Oddities of our body. Entertaining anatomy

Have you ever had a question about the human body, but were afraid to ask it? Or didn’t know who to ask about this? Let's say you want to know why people yawn or why their skin wrinkles after taking a bath. The question may seem stupid (for example, why do men need nipples?) or incredibly strange: are there ways to keep a severed head alive? You could ask your parents, and you've probably even tried, but usually they can't answer. Most likely, they suggested that you “look in the book” (advice that preserves the dignity of parents when faced with their own ignorance), and you agreed, but could not find a book that contained the answer. Therefore, the issue faded into the background and was eventually forgotten. A few years later, at school, in a biology or sociology class, the question came to the surface again. Maybe ask the teacher? However, you decided it wasn't worth the risk. After all, this question has nothing to do with the syllabus, it will waste class time, your friends will think you're "weird", Mr Fletcher may not know anything himself, and besides, this question won't appear on the exam anyway . So you again pushed these thoughts away and eventually forgot about them.

Now you are an adult. You're at your annual checkup at the doctor's office. No serious problems have been identified, but suddenly, out of nowhere, the same question arises in your head that tormented you when you were still a child. Should I ask the doctor? After all, they are the ones who are told about things like this. They must know everything about the human body, because it is their profession to treat our body if it is not working well. But you hesitate. The doctor is busy. Other patients are waiting in the corridor. Finally, the question has nothing to do with your health or any illness at all. Therefore, you again discard these thoughts and forget about them for the umpteenth time.

Has this ever happened to you? If yes, this book is for you. The desire to understand the human body should not be hindered. Most likely the book Oddities of our body will try to explain many secrets and mysteries, both large and small, that have interested you for a long time or just recently. We call them "SWOT" - Weird Questions About the Body. We ourselves have been asking them for many years - more often than we would like to admit. We love corny, stupid, weird, wild, amazing questions and hope you find the answer you need in this book. Perhaps on its pages you will find facts that you have never even thought about. Wouldn't it be great if you learned something about that too?

If there is a lesson in the book, it is this: human beings incredible interesting, and learning a little more about yourself is one of life’s true pleasures.

Many of us wonder about our origins, intrauterine development, and how we are born. They say we come into this world with nothing. However, this is just the beginning of the story.

What makes me human?

We call ourselves human beings because we are categorized as such based on our unique physical and cultural characteristics. We use symbols, express ourselves through speech, and have an incredible ability to develop complex cultures.

Systematics is the science of classifying life forms. This is where, from her point of view, man is: we belong to the animal kingdom, the metazoan subkingdom, the division of chordates, the subdivision of vertebrates, the class of mammals, the subclass of placentals, the infraclass of eutherians and the order of primates. Then it gets even more interesting. Within the order of primates is a suborder called anthropoids, which includes monkeys, apes, and humans. Within the suborder Anthropoids, there is a superfamily called hominoids, which includes apes, extinct humans, and modern humans. Monkeys that are not classified as anthropoids are excluded from it. Apes lack tails, and this group includes gibbons, chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans. Within the superfamily hominoids there is a family of hominids. Hominids include living and extinct humans. Apes are not included in this family.

What makes hominids different from everyone else? Large brain and the ability to walk on two legs (bipedism). Deciding where the line between humans and our humanoid ancestors is drawn is arbitrary. One option is to simply consider all hominids to be human.

As for the time from which the history of the first hominids begins - that is, our history - anthropologists of the last century are pushing it further and further into the past, as new fossil evidence of human presence in ancient times is regularly discovered.

In 1974, in Ethiopia, near Hadar, Dr. Donald Johanson and T. Gray from the Berkeley Institute of Human Origins found a female hominid skeleton that was almost forty percent preserved. The find was named Lucy. Her life expectancy was approximately forty years, and her height was 106 cm. Lucy lived about 3.2 million years ago.

In 1978, in Tanzania, near Letoli, Dr. Mary Leakey and Paul Abel discovered a fossilized track of footprints in a 24-meter-long patch of volcanic dust. Obviously, the traces were left by three hominids, whose height was no higher than 120 cm, and they lived approximately 3.6 million years ago.

In 1984, in Kenya, in the area of Lake Baringo, Kiptalam Chepbua discovered a hominid jaw with two molars, each 5 cm long. The find was about 4 million years old.

In 1994, Drs Johanson, William Kimbel and Yoel Rak from Tel Aviv University reported that fragments of a hominid skull, arm bones, legs and jaws had been found in Hadar. The bones were about the same age as Lucy's remains, but this hominid was much taller.

Also in 1994, Dr. Tim White of the Department of Anthropology at the University of California at Berkeley, Dr. Jen Suwa of the University of Tokyo, and Berhan Asfo of the Ethiopian government announced the discovery of part of a child's jaw and two teeth at an excavation site near the village of Aramis, 65 kilometers to the south. Hadara. The remains turned out to be 4.4 million years old - so far this is evidence of the most ancient hominid ever found. The latest find supports the theory that the common ancestor of all hominids lived in Africa no more than 6 million years ago.

Humans are called Homo sapiens, which means “reasonable man.” We belong to the genus Homo and the species sapiens. The earliest representative of the human race is Homo habilis, or “handy man.” In 1964, part of the skull of this species was found in Tanzania, in the Olduvai Gorge - this name was given to it by scientists Louis Leakey, Philip Tobias, John Napier, together with assistant Raymond Dart. The following year, another skull fragment was found in Western Kenya, but its age was determined only in 1991. The oldest “homo habilis” is 2.4 million years old.

Homo erectus (upright man. – Note edit.) is considered the closest direct ancestor of Homo sapiens. In 1985, in Kenya, at excavations near Lake Turkana, Kamoya Kimeu found the earliest remains of Homo erectus. It was an almost completely preserved skeleton of a twelve-year-old boy, 165 cm tall. The skeleton turned out to be approximately 1.6 million years old.

The earliest tools were discovered in 1976 near Hadar by doctors Helen Roche and John Wall. These simple stone cutting and cutting axes were created 2.7 million years ago.

Dr. Stephen Juan, in The Oddities of Our Bodies, reveals the many mysteries of the human being. From top to bottom, outside and inside, right and left - our entire body is a complete mystery. Birth and death, an accident and a happy event, the reality of getting sick and the possibility of surviving in a critical situation, how we are designed - everything you would like to know about your body, and even what you don’t even know or think about, he explains on the pages of your book. The author either seriously or with humor answers any questions from readers, even the most naive or stupid ones.

Many of us wonder about our origins, intrauterine development, and how we are born. They say we come into this world with nothing. However, this is just the beginning of the story.

Stephen Juan

Oddities of our body.

Entertaining anatomy

Has this ever happened to you?

Has this ever happened to you? If yes, this book is for you. The desire to understand the human body should not be hindered. Most likely the book Oddities of our body will try to explain many secrets and mysteries, both large and small, that have interested you for a long time or just recently. We call them "SWOT" - Weird Questions About the Body. We ourselves have been asking them for many years - more often than we would like to admit. We love corny, stupid, weird, wild, amazing questions and hope you find the answer you need in this book. Perhaps on its pages you will find facts that you have never even thought about. Wouldn't it be great if you learned something about that too?

If there is a lesson in the book, it is this: human beings are incredibly interesting, and learning a little more about yourself is one of life's true pleasures.

Many of us wonder about our origins, intrauterine development, and how we are born. They say we come into this world with nothing. However, this is just the beginning of the story.

What makes me human?

We call ourselves “human beings” because we belong to this category based on our unique physical and cultural characteristics. We use symbols, express ourselves through speech, and have an incredible ability to develop complex cultures.

In 1978, in Tanzania, near Letholne, Dr. Mary Leakey and Paul Abel discovered a fossilized track of footprints in a 24-meter-long patch of volcanic dust. Obviously, the traces were left by three hominids, whose height was no higher than 120 cm, and they lived approximately 3.6 million years ago.

In 1984, in Kenya, in the area of Lake Baringo, Kiptalam Chepbua discovered a hominid jaw with two molars, each 5 cm long. The find was about 4 million years old.

Homo egestus (Homo erectus - Ed.) is considered the closest direct ancestor of Homo sapiens. In 1985, in Kenya, at excavations near Lake Turkana, Kamoya Kimeu found the earliest remains of Homo egestus. It was an almost completely preserved skeleton of a twelve-year-old boy, 165 cm tall. The skeleton turned out to be approximately 1.6 million years old.

