of ecosystems and also manage them.
Private bioecology studies the ecology of individual taxonomic groups, for example: animal ecology, mammal ecology, muskrat ecology; plant ecology, pollination ecology, pine ecology; algae ecology; ecology of mushrooms, etc.
Bioecology is closely related to landscape ecology, For example:
– ecology water landscapes(hydrobiology) - oceans, rivers, lakes, reservoirs, canals...
– ecology terrestrial landscapes– forests, steppes, deserts, highlands...
Separately, sections of fundamental ecology related to human existence and activities are highlighted:
– human ecology– studies humans as a biological species that enters into various ecological interactions;
– social ecology– studies the interaction of human society and the environment;
– global ecology– studies the most large-scale problems of human ecology and social ecology.
Applied ecology includes: industrial ecology, agricultural ecology, urban ecology(settlements), medical ecology, ecology of administrative regions, environmental law, disaster ecology and many other sections. Applied ecology is closely related to nature and environmental protection.
Ecological knowledge should serve as the basis for rational environmental management. The creation and development of the network is based on them protected areas: reserves, nature reserves and national parks, as well as the protection of individual natural monuments. Rational use of natural resources is the basis sustainable development humanity.
In the second half of the twentieth century, due to the intense impact of human society on the biosphere, environmental crisis, especially aggravated in recent decades. Modern ecology includes many sections and covers a wide variety of aspects of human activity; is happening greening the whole society.
Global environmental problems and ways to solve them
Global environmental problems are common to the entire biosphere and to all humanity. The main ones:
– providing the population with food and water;
– protecting people from the negative consequences of scientific and technological progress;
– meeting the growing needs of the world economy for energy and natural resources;
– protection of the natural environment from destructive anthropogenic impacts, protection of the environment from various pollution– physical, chemical, biological;
- preservation biological (genetic) diversity: diversity of communities and ecosystems, species and gene pool of each species as a representative of a taxonomic group and community.
400 years ago every 3 years one biological species became extinct. In our time every 8 months One species is becoming extinct on Earth. The disappearance of one plant species can lead to the death of 10 animal species.
Global environmental problems also include protecting people from especially dangerous diseases.
International cooperation in nature conservation.
Global environmental problems worsened after World War II. To solve them, in 1948 it was formed International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN).
The primary task of IUCN was to compile Red Books– lists of rare and endangered species. In 1963-1966. The first International Red Book was published. Its fourth edition was published in 1980. In 1978-1984. The Red Book of the USSR is published, and in 1985 - the Red Book of the Russian Federation.
In 1980, the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources developed "World Conservation Strategy".
The materials of the World Strategy note that one of the global environmental problems is the problem of nutrition: 500 million people are systematically undernourished. It is more difficult to take into account the number of people who do not receive adequate nutrition, balanced in proteins, vitamins and microelements.
The World Strategy has formulated the priority objectives of nature conservation:
– Maintaining the main ecological processes in ecosystems.
– Preservation of genetic diversity.
– Long-term sustainable use of species and ecosystems.
In 1992, the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development was held in Rio de Janeiro. At this conference, a number of documents were adopted, signed by representatives of 179 states:
– Program of Action: Agenda for the 21st Century.
– Statement of Principles on Forests.
– UN Convention on Climate Change.
– Convention on Biological Diversity.
The materials of the Convention on Biological Diversity note that “...diversity is important for the evolution and conservation of the life support systems of the biosphere.” To preserve the life support systems of the biosphere, it is necessary to preserve all forms of biological diversity: “Countries that accede to the Convention must identify the components of biological diversity, ... control activities that may have a harmful effect on biological diversity.”
In 1995 in Sofia, at the conference of European environment ministers, it was adopted Pan-European Strategy for the Conservation of Biological and Landscape Diversity.
Principles of the Pan-European Strategy for the Conservation of Biological and Landscape Diversity:
– Protection of the most vulnerable ecosystems.
– Protection and restoration of damaged ecosystems.
– Protection of areas with the greatest species diversity.
– Preservation of reference natural complexes.
Ecology- the science of the relationships of organisms with each other and with the surrounding inanimate nature.
The term "ecology" introduced into scientific use by the German zoologist and evolutionist, follower of Charles Darwin, E. Haeckel. Ecology is the study of all the complex relationships that Darwin called the conditions that give rise to the struggle for existence.
Organisms in nature do not exist in isolation from each other. Individuals of one species form populations - groups inhabiting a certain territory. Populations of different species occupying a certain area (for example, lake, meadow, steppe) form a community. The community, together with the nonliving components of the environment with which it interacts (sunlight, climate, soil, water, etc.), constitutes an ecosystem. All these objects, belonging to three different levels of organization (organismal, population-species), studies ecology. Environmentalists First of all, we are interested in those properties of individuals on which their distribution, numbers and role in the cycle of substances depend. Among these properties are adaptations to temperature, humidity, salinity and other environmental factors. Ecology individuals studies life expectancy, fertility, metabolism in organisms.