The earliest tools were discovered in 1976 near Hadar by doctors Helen Roche and John Wall. These simple stone cutting and cutting axes were created 2.7 million years ago.

When did I first realize that I exist?

Most likely, we first become aware of our existence shortly before we are born, but it is difficult to remember. It is believed that we are unable to do this because at that time we lack the concepts by which impressions are retained in memory.

The fetus becomes conscious around the second trimester of pregnancy. Tactile sensitivity occurs in the 7th week - then the fetus first reacts to the touch of a hair on the cheek. By the 17th week, tactile sensitivity expands and affects almost all parts of the body 3. At 16 weeks, the baby begins to become frightened by loud noises and turns away when a bright light shines on the mother's belly. The fetus reacts to rock music by actively and violently pushing; he responds to calm music in the opposite way. It is unlikely that the fetus can hear it; most likely, it responds to the physical sensations of the sound wave, which are similar to the perception of noise coming from a neighboring house where music is playing loudly. You hear the pulsation of the bass, but you cannot distinguish the words.

From 12 weeks, the fetus begins to frown and squint its eyes. At 14 weeks he tries to grin or express displeasure. At 24 weeks, the fetus exhibits behaviors that may indicate true (cognitive) thinking. He already knows how to get angry, smile and grimace. But, more importantly, during ultrasound observation, a 24-week fetus, who was accidentally struck by a needle during an amniocentesis procedure, turned his whole body away from it, determined the position of the needle with his hand, and hit its shaft with his palm 4 . There is an assumption that, by demonstrating anxiety, the fetus may be thinking. At 24 weeks, an anxious fetus may suck its thumb, sometimes so vigorously that it develops blisters.

At 26 weeks, the fetus in the uterus goes through some interesting exercises. For example, he can perform a graceful forward rotation. It is assumed that such movements can be conscious, and therefore indicate the ability to think 5.

Anthropological research suggests that life in the Stone Age was not very fun. Our ancestors carried the skulls of deceased relatives on themselves as a memory of them, ate raw elephant meat, lubricated their bodies with animal fat to keep warm in cold winters, washed themselves with mud and kept wolves as pets.

When did I first start feeling?

Reliable evidence suggests that the fetus begins to feel pain no later than 26 weeks. However, some argue that this ability appears much earlier. There is a study that confirms that the fetus feels pain already from the 7th week of life 6 .

The parts of the brain responsible for pain, as well as the cortical and subcortical centers involved in the perception of pain, reach full development in the third trimester. Reactions to painful stimuli have been recorded in newborns of all viable gestational ages.

In 1969, Dr. Davenport Hooker of the University of Pittsburgh discovered that a fetus removed at 13 weeks of gestation (but not yet dead) responded reflexively to the touch of a hair to the lips. He also reported that a child born 3 months prematurely responded reflexively to the touch of a hair on any part of the body 7 .

There is some evidence that a newborn is in some ways as sensitive to touch as an adult: the skin of a newborn is thinner, so the nerve endings in it are more open and, in addition, are fully formed and there are much more of them than in an adult. The area of the brain that processes tactile information (the somatosensory cortex) is more developed at birth than any other part of the brain8. But the full development of tactile abilities takes years. Until approximately 6-7 years of age, children cannot identify most objects by touch. The first tactile receptors appear on the skin of the fetus from about the 10th week, when it is still surrounded by water. However, according to research by Dr. Maria Fitzgerald, professor of evolutionary neurobiology at the University of London, “although the fetus lives in liquid, it does not feel moisture” 9. Just as a person swimming under water does not feel damp, but “notices the pressure of the waves” 10.

If one of the Stone Age people felt unwell, a hole was made in his body with a sharp stone to release the pain through it.

Between fertilization and birth, the weight of the fetus increases 5 million times.

* * *

Within 60 hours, the newborn excretes the amount of feces that corresponds to its own weight.

When did I start seeing?

To some extent, vision develops in the womb. However, the newborn is very nearsighted. The fetal eyelids form at the 10th week, but remain fused until at least the 26th week. However, the fetus reacts to flashes of light directed at its mother's belly 11 . Visually, babies are attracted to two things - the human face and contrasting geometric shapes. The general results of research in this area are as follows.

From birth to 2 months, babies can see objects close to them well: about 20 centimeters from the eyes immediately after birth and about 30 centimeters after 6 weeks. They recognize shape, size, patterns and pay more attention to sharp contrasts than to color or brightness. They prefer patterns ranging from simple to medium complexity and tend to look at the outer parts of the design rather than at the inner elements. From 2 to 4 months, infants begin to look around the entire space visible in front of them and explore both external and internal areas of the image. Now they prefer more complex patterns, curved lines and rounded shapes to straight lines and pointed shapes. They are especially attracted to faces and smooth outlines. Babies begin to show the ability to remember what they see. After 4 months, babies can focus their gaze on near or far objects. They see all colors and prefer curved patterns and shapes. They seek complexity and novelty in their visual environment and gradually begin to develop a sense of depth 12 . Children typically learn to recognize colors between 3 and 7 years of age. If they confuse colors after this age, they may be color blind.

When did I start hearing?

The fetal auditory system begins to function by the 16th week, even before the ear is fully formed 13 . Surprisingly, it is a fact that the development of the sense of hearing in the fetus is associated with skin receptors. According to Dr. David Chamberlain, president of the Association for Fetal and Perinatal Psychology and Health in Arlington, Virginia, the skin is “a multisensory receptor that combines information from mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors and pain receptors (nociceptors). This primary form of hearing is associated with the vestibular apparatus, which is responsible for gravitational and spatial perception, as well as with the cochlear system as it develops."

A newborn's hearing is excellent. We have known about this for several decades thanks to experiments with the startle reflex. In infants, hearing is much better developed than vision. In a series of classic experiments. It has been demonstrated that before the fetus is completely out of the birth canal, at the moment when there is still only one head outside, at a sound coming from either one side or the other, the baby's eyes will turn towards its source, as if the child knows that there is something there that needs to be seen 16 . It is interesting to note that newborns hear equally well when they are asleep and when they are awake.

When did I first smell it?

Although the fetus is surrounded by amniotic fluid, it can smell. However, according to Dr. Stephen Roper, professor of anatomy and neurobiology at Colorado State University at Fort Collins, “The fetus does not inhale the smell. Molecules that carry odor are absorbed by nasal tissue” 16. Interestingly, many species of fish have exactly the same ability. The amniotic fluid in which the fetus floats is filled with odors. If the mother eats aromatic foods, the liquid may smell like a Mediterranean salad. Subtle differences in its smell vary from mother to mother, just as individual body odor does. After birth, scents help strengthen the bond between mother and baby.

Immediately after birth, the baby cannot smell because during the day his nasal cavity is still filled with amniotic fluid and other substances. This is reminiscent of a runny nose in adults. The sense of smell awakens as soon as this “runny nose” goes away, about a couple of days after the baby is born. There is even evidence that babies just a few days old have as good a sense of smell as adults.

Back in 1934, Dr. Dorothy Disher discovered that one-month-old babies began to squirm in their cribs when they smelled a strong odor, and naturally were not bothered by clean air. The most common scents that infants respond to are violets, asafoetida, sassafras, citronella, turpentine, pyridine, and lemon 17 .

In his now classic laboratory experiments, Dr. Jacob Steiner of the Hadassah Department of Dentistry at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem asked a group of adults to choose from a large collection of scents the most pleasant and fresh smell, as well as the most disgusting. The most pleasant smell was honey, followed by banana, vanilla and chocolate. The smell of rotten eggs and rotten shrimp was described as the most disgusting. Dr. Steiner then applied swabs containing these scents to the noses of babies born a few hours earlier. They smiled when smelling fresh smells, and grimaced when smelling rotten ones. The widest smiles were caused by the smell of honey, the most active grimaces were caused by the smell of rotten eggs. Thus, the choice of newborn children turned out to be the same as the choice of adults 18.

Newborn human babies are less intelligent than chimpanzee babies.

Once upon a time, several chimpanzees were taught sign language. Today, some of these monkeys have taught sign language to their fellow monkeys, and they can communicate with each other.

Other researchers have found evidence that most newborn babies have an even better sense of smell than adults (in this case, better than one of the scientists). In 1975, Oxford University psychologist Dr Aidan Macfarlane set up an experiment to see if a newborn could smell the difference between the smell of its own mother (and her milk) and the smell of another baby's mother (and her milk). The smells came from gauze pads that women kept in their bras to absorb body and milk odors. Dr. McFerlane placed the baby's mother's gauze on one side of the baby's face and the second woman's gauze on the other side. More than two thirds of six-day-old babies “turned their head towards their mother’s gauze, and infants 8 to 10 days old turned their head in three out of four cases. Babies prefer the familiar to the unfamiliar: here they recognized the smell of their mothers and turned in that direction. Although those under 6 days old did not react to the smell in the same way, older babies definitely noticed a difference that McFarlane himself, after sniffing the tampons, could not determine... The babies in this experiment did not just smell the smell, they recognized it. In order to learn something, activation of the higher parts of the brain is required - something like conscious processing of data hidden behind the reflex processes of the midbrain ... McFarlane's experience brought attention to the fact that the sensitivity of a newborn to odors is close to the sensitivity of an adult" 19.

When did I first get a taste?

A fetus at the age of 14 weeks can already distinguish tastes. By this time, all the mechanisms responsible for taste sensations have been formed. Using ultrasound, you can even see the swallowing process. Towards the end of the first trimester, the fetus regulates swallowing frequency in response to sweet or bitter tastes 20 . He periodically swallows amniotic fluid. According to Dr. Gary Byochamp. director of the Monell Chemical Senses Center in Philadelphia, the fetus floats in "buffet" smells - sweet glucose, salty soda, the bitterness of your own urine. Dr. Tiffany Field, director of the Institute for the Study of Touch at the University of Miami Medical Branch, says that. “Amniotic fluid tastes quite bad, and we have footage of the fetus grimacing as it swallows it” 21 . Newborns have excellent taste perception. They stick out their tongue when they smell something sour. Children whose mothers ate garlic frequently during pregnancy have a particular preference for foods with garlic or the smell of garlic. We think it's because they associate the taste of garlic with mom - of course they love mom!

Audible fetal crying is recognized around 21 weeks 22 . Laughter appears much later, about 6 months after birth. However, with a smile, not everything is so simple. Research by Dr. Susan Jones of the Department of Psychology at Indiana University has shown that we can all smile from birth. Dr. Jones's latest work includes observations of one-and-a-half-year-old children. They also show that babies stop smiling very quickly if no one is paying attention to them 23 .

When does it become clear whether I am right-handed or left-handed?

This becomes clear even in the uterus - as shown by studies of the embryo's thumb sucking reflex. When embryos are observed during ultrasound scans of the uterus at approximately 15 weeks of age, in many cases there is already a preference for one hand over the other. The team of scientists at Queen's University Belfast (in Northern Ireland), in the Department of Fetal Behavior Research, was led by Dr. Peter Hepper 24 .

If you remove all the space between the atoms that make up your body, you will become so small that you can fit through the eye of a needle.

When can I first conceive?

Girls can conceive for the first time when they reach puberty. Since the end of the 20th century, the average age at puberty has decreased by two and a half months with each generation. One Brazilian girl reportedly gave birth at 6 years, 7 months and 3 days. The oldest mother living in Oregon gave birth at 57 years, 6 months and 15 days without using fertility drugs. Modern medications and the possibility of artificial insemination are pushing this date further and further. Theoretically, there is no longer an upper limit on the age after which we cannot have children. However, you probably won't want to look after a frisky toddler when you're 70.

How many children can I have in total?

Long before the era of fertility drugs, a Russian peasant woman living in the 18th century gave birth to 69 children, of whom 67 survived and reached adulthood. The woman gave birth to 16 pairs of twins, 7 triplets and 4 times 4 children.

Each female child has approximately 2 million eggs at birth. Of these, about 300 thousand survive to the age of puberty. For possible conception, only 450 eggs are used - one for each month of reproductive age (on average from 12 to 50 years). A man produces half a billion sperm every day, of which 400 million are released in one ejaculation. A man remains fertile much longer than a woman.

Assuming that a monogamous couple has intercourse often enough to release all the sperm, and that the man remains fertile for approximately 50 years, the odds of one sperm fertilizing one egg are (18,263 * 10 15):1 .

Is the Immaculate Conception Possible?

Reproduction without sperm is called parthenogenesis. It is observed in some plants and invertebrates, and can occur in certain species of insects, fish, reptiles, amphibians and birds, such as bees, and some lizards. However, in mammals, including humans, parthenogenesis is absent.

In experiments at Yale University, scientists tried to simulate parthenogenetic development in mice. In these experiments, the egg began to develop under the influence of three factors: electrical discharge, mechanical stress and saline solution. However, the embryo invariably died somewhere in the middle stage of development.

How much did I weigh at birth?

Better ask your parents. Nine out of ten babies weigh between 2400 and 4800 grams. Boys are usually slightly heavier than girls (the difference is about ??? grams. The heaviest baby at birth weighed 13.15 kilograms. The lightest surviving child weighed 283 grams. For unknown reasons, babies born in November in the Southern Hemisphere and in May in the Northern Hemisphere hemispheres, weigh about 170 grams more than babies born in any other month of the year.

Interestingly, most babies are born between midnight and eight in the morning, Tuesday is the most common birthday, Sunday is the least popular. If we talk about the lunar cycle, most children are born on a full moon.

For unknown reasons, babies born to mothers with dark hair are born faster than those born to mothers with blonde hair.

Around 6-7 months after birth, the baby can breathe and swallow at the same time. Older children and adults can no longer do this.

Why are babies born without teeth?

Ask any nursing mother why nature deprived newborns of this! Reducing the likelihood of pain helps a nursing mother avoid rejecting her baby. An interesting fact is that approximately one in two thousand babies have one erupted tooth at birth. What's even stranger is that a significant number of world leaders, including several emperors and dictators, were born with such a cut tooth. Among them were Julius Caesar, Hannibal, Charlemagne, Napoleon, Mussolini and Hitler. Is it possible that the pain of breastfeeding caused the mother to react negatively to her baby, reduce her feelings of love, and even cause her to emotionally, if not physically, reject him? In turn, could such maternal rejection and refusal motivate a person in adulthood to strive to gain power over the world? It's fun to think about this topic. What would Sigmund Freud say about this?

The largest number of embryos found in the human body is 15: 10 girls and 5 boys. They were all 4 months old when they were removed from the womb of an Italian housewife in July 1971. The woman took medication to conceive.

Every fifth person alive today is Chinese.

Half of the world's human population is now under 25 years of age.

The combined weight of all people on Earth is about 381,017,590,800 kilograms.

For every person on earth there are 200,000,000 insects.

If each person is given an equal piece of land (including uninhabited areas), he will receive approximately 30 m 2.

What are the biological similarities between us and our closest non-human primate relatives?

This question was asked by Gerald Stewart from Maroubra, New South Wales.

It turns out that humans and chimpanzees are biologically much closer to each other than previously thought. Indeed, humans and two species of chimpanzees (pygmy and common) have an almost identical set of genes. This genetic similarity is more than 98%. According to world-renowned physiologist Dr. Jared Diamond, 25 there is less genetic difference than between, say, two species of songbirds that look and behave the same.

It is no coincidence that the two mentioned species of chimpanzees (Pan troglodites - the common chimpanzee and Pan paniscus - the dwarf chimpanzee, or bonobo) belong to the family Great Apes, or Pongidae, which is part of the superfamily Hominoidea. This superfamily unites the higher primates - apes, or anthropoids (gibbons, orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees), and humans.

Genetically, some species of chimpanzees are much closer to humans than to gorillas. So says genetic biologist Dr. Charles Sibley. Together with Dr. Don Ahlquist, he found that the difference between chimpanzees and gorillas was 2.1%, but between chimpanzees and humans it was only 1.6%.

Leaders among chimpanzees, especially males, conduct a kind of political campaign in difficult situations that arise in their troop. According to primate researcher Dr. Frans de Waal, such political power battles “It’s amazing to see how males in trouble begin to pick up babies and kiss them.” Chimpanzees maintain order in their “troops” not only through force, but also by following complex peacekeeping rituals. Dr. de Waal notes that in males fighting for dominance, the battles end in something like "depression." The gloomy period ends with an emphatic greeting, display of affection, or gift to other chimpanzees 27 .