Ecology sections distinguished according to other principles. Historically, ecology is divided into plant ecology And animal ecology And microorganisms. Ecology is closely related to the biological sciences, without which many patterns cannot be explained. For example, environmental physiology studies the physiological adaptations of organisms to various environmental factors. Ecological morphology finds out how environmental conditions shape the structure of organisms. Numerous studies have also been devoted to the connections between the behavior of organisms and their living conditions. But perhaps ecology is most closely related to evolutionary theory. It is not without reason that E. Haeckel mentioned the struggle for existence in his definition of ecology. Ecology is imbued with the spirit of evolutionary ideas, and many ecologists are interested in the question of how certain features of populations arose in the process of evolution, how relationships between species in communities evolved. Ecological research is the study of evolution. The effect of environmental factors on populations, studied by ecologists, is also the effect of selection, fluctuations in numbers are another factor of evolution, the waves of life.
When did ecology emerge as a science?, its role for practice has increased dramatically. It has become possible to predict the consequences of economic activity and give recommendations on how to conduct fishing, develop agriculture and industry without destroying natural communities. The possibility of such scientific forecasts is especially great these days, when, due to technological progress, humanity for the first time began to significantly influence the entire biosphere as a whole. Nevertheless, many private studies by ecologists look like science for the sake of science: it seems that they cannot bring any practical benefit.
Why, for example, do you need to know how much time and energy a sunbird spends defending its territory? But the impression that such research is useless is completely wrong. The knowledge gained can be important in solving the most unexpected problems. For example, when in the 19th century zoologists studied the lifestyle of the larvae of malaria mosquitoes, it seemed that this could not have any practical significance. But when it became clear that mosquitoes are carriers of malaria, it became clear that studying their life is of great practical importance. Environmental scientists were able to provide clear recommendations for the fight against malaria. This disease, which killed more people in the 20th century than in two world wars, has been almost completely defeated in many countries.
“Narrow” research can acquire no less importance for theory. As you know, Charles Darwin was prompted to create the theory of natural selection by the study of finches on the Galapagos Islands.
INTRODUCTION The term "ecology" was coined by the German naturalist E.
The term “ecology” was introduced by the German naturalist E. Haeckel in 1866 and literally translated from Greek means the science of the house or home economics (oikos - house, dwelling; logos - teaching).
Ecology has existed for a long time as a part of biology and has been engaged in clarifying the relationships of organisms with their environment. In this case, relationships are understood as both the influence of the environment on organisms and, to no lesser extent, the influence of organisms on the environment. It is important to emphasize this two-way connection due to the fact that this fundamental position is often underestimated: ecology is reduced only to the influence of the environment on organisms. The fallacy of such positions is obvious, since, as will be shown below, it was organisms that formed the modern environment.
Ecology developed within the framework of biology for almost a whole century - until the 60-70s of this century. Man, as a rule, was not considered in these systems - it was believed that his relationships with the environment are subject not to biological, but to social laws and are the object of social and philosophical sciences.
Currently, the term “ecology” has undergone significant transformation. It has become more human-oriented, due to its extremely large-scale and specific impact on the environment and the resulting problems of health and survival of humanity.
The content of the term “ecology” thus acquired a socio-political and philosophical aspect. It began to penetrate almost all branches of knowledge, the humanization of natural and technical sciences is associated with it, and it is actively being introduced into the humanities. Ecology is considered not only as an independent discipline, but as a worldview designed to permeate all sciences, technological processes and spheres of human activity.
It is therefore recognized that environmental training should proceed in at least two directions: through the study of special integral courses and through the greening of all scientific, industrial and pedagogical activities.
Along with environmental education, significant attention should be paid to environmental education, which is associated with respect for nature, cultural heritage, and social benefits. The following concepts appeared: “ecology of culture”, “ecology of consciousness”, “ecology of human relationships”, etc.
At the same time, having become fashionable in its own way, ecology did not avoid the vulgarization of understanding and content. Its volume is most often narrowed to the state of the environment surrounding a person. As a result, the expressions “good and bad ecology”, “clean and dirty ecology”, etc. have become common (including in the press). In a number of cases, ecology becomes a bargaining chip in achieving certain political goals and position in society.
Despite the noted ambiguities and costs in understanding the scope, content and use of the term “ecology,” the fact of its extreme relevance at the present time remains undoubted.
In this regard, the need for environmental training of all specialists, including teachers, regardless of their specialty, is of particular importance, since they must have the necessary minimum of environmental knowledge and find ways and methods of applying it in their activities.
This textbook discusses basic information from biological (general) or classical ecology. Issues of ecology, focused primarily on man, the results of his activities are usually considered in courses that have various names: “Applied Ecology”, “Social Ecology”, “Human Ecology”, “Industrial Ecology”, etc. We, to one degree or another, Let's touch on the listed disciplines in the second part of the manual.
In general, the main objective of the course comes down to the formation of at least the general foundations of a systemic view of natural and man-made processes as a basis for optimizing human activity and behavior in the surrounding world in order to find ways for relatively stable, and in the future sustainable development of society, as called for by the UN Conference on Environment and Development, held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992.