When under stress, baboons exhibit psychological behavior that “similar to what is observed in people working under stressful conditions” says Dr. Peter Schnall. In a 1990 study of 215 New York City office workers, Dr. Schnall found that people were 3 times more likely to suffer from high blood pressure if their work required high blood pressure. "psychological load" and relatively low level "freedom of choice of decisions." He notes the same behavior patterns in baboons 28 .

Victory in politics or business, as a rule, does not bring the fruits that one imagines. Doctor. Redford Williams says baboons that lead the pack physically and politically die much earlier than expected. Leading males must engage in a constant, brutal struggle to reach and maintain the highest position, causing them to become "physiologically overexcited." This overarousal creates more frequent errors in decisions, more protracted competition with competitors, an increased risk of injury, and an increased likelihood of early death 29 .

Doctor Robert. Sapolsky talks about his more than ten years of research on olive baboons in Kenya: “The behavior and physiology of baboons casts doubt on the popular belief that high social status equals good health” 30 .

Chimpanzees - and pygmy chimpanzees in particular - are a rather restless bunch. Perhaps humans' closest relatives, the pygmy chimpanzees, have "amazing sexual appetite." Sexual practices in a variety of combinations and positions (including male and female homosexuality) are used to relieve tension, restore order, and gain favor.

Dr. Marvin Harris, an anthropologist at the University of Florida in Gainesville, argues that pygmy chimpanzees, “maybe they invented prostitution.” He says that when the female chimpanzees want the males to treat them, “They preface their begging - or completely. replaced by mating with a male who has the treasured food” 31.

According to Dr. de Waal, male pygmy chimpanzees offer females "a large amount of food" but they do not give it up until the end of mating. Rhesus monkeys are widely engaged in “matchmaking”, including their own offspring in the process. For example, Dr. de Waal reports, mothers who are low in the group's social hierarchy will often pick up their baby and a higher-ranking baby monkey and hug them. They also encourage two teenagers to pair up and simulate courtship. At the same time, they will drive away other monkeys of lower status who are trying to interfere with them. Overall, Dr de Waal explains, this research indicates that our closest animal relatives have “a much better understanding of our social needs than we expected, a developed ability to perform intentional actions, the ability to make peace, plan wars, political moves and sex life.” In many ways they are very similar to us 32 .

According to doctors Paul Ehrlich and Robert Ornstein, the total weight of all humans is significantly greater than the total weight of representatives of any other animal species. Although all insects on the planet weigh more than humans, they include more than one species 33 .

The DNA of all people living today will fit into one teaspoon and weigh less than 1.2 grams.

Is there such an animal as a humanzee?

This SWOT has to do with a strange chimpanzee named Oliver. For twenty years, researchers wondered if he was a human-chimpanzee hybrid. In 1996, scientists reported Oliver, a male approximately 30 years old, 1.2 meters tall and weighing about 50 kilograms. Oliver had an upright posture, unusual ears and a rather unpleasant odor. He always walked on two legs, used the toilet (and flushed), drank coffee, mixed drinks, and liked to have an occasional nightcap. The other chimpanzees paid him no attention. People didn't know who he was. When they cut his hair and combed it back, he looked eerily human. Various theories were put forward: one of them said that Oliver was the result of crossing chimpanzees and bonobos (pygmy chimpanzees), while another suggested that he was indeed a “humanzee” - the result of secret experiments carried out in China, Italy or the United States. However, in 1998 the picture became clearer. Scientists from the University of Texas concluded that Oliver was one hundred percent chimpanzee 34-37.

The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that approximately 100,000,000 sexual acts are performed worldwide each day. This results in 100,000,000 pregnancies. Of these, approximately 150,000 end in abortion.

If oxygen is needed for breathing. Why do newborns go blind when there is too much of it?

A healthy full-term baby, after 9 months of development, is fully ready to breathe normal air and does not need additional oxygen. However, premature babies exposed to too much oxygen can become permanently blind. This is called premature retinal degeneration, or retrolental fibroplasia. When a baby is born very premature, the vessels supplying blood to the retina are still developing. Once exposed to the atmosphere of a hospital incubator with a high concentration of oxygen, blood vessels continue to grow, but in an unnatural way, causing vision pathology. Moreover, the lungs themselves can suffer from oxygen. Unfortunately, premature babies are often unable to breathe on their own and must be placed in an incubator. Damage to the eyes and lungs becomes the price of saving their lives. Doctors are well aware of this risk and closely monitor oxygen levels using medical equipment.

Why can't a premature baby breathe oxygen or air?

This question was asked by Arta Samandiego from Guatemala City, Guatemala.

A premature baby cannot breathe normally because its body is not able to contact air or pure oxygen. Lung tissue is not developed enough to provide oxygen to the entire body. Among other things, the baby's lungs cannot expand - they shrink: This condition is called infant respiratory distress syndrome and is the leading cause of death in premature babies. The syndrome occurs because the lungs of a premature baby are different from the lungs of full-term newborns. The lungs of the latter are covered with a surfactant that keeps them in a straightened state. This substance begins to be produced by the fetal body itself, but only 1-2 months before birth. Over the past 10 years, thanks to medical research, they have learned to produce such a substance artificially. The first analogue was created from a bovine surfactant, the second from a human one. It is administered to the baby at birth. Therefore, in our time, doctors can save the lives of a much larger number of premature babies than was the case in the past.

One woman and one man can produce 64 billion genetically unique offspring.

Every inhabitant of the Earth is related to every other living person in at least the fiftieth generation.

The female X chromosome consists of 433 genes. The male Y chromosome carries only 29 genes. Thus, we can conclude that women inherit much more traits than men.

10% of all pregnancies end in spontaneous miscarriages.

Compared to pregnant women who suffer from morning sickness, women who do not experience it are much more likely to give birth prematurely or have miscarriages.

Why are babies able to withstand higher body temperatures than their parents?

This question was asked by Linden Furst from Auckland, New Zealand.

Compared to the body temperature of adults, a baby's body temperature rises and falls faster, easier and by greater amounts: This happens because the baby's hypothalamus is not yet as developed as the adult's hypothalamus. One of the functions of the hypothalamus is to stabilize and regulate body temperature. Oh serves like a small thermostat. Like many other abilities that we develop as we grow, the hypothalamus matures gradually. This occurs from early to late childhood 38,39.

For unknown reasons, children conceived during the colder months have higher IQs than those conceived during the warmer months.

The more children a woman has, the lower the likelihood that her next child will be a boy.

Is it true that we have more bones at birth than at old age?

This question was asked by Leona Jordan from Huntsville, Alabama.

It's true that you have many more bones when you're a baby than when you're old. A newborn has 350 bones, while an adult has only 208. Many of the children's bones subsequently fuse together. The collarbone is the last child bone to fuse between 18 and 25 years of age.

From the fourth to the eighth week of embryonic development, all people have a tail, which subsequently disappears.

Is it true that when atmospheric pressure drops, the number of births increases?

Oddly enough, yes. There is a theory regarding this phenomenon: in the time immediately preceding childbirth, any sudden drop in atmospheric pressure can cause your water to break. Many births scheduled for a given day were caused prematurely by changes in blood pressure.

A surgical incision in the skin of the fetus in the uterus heals without leaving scars.

During its development, the fetus is in amniotic fluid. This liquid contains approximately the same salt content as the ocean waters of our planet.

Do we have innate fears?

There is no evidence that humans have any innate fears other than the fear of falling and the fear of loud noises. All others are purchased. However, it has been discovered that chimpanzees that were bred, born and raised in laboratories, and therefore have never seen the wild, show fear when they first see a snake or even a garden hose with eyes drawn on it.

Does the sun or moon influence birth?

Statistically, boys are more likely to be born between dawn and dusk, and girls are more likely to be born between midnight and noon. Scientists do not know what influences this state of affairs. Most likely, this is another mystery of nature. And, very interesting!

A baby's nails form 15 weeks before he is born.

Newborn babies are almost blind. Their vision is less than 20/500.

A newborn baby can see green and red, but cannot see blue.

How much extra weight will I gain during pregnancy and will it remain after the baby is born?

On average, a woman gains 9.9 kg during pregnancy. She loses 6.1 kg within an hour of giving birth, loses 1.6 kg over the next 12 days, and after 6 weeks weighs 8.1 kg less than when she started labor. She has 1.9kg to lose to reach her pre-pregnancy weight.

How long will it take me to give birth to my first child?

On average, a woman giving birth to her first child will experience approximately 135 contractions. The pain can last from a few minutes to a day or even longer. Fortunately, with the birth of a second child, labor pains become less frequent and shorter - the mother must decide to go through this again!

Like most baby mammals, a human baby breathes only through the nose until 6 months of age.

Already in the womb the child begins to smile. However, he does not know how to frown until 6 months after birth.

How long is the umbilical cord that connects me to my mother before birth?

If you and your mother have no abnormalities, the umbilical cord is approximately 55.9 cm long. If the umbilical cord is much shorter, it restricts the movements of the developing baby, and if it is longer, there is a high risk of strangulation, which periodically leads to fetal death.

Experts in the development of newborn children say that most of them learn their names already at the age of 4.5 months.

The hand grip of a one-day-old baby is much stronger than that of a month-old baby.

Is it true that a baby is born without kneecaps?

A widely held belief is that babies do not have kneecaps at birth. Of course they exist. The kneecaps form around the 4th month of the fetus's life, but are not very clearly visible on an x-ray, since the baby's bones are still composed of soft tissue. According to Dr. Eduard Gottlieb 40, “At this time, the kneecaps consist of cartilage tissue. The growth centers surrounding them form later and appear shortly before or even after birth.”

It has been repeatedly observed that mothers talk more to female infants than to male ones.

Mothers exhibit special intonations in their voices when they sing lullabies to their children. Interestingly, they cannot reproduce them in this way if the baby is not nearby. When women are asked to explain this fact, they do not know how to respond.

The baby's heart rate is synchronized not only with the mother's heart rate, but also with the father's heart rate if he frequently cares for newborns. However, this does not happen with his grandparents, sisters, brothers, nanny or any other person who cares for him.

What is the statistical probability that I will do something truly amazing in my life?

This question was asked by Phoebus Stanley from San Mateo, California.

Of course, this question cannot be answered. After all, what is “truly amazing”? However, we can tell you something about the statistical probability of your “ordinary” accomplishments. Your life can last 79.5 years, and during those years you will blink 415 million times; the total length of hair growing throughout your body will be 948 kilometers; you will “lose” 19 kilograms of skin; The total length of your nails will be 29 meters, and your nose hair will be 198 centimeters. In the first 2 years of your life, you will crawl 150 kilometers, and for the rest of your life you will walk about 21,951 kilometers. By the age of 21, you will have inhaled and exhaled enough air to fill 5 million balloons. In your entire life, you will talk on the phone for 2.5 years, eat 7,300 eggs, 159 kilograms of chocolate, and spend 6 months on the toilet. On average, you will have 2,580 sexual encounters with five partners. However, you will only experience love twice 41-43.

British researchers have found that 10-year-olds who were breastfed were on average eight points ahead of those who were formula-fed on IQ tests.

Research shows that breastfed babies rarely have crooked teeth.

Can the human body be in weightlessness long enough to survive interplanetary flight?

We have recently learned that there are unexpected and dramatic effects of weightlessness on the human body that can make long periods of time in space dangerous and even impossible.

Flight experiences of the space shuttle Columbia and the Mir international station confirmed the negative effects of weightlessness on the human body. These effects include severe loss of muscle tissue - up to 20% in the muscles (calves and thighs) that bear the body's weight - as well as sudden fluctuations in blood pressure and a reduced ability to burn stored fat for energy. NASA representatives say: at best, these “The discoveries may mean that long-term travel is much more difficult for humans than previously thought. Only a wide range of biomedical research in orbit will solve all the issues."

At least twelve major changes occur to the human body in space.

The eyes become the main organ bearing the load of motion perception.

Redistribution of fluid, which causes a rush of fluid to the head and swelling of the face.

Increased radiation increases the risk of cancer.

Stress puts the immune system at risk.

Loss of blood plasma leads to temporary anemia upon return to Earth.

The muscles that carry the supporting function of the body degrade.

Redistribution of fluid leads to a decrease in the volume of the legs.

The filtration process in the kidneys is intensified.

Loss of bone mass can contribute to the development of kidney stones.

Changes in sensory signals disrupt brain function, which periodically causes disorientation.

In the inner ear, the response of otoliths to movement changes45.

How many cells are there in the human body?

This SWOT is asked quite often, but it is almost impossible to answer: the number of cells that make up the human body is too large. They can only be estimated approximately. According to Dr. Thomas Greiner, “Although we do not know the exact number, the approximate number of cells in the human body may be about ten to the twelfth power, or one hundred trillion.”46

- drink from a cup,

- speak,

- walk,

- use the toilet.

Why is the body made of water?

Here is another frequently asked SWOT. According to Dr. Lynn Bree, “more than half the weight of the human body is accounted for by the water of which it is composed, and in fact, the aquatic nature of the body is characteristic of almost all forms of life on our planet” 47.

Water existed before life began in it. Life began to develop in the ocean. The first simple cells arose in ancient oceans approximately 3.5 billion years ago. They consisted of a simple fatty (lipid) membrane containing ordinary “protoplasm”. The membrane was used to protect the contents of the cell and prevent the loss of important enzymes, DNA and other components. In these cells, chemical processes took place in which water participated: the breakdown of sugars with the release of energy, DNA synthesis and the formation of proteins from building blocks (amino acids). Taking into account the vital need for water for the proper functioning of cells, we can say that in the process of evolution, the role of water in the functioning of organisms has not changed, remaining one of the most important.

The first gigasecond of life means you are about a billion seconds old, or about thirty-two years old.

The United Nations declared the 1990s to be the decade of the brain. We have uncovered many mysteries related to brain activity. But we are yet to learn more about what Woody Allen once called his “second favorite organ.”

What is the brain?

This will require a lot of explanation, so let's start at the beginning. The human body is an interdependent, coordinated system whose functions and responses are controlled by the brain through an extensive and complex innervation. The brain itself is the most complex and large collection of different species, the function of which is manifested in the nervous tissue of all its diverse activities. Relying on the five senses - touch, vision, smell, taste and hearing - the brain allows each of us to determine external and internal factors and understand what is happening in the world around us.

The human body carries out two main types of movements or actions: voluntary and involuntary. During voluntary actions, the brain controls the muscles or organs of the body, prompting them to perform some task. During involuntary actions (reflexes), the brain reacts to signals from the senses, which seem to provide information about conditions or situations (give a stimulus), and sends impulses to the motor centers. The brain does not always take part in the implementation of reflexes. In this case, from the sensory nerve endings the effect is transmitted to the nerves of the motor system either indirectly, through the spinal cord, or directly. The reflex does not require thoughts or “brain work” for the correct stimulus-response sequence to occur.

Most of the nerves that activate the muscles of the body come from the spinal cord. The spinal cord runs down the spine and enters an opening at the bottom of the skull. It then expands and passes into the medulla oblongata and cerebellum, which form the basis of the brain. Above the cerebellum are the main independent but interconnected parts that fill the cranium: the pons, the midbrain and the brain.

The weight of an adult male brain is approximately 1.4 kilograms, and the weight of an adult female brain is 1.25 kilograms. This weight difference has nothing to do with gender. Men have larger brains to match their larger body sizes.

During the first 6 weeks after conception, electrical radiation from the fetal brain is not detected, and then intermittent “slow waves” of low intensity appear. The human embryonic brain initially consists of three parts: the forebrain, the midbrain and the hindbrain. As the embryo grows, the remaining parts of the brain are formed, which continues to grow rapidly for 5 years, then growth slows down and stops at about 20 years of age. In midlife, brain size remains unchanged, but in old age it gradually loses weight.

Man's ability to remember and use past experiences, cope with current situations, draw conclusions, and generate new thoughts that have never occurred to him before, strikingly distinguishes him from other animals.

The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain itself. The brain is the center of the mind, sensations, emotions and volitional memory. It is divided into the left and right hemispheres by a long longitudinal fissure. Each hemisphere consists of an outer layer - the cortex (the so-called gray matter), covering a mass of white matter hidden inside. In each hemisphere there is a space, or ventricle, connected to the all-important lateral ventricle. Each hemisphere has five lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital and the insula of Reille. Damage to either hemisphere entails changes in the movements and other functions of the opposite part of the body.