Ecological approaches to the consideration and assessment of natural phenomena have a long history. In essence, the works of the first natural scientists who looked for relationships between the properties of living beings and living conditions were largely ecological: Aristotle (384-322 BC), his botanist student Theophrastus (371-280 BC) AD). Many valuable materials were supplied by naturalistic researchers who were involved in the description and systematization of plants and animals (botanists, zoologists, geographers and other scientists).
Particularly noteworthy is the work of Charles Darwin “The Origin of Species” (1859), in which much attention is paid to adaptations and relationships between organisms. E. Haeckel, introducing the term “ecology,” noted that one of the tasks of this science is the study of all those relationships between organisms, which Charles Darwin conventionally designated as the struggle for existence.
The studies of the evolutionist naturalist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829) are original in this regard. He, along with the discovery of a number of patterns of environmental influence on organisms, for the first time paid serious attention to the specific role of man and its possible catastrophic consequences. He wrote: “One can perhaps say that the purpose of man is, as it were, to destroy his race, having first made the globe uninhabitable.” This statement echoes the “Prophecies” of Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), who predicted the appearance of creatures whose results “... will leave nothing, either on earth or under water, that would not be persecuted and not exterminated... ".
Among domestic scientists, the most significant contribution to the development of individual sections of general ecology and, above all, a systematic view of various natural phenomena was made by the research of soil scientist-geographer V.V. Dokuchaev (1846-1903) and his school (G.F. Morozov, G.N. Vysotsky, V.I. Vernadsky, etc.). V.V. Dokuchaev showed the close relationship between living organisms and inanimate nature using the example of soil formation and the identification of natural zones. G. F. Morozov (1867-1920) revealed comprehensive connections in forest communities and considered them as unified systems, including the entire complex of living organisms and living conditions inherent to them, and their environment-forming role. In the same direction, but in relation to solving specific issues of steppe afforestation, the botanist, soil scientist, and geographer G. N. Vysotsky (1865-1940) conducted his research.
V. I. Vernadsky (1863-1945) applied a systematic approach to the disclosure of fundamental geological phenomena and their evolution, showed the decisive role living organisms and their metabolic products in these phenomena, became the author of the doctrine of the biosphere and the laws of its existence, sustainability and development.
Original and interesting are the studies of V.N. Sukachev (1880-1967), who devoted many years to a comprehensive study of forest systems (communities), which resulted in a comprehensive consideration of the unity and interdependence of natural phenomena, living and inanimate matter. In 1942, he introduced the term “biogeocenosis” into science and revealed its content.
Somewhat earlier (in 1935), similar ideas were formulated by the English botanist-ecologist A. Tansley, who introduced the term “ecosystem” into science and gave its definition. Currently, this concept, along with biogeocenosis, is decisive for ecology as a science.
Other scientists who either developed or enriched various aspects of ecology as a science (many of them are the authors of textbooks and teaching aids) include D.N. Kashkarov, Ch. Elton, N.P. Naumov, S.S. Schwartz, M. S. Gilyarov - works on animal ecology;
A.P. Shennikov, F. Clements, V. Larcher and others - a set of works on plant ecology; G. Odum, Y. Odum, R. Whittaker, R. Ricklefs, M. Bigon and others, R. Dazho, N. M. Chernov, A. M. Bylov, V. A. Radkevich, I. N. Ponomarev and others - textbooks and teaching aids on problems of general ecology.
Various aspects of applied ecology and related disciplines are contained in the works and textbooks of M. I. Budyko, N. N. Moiseev, N. F. Reimers, A. V. Yablokov, B. G. Rozanov, B. Commoner, as well as in detailed summaries on various environmental problems recently translated into Russian by B. Nebel, T. Miller, P. Revelle, C. Revelle, L.R. Brown and other authors. You should also pay attention to the original work “Problems of Ecology of Russia”, the authors of which are K. S. Losev, V. G. Gorshkov, K. Ya. Kondratyev and other scientists.
At first glance, it would seem possible, when becoming familiar with ecology as a discipline, to limit oneself to its applied aspects and, above all, to measures to improve the environment, which ultimately come down to a certain system of technological requirements, prohibitions and sanctions. However, this approach is insufficient and one-sided, since it does not allow us to see the underlying causes of the current environmental situation and, even more so, to reasonably predict the possible and often difficult to predict consequences of planned or implemented actions, including those with the best intentions. Therefore, it is extremely important to consider the main provisions of biological (general) ecology, which is the theoretical basis for solving problems of rational environmental management and nature conservation, as well as the basis for other, more specific environmental disciplines.
This course in general ecology consists of several interrelated sections, which are sometimes distinguished as separate disciplines. These are: the study of environmental factors and the patterns of their action on organisms (factorial ecology), ecology at the level of the relationship between individual organisms and the environment (ecology of organisms, or autecology), ecology of interconnected and relatively isolated groups of organisms of the same species (population or demographic ecology), ecology of interconnected populations of different species (the study of biocenoses). If biocenoses are considered in relation to their habitat (as a single system), then this section is allocated to the doctrine of ecosystems or biogeocenoses (Table 1).