The meninges are the three layers lying between the skull and the brain:

The dura mater of the brain, the outer layer, is a protective, tough, fibrous membrane that is rough on the outside and smooth on the inside. It contains arteries, veins and receptor nerves. The meninges extend into the cranial cavity to form its parts: the falx cerebellum separates the hemispheres, the falx cerebellum somewhat separates the cerebellar hemispheres, and the cerebellar tent separates the posterior cerebrum and the cerebellum.

The arachnoid membrane of the brain - the middle layer - consists of bundles of mixed fibers and elastic tissue. Under this membrane there is a subarachnoid cavity filled with cerebrospinal fluid.

The pia mater is the deepest protective layer of the brain. It is made up of small arteries, veins and connective tissue and helps supply blood to the brain. The pia extends into the cerebral convolutions.

Lateral ventricles are spaces inside the forebrain hemispheres filled with cerebrospinal fluid. Long before birth, when the brain transitions from an embryonic form to a more advanced one, the walls of the forebrain thicken and the voids shrink, forming the visual thalamus. Eventually the spaces of the lateral ventricles are reduced to a small incision called the third ventricle.

As the central nervous system develops, the midbrain thickens its walls, which turn into two cylindrical bodies, the cerebral peduncle and its central cavity, which later contracts to the size of a narrow canal.

In the frontal part, above the medulla oblongata - a rounded extension in the front part of the cerebellum - is the pons, a region of the hindbrain. The pons consists of connecting fibers located between the lobes of the cerebellum, connecting the midbrain with the medulla oblongata. The medulla oblongata is located between the pons and the spinal cord and contains the vital respiratory center, as well as the vasomotor and cardiac centers. In the hindbrain there is a large fissure (the fourth ventricle) connected to the medullary canal located above and to the central canal of the spinal cord below.

The spinal cord contains nerve cells along its entire length and consists of bundles of long nerve processes, or nerve trunks, diverging to various parts of the medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain and brain.

The cerebellum, the largest part of the hindbrain, is located in the posterior fossa and is covered by a dura mater, a tent, that separates it from the back of the brain. The cerebellum consists of two hemispheres, the median part, or lobe, which is called the “cerebellar vermis.” The brainstem and cerebellum are connected by bundles of fibers called peduncles. The superior peduncle connects the cerebellum with the midbrain, and the middle peduncle connects the medulla oblongata. The cerebellum is a reflex center that coordinates volitional movements and their degree. Damage to the cerebellum impairs coordination, but when the motor centers are established, it becomes clear that volitional movements are only coordinated by the cerebellum, but not programmed by it.

Cortical areas control mainly motor, sensory and associative reactions.

The postcentral region is associated with sensory activities, touch, and muscles. The visual center is located in the occipital lobe, the auditory center is located in the superior temporal gyrus, and the centers of taste and smell are located in the hippocampal fissure.

The frontal lobe relates to mental associations, behavior, mode of action and intellectual concentration.

The precentral regions control volitional movements and skeletal muscle function. In the anterior part of this area is the center of psychomotor functions, including those associated with learned actions.

The basal ganglia (or nuclei) are inclusions of gray matter in the mass of white matter of the cerebral hemispheres. The most important ganglia are the thalamus optic and the striatum. The oval optic thalamus consists of two parts, separated by the third ventricle and connected by an intermediate mass, the interthalamic commissure. It is believed that the visual thalamus is the center of initial non-critical sensations and reactions. In most animals it represents the highest region of sensory response, which is why the sensations of these species are primitive and imperfect.

In humans, new bundles of nerve fibers extend from the thalamus to the cerebral cortex, resulting in improved interpretations and reactions to complement conscious perception. The purpose of the striatum has not yet been fully determined, but scientists believe that it organizes volitional movements without programming them.

Under the optic thalamus is the hypothalamus, which forms the lower part of the brain and one of the sections of the wall of the third ventricle, which is responsible for body temperature: one center controls the loss of heat through sweat and breathing and is located in the anterior (frontal) region, the other is located in the posterior part, preventing heat loss and increases its production. The hypothalamus plays an important role in metabolic processes due to its connection with the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland.

During the day, more electrical impulses are generated in the brain of one person than in all the phones in the world.

The weight of the body is 40 times the weight of the brain.

Will we be able to live normally if we lose one hemisphere?

In order to preserve life, some people are simply forced to part with one hemisphere. For example, in serious cases of Sturge-Weber syndrome, problems arise with both the brain and the body. Coffee-colored birthmarks appear on the face, especially around the eyes and on the forehead; pressure on the eyes causes glaucoma, which can eventually blind the patient. A person experiences epileptic seizures, lacks coordination on one side of the body, has learning difficulties and has mental retardation. According to Dr. Steve Roach, a neurologist in Denver and a consultant to the Sturge-Weber Foundation in Aurora, Colo., if seizure-preventing medications don't work, “using a (surgical) procedure, the hemisphere is removed”, responsible for the seizures. This operation has been performed for several years and is called hemispherectomy. Dr Roach adds that “There is surprisingly little neurological deterioration following this procedure.” He also explains that there is also a less radical procedure - callosotomy, in which the hemispheres of the brain are surgically separated from one another, but not completely removed 1. But it is less likely to help prevent seizures.

If you could harness the power in your brain, it would be enough to light a 10-watt light bulb.

When we touch something, we send impulses to the brain traveling at a speed of 200 kilometers per hour.

Why are most people right-handed?

It is strange that the chapter on the brain discusses the hands, but it is the brain that determines the dominant hand. The left side of the body is controlled by the right hemisphere, and the right side of the body by the left. In right-handers, the dominant side in this area is the left hemisphere, and in left-handers, the dominant side is the right. Approximately 88% of people are right-handed, the remaining 11% are left-handed. Some people like to do some things with one hand and others with the other. True ambidexters - that is, those who use both hands and whose hemispheres are equally developed in this regard - are very rare.

Scientist and author Mark McCutcheon writes: “It is believed that left-handedness in most cases is a consequence of minor brain damage that occurs before or during childbirth. Many scientists believe that this damage is due to a lack of oxygen in the baby’s body before birth.”2

Left-handers are much more common among twins. This is thought to indicate a lack of space in the womb and possibly a lack of oxygen. 65% of people with autism are left-handed. Among artists and gays, left-handers are also common 3.

The average human brain contains about 100 billion nerve cells.

According to the experts who developed the IQ test, most people have an IQ between 90 and 110. If your IQ is greater than 132, you can be called a genius.

Do animals have a “dominant paw”?

According to Dr. Victor Denenberg, a professor at the University of Connecticut who studies animal behavior and psychology, many species of animals do have dominant paws. Just like in humans, the professor adds, the leading paws are controlled by the brain. However, unlike humans, any group of animals is usually divided equally between right-handers and left-handers. Moreover, research has shown that some non-human primates use their left hand for simple tasks and their right hand for complex manipulations 4 .

Research by paleontologists Dr. Lauren Babcock of Ohio State University and Dr. Richard Robinson of the University of Kansas shows that ancient trilobites that lived on earth 550 million years ago also had similar preferences. Although these simple creatures did not have arms, bite marks left on fossil remains indicate a tendency for trilobites to turn to the right when attacked.

Is there a difference between the left and right hemispheres of the brain?

This question periodically arises in connection with discussions of the separate functions of the right and left hemispheres of the brain. Medical research and behavioral science suggest that we are just as right-handed and left-handed with our brains as we are with our hands. We not only have a dominant hand, but also a dominant hemisphere.

The human skull is uneven in shape, oval and therefore asymmetrical. Dr. Grange S. Coffin of the Department of Pediatrics at the University of California and San Francisco Medical Center explains that there are two main types of asymmetry in the human skull. Moreover, one of them appears much more often than the other 6. In the first type, which Dr. Coffin calls "left-sided," there is a protrusion in the skull on the left side and on the right side of the forehead. It looks as if a left-handed person has put his hands on the sides of his head, turned the left half of the skull back, and the right half forward. In less common cases, what Dr. Coffin calls “right-sided” or “reverse” cases, the bulge is located on the right side and left side of the forehead.

According to Dr. Coffin's calculations, 17 out of 20 people are left-sided. He argues that left-right dominance is determined very early, even before birth. He speculates that the shape of the embryo's head may reflect the shape of the mother's womb, the mother's sleeping position, indicate the direction of attachment of the embryo to the uterus, or even depend on the "subtle forces of the tides and gravity."

Why is “water on the brain” a disease if the brain is surrounded by water?

The so-called water in the brain is a very common disease, a birth defect. However, the facts show that people know extremely little about this condition and there are many misconceptions associated with it. Hydrocephalus, or hydrocephalus, occurs in about 1 in 500 newborns, making it much more common than birth defects such as Down syndrome (1 in 700 births), spina bifida (1 in 1,000), or cystic fibrosis (1 in 1,000). by 2000).

The so-called water in hydrocephalus is actually not water, but cerebrospinal fluid. It cushions and protects the brain and spinal cord from shock. This fluid is produced by the cavities of the brain - the ventricles. Normally, cerebrospinal fluid constantly flows through the ventricles, washes the surface of the brain and spinal cord, and is absorbed into the blood. However, with hydrocephalus, serious changes occur in this course. The cerebrospinal fluid becomes locked in the ventricles, from where it cannot escape and enter the circulatory system. The excess fluid causes the ventricles to dilate, causing the brain to become abnormally large. A direct consequence of this growth is the additional pressure placed on the developing skull, which excessively expands the baby's soft fontanel. If this pressure is not relieved early, the brain can be permanently damaged and the head can become permanently deformed.

In more than half of cases, hydrocephalus is congenital, that is, it develops before birth. It is possible that these cases are associated with infections affecting the fetus. However, hydrocephalus can occur during childbirth as a result of birth trauma or in childhood as a complication after meningitis - inflammation of the membranes of the brain and spinal cord. Interestingly, in older children and even adults, hydrocele can occur due to a tumor or head injury.

Hydrocephalus is often accompanied by additional defects. For example, about 70% of children born with spina bifida also suffer from hydrocephalus.

One misconception about hydrocephalus is that it is always hereditary. Although there are cases where this disease appears twice in the same family, the chances of this happening are 1:20. Another misconception is the assumption that fetal hydrocephalus can be prevented. Although there is no definitive evidence for this, there are observations that the risk of birth defects such as hydrocephalus and spina bifida is reduced if certain vitamins are taken. For example, a 1993 newsletter published by the trustees of the Hydrocephalus Research Foundation in New York republished an article claiming that vitamins, especially folic acid, can significantly reduce the risk of such diseases.

Hydrocephalus is detected through prenatal diagnostic techniques, such as ultrasound scanning. If it develops within a few days, weeks and months after birth, it is found by measuring the head, doing an X-ray of the brain or a CT scan. If diagnosis and treatment are carried out at an early stage, in almost all cases the child grows up with normal levels of mental and physical development. Unfortunately, in the absence of diagnosis or if the child is not treated, hydrocephalus entails a delay in the development of intelligence, large deviations in physiology, and blindness , seizures and problems with coordination of movements.

Most often, this disease is treated surgically by inserting an artificial tube into the brain - a shunt. One end of the shunt is inserted into the ventricle, the other into another part of the body, usually into the abdominal cavity. This allows cerebrospinal fluid to drain from the brain and be absorbed into the blood. Bypass surgery in children is usually performed by pediatric neurosurgeons. It can relieve the worst symptoms of hydrocephalus by stopping further brain damage and head growth, but it cannot correct damage that has already occurred. Further surgery may be necessary because the shunt must be lengthened as the child grows. It is possible that the child will always need such a shunt. There are almost no complications with this operation, but sometimes infection occurs or the shunt does not drain fluid well. In serious cases, the infection must be treated and the malfunction repaired.

In rare cases, dropsy also appears in adults, and the same treatment methods are applied to them.

Dropsy of the brain cannot be cured by crying a child 7.

Can I damage my brain if I drink too much water?

The kidneys can handle a large volume of fluid. However, theoretically, if you drink water continuously, your kidneys will not be able to handle the strain and your body tissues will begin to swell. This also applies to brain tissue. It will swell. If you don't stop drinking, you will die. In fact, you might drink yourself to death.

Can I stick my finger through a baby's fontanel and touch the brain?

There is no need to rack your brain over this question. The baby's fontanel is located above the frontal bones of the skull, and although the newborn's skull is poorly formed, the tissue covering the fontanel is very dense and tough.

Is it possible to insert an implant into a human brain to directly access a computer database?

The day when this will be possible is just around the corner. As new technologies develop, the human body gains more and more non-human elements. Humans will soon become "composite beings" - part biological, part mechanical and electronic. As one scientist said, humanity will turn into “metahumans.”

Imagine having a tiny computer inserted into your brain. This computer is able to interact with your memory, thought processes and get to any information storage. One day you will be able to carry the contents of books in the National Library in Canberra in your head.

If you think this is science fiction or utopian dreams, think about this. Technological innovation is making this fantasy increasingly real. Dr. Gregory Stock, a biophysicist from Princeton, believes that humans, having become "mixed creatures", with the help of an implanted computer will not only have access to libraries, but will also be able to use their brains for many other things. Mental problems will become a thing of the past as we will be able to calm ourselves, focus our attention or experience pleasure with the help of computer implants 8 .

In the future, the human brain will become so powerful that people will consider the greatest geniuses of our time to be ordinary simpletons. Dr. Stock claims that the rest of the human body will change by merging with the mechanisms. “There won’t be one; a.multiple “human” forms. As we become increasingly self-constructed, why not begin to show in the appearance of our bodies the same level of diversity that we see today in clothes, cars and other objects?.. By the standards of such a future, multicultural the community...will appear extremely homogeneous.”

When will all this happen? Dr. Stock says that the beginning of the era of metahumans is at hand. Computer technology is developing so rapidly that by the end of the next decade, brain implants will be widely used. “Implants to improve thinking will become as common as hearing aids today.”

According to Dr. Stock, metahumans will become the rule rather than the exception, and our entire civilization will radically change for the better, something that has never happened in human history. He notes that all barriers will disappear, since any difference between people and nations will seem insignificant from the point of view of the international community of advanced "post-biological" people. He's writing: “There is little doubt that the middle of the next millennium will give birth to a metahuman, not one who clings to life with all his might, as was often demonstrated in post-apocalyptic films of the 20th century, but healthy and prosperous, the same as all human society, in which The most important problems facing us in the 21st century will be solved.”

While Dr. Stock shows how machines can be implanted into humans, Dr. Hans Moravec demonstrates how people can be implanted into machines. Dr. Moravec is the director of the Mobile Robotics Laboratory at Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh. Dr. Moravec explains in detail how humans will be able to become robots, how they will upload their personalities into computers, and how this can be achieved within the next 50 years. He describes the computer personality of such a human robot: “This thing will be able to continue the life of the person whose consciousness is placed in it. The robot will have the same skills and the same motivation, so it will be able to raise children and do everything that a person did. In fact, and for all practical reasons, such a “robot” is a human being... Everything that a person does is also subject to this artificial substitute. Therefore, if you do not want to call him a person, it is simply stubbornness on your part.” 9

Dr. Stock believes that today's biological humans will eventually accept and even welcome the coming of the post-biological metahuman, whatever that may be. He notes that while social unrest, uncertainty and poverty are not going away any time soon, “Humanity is moving towards a rich and prosperous future.”

He would never create anything he didn't like 10.

Every year, more than 2,500 left-handed people are killed by using products designed for right-handed people.

Right-handers live on average 9 years longer than left-handers.

It is estimated that the human brain generates approximately 70,000 thoughts during the day.

Would I be able to survive if someone stabbed me in the brain with a knife?

This is a question from John Stutz from Madison, Wisconsin.

There is a large body of evidence that people have survived seemingly fatal wounds to the brain. For example, Alison Kennedy, a London resident, 28 years old, was hit in the head with a hunting knife 20 centimeters long. The knife sank into her skull almost to the hilt and stayed there for more than 4 hours until doctors removed it. “I knew there was something in my head. I touched the handle and realized that it was something huge. I was terrified." Alison later recalled. Doctors said that if the knife had moved slightly while it was in the brain, Alison could have died instantly. Doctors were forced to saw through her skull and carefully release the knife. They had to pull him out the same way he came in. Surprisingly, there were few negative consequences for Alison. After leaving the hospital, she had difficulty seeing in her left eye and felt numbness in her left arm. After some time everything passed 11.

A three-year-old Turkish girl has miraculously survived a freak accident that left a butter knife stuck in her skull. Fatma Demiryan's six-year-old brother from Degirmenayvrili village near Istanbul accidentally pushed her into a kitchen cabinet while playing. Doctors said that Fatma fell on a dull knife, which was wedged into the crack. This knife penetrated 3 millimeters into the girl’s brain. An emergency operation was performed to remove the knife. Doctors assured that Fatma will make a full recovery 12.

But such incidents do not always end well. 21-year-old Travis Bohumill, a former math genius from Eau Claire, Wisconsin, claims that he is no longer the king of mathematics he once was. A nail accidentally fired from a construction gun hit him in the head, going 8.9 centimeters deep. “Before, they could tell me two two-digit numbers, like 56 and 23, and I would multiply them into seconds,” says Brgumill. Now he has problems with mathematical problems that seem simple to the average person. Surprisingly, Bogumill didn’t even lose consciousness when his construction partner put a pneumatic construction gun to his head and it fired. Bogumill could walk and talk. He was taken to hospital and an X-ray showed that the nail was lodged in his right lobe, between his ear and the top of his brain. It took surgeons more than an hour and a half to remove the nail. Unfortunately, according to Dr. John Lamoureux, the surgeon who led the operating team, the nail hit the area that processes mathematical information. This incident also affected Bogumill's memory and hearing 13 .

The brain weighs only 2% of your body weight, but 20% of the blood passing through the heart carries nutrients to the brain.

The human brain is the most protected organ of the body. It contains from 100 to 200 billion cells located under three membranes. The first membrane is the scalp, the second is the skull, and the third consists of membranes surrounding the spinal cord and brain 14.

How many people are mentally ill?

This is very difficult to determine exactly. Indicators vary from country to country. According to one report, Australian adults have relatively high rates of mental health problems, with nearly one in five residents reporting anxiety, serious mood problems or some form of addiction each year. Alarmingly, only 38% of adults suffering from serious mental disorders (from panic attacks to alcohol addiction) seek medical help in the 15th century.

What is the simplest mental health test?

According to some psychiatrists, it's really very simple: you are healthy if you can understand another person's point of view.

In 1900, an hour-long therapy session with Sigmund Freud cost $8.10 at today's prices.

Zoopsia is a condition in which a person hallucinates images of frightening animals. For example, these could be fire-breathing snakes or flying two-headed crocodiles.

Can brain cells regenerate?

The old scientific position and widespread belief is that nerve cells do not regenerate. It was believed that neurons - special brain cells vital to the central nervous system - stop dividing around the age when children lose their baby teeth, and gradually die off throughout the rest of their lives. However, scientists have recently discovered evidence that nerve cells are sprouting in the deep layers of the adult brain. Now we can say with reasonable confidence that in adults, certain areas of the brain are able to remain young or continue to renew themselves. According to Dr. Fred Gage, “Our research shows that cellular genesis occurs in the human brain and that the brain retains the potential for self-renewal throughout life” 17–19.

If nothing happened to your mind before you were 70, chances are it will continue to be fine...

The number of cells in your brain is highest when you are two years old.

At age 7, your brain reaches almost 100% size.

The average twenty-year-old's brain is heavier than it used to be and than it will ever be again. However, the weight of the brain is not as important as the weight of what is stored in it.

Over the past 2 million years, the human brain has doubled in size. People may well say that they have become significantly wiser. The brains of some species of animals also grew, but this did not affect their intellectual development.

Your brain tissue under a microscope resembles the color of cotton candy.

How is a man's brain different from a woman's brain?

Many experts argue that the brain structures of the two sexes have many more similarities than differences, that these differences are insignificant and have no relation to educational or social policy. However, there are sex differences in brain development, and they are associated with sex hormones. Recent research indicates that sex hormones “profoundly influence the neck and spinal cord, from development in the womb and throughout life.” For example, the male hormone testosterone is “extremely active before birth, while the female hormone estrogen comes into play later.” "by detecting what's happening in the hippocampus, a seahorse-like structure of the brain that is widely believed to be the seat of memory and emotion."

Other studies show that permanent changes in the male brain begin when the embryo takes on human characteristics and begins to produce large doses of testosterone. This discovery may shed light on why men are more likely to suffer from neurological diseases such as dyslexia, schizophrenia and childhood autism, while women suffer more from anxiety, depression and eating disorders. Taken together, this suggests a more important role for testosterone and estrogen in brain formation than previously thought. According to Dr. Margaret McCarthy, “hormones affect the brain throughout a person's life, but they do not act in the same way all that time” 20, 21.

At first, every person's brain is formed as a woman's. It is known that the typical male brain differs in biochemical composition from the typical female brain. Bombarding the fetal brain with testosterone masculinizes the body. If there is not enough testosterone in the early stages, masculinization does not occur.

According to research conducted at the Johns Hopkins Institute, as women age, they remember the past much better than men.

What is a placebo and how effective is it in the “battle of mind and matter”?

A placebo, probably the most effective drug known to science, is just a sugar pill in disguise. It has been proven that approximately 70% of people get better if they believe that the medicine they are taking can cure them - even if there is no drug in the pill. This is called the placebo effect. The latest research shows how important the psychological factor is for human health.

The word "placebo" comes from a Latin phrase meaning "I would like to be liked." The body and brain interact in a very similar way. According to Dr Chris Clarke, a psychologist in the department of psychology at the University of New South Wales, "The word should mean not 'I'd like to be liked' but 'I don't know'."

Who is most susceptible to placebo effects?

Dr Joan Duncan and Dr James Laird say that placebos are particularly effective in people who are very sensitive to external factors and social pressure. Thus, placebos work best on those who are easier to manipulate, who are susceptible to advertising, and who are more trusting. This easily explains why counterfeit drugs will always have a ready market. The drug, which contains no biochemicals that have medicinal potency, affects the endorphin-producing brain system in those most susceptible to counterfeit product marketing, no matter how exaggerated or unnatural the advertising appears.

New research shows that your own body is your best doctor.

Hair Growth

42% of bald men taking placebo either maintained or increased the number of hairs on their heads.

In Venezuela, inhaling a placebo medication helps children with asthma increase their lung function by 33%.

Allergy

A Japanese study found that people exposed to false poison ivy (just like the one that causes allergies) developed a real rash.

When people in the study were told that a heavy object was about to fall on their foot, their brains showed activity that researchers linked to the perception of pain 23, 24.

Doctors now know that many coffee drinkers use caffeine to combat depression.

Chinese medicine uses marijuana medicinally to treat absent-mindedness.

One theory explains the common effects of alcohol on humans: alcohol stimulates the right lobe of our brain. This hemisphere is responsible for imagination, visual imagery and creativity. At the same time, alcohol numbs the left hemisphere, which controls memory, details and responsibility.

Patients in psychiatric clinics rarely complain of headaches.

When the sun is hidden behind the clouds, in rainy, cloudy weather, the number of people experiencing migraines increases.

One way to relieve a headache is to soak your hands in hot water.

What is the most accurate sign of schizophrenia?

According to San Francisco physician Dr. Dean Edell, a common symptom among all schizophrenics is auditory hallucinations—voices? 5 .

What is the cause of morning dizziness?

Morning dizziness is very common. This is called "postural hypertension." But this only indirectly relates to the position of the body and does not at all indicate that you really have high blood pressure. This does not mean at all that you have any health problems. When you get out of bed, you need a temporary increase in blood pressure compared to what it was when you were lying down. This is necessary to ensure that enough blood enters the brain. When you change position, the body automatically adjusts the pressure. However, this does not always happen instantly. When this happens, your blood pressure drops slightly, causing you to feel dizzy. After you've been lying down for a long time, the autonomic nervous system, which controls your blood pressure and heart rate, may be a little slower to respond to changes in position. Postural increased pressure appears more often when the body is dehydrated 26 .

What does the brain smell like?

This is a question from Cassandra June from Catooba, New South Wales.

According to the most reliable statements, the human brain smells like green cheese.

How fast are the thinking processes?

It takes a person less than half a second (from 250 to 450 milliseconds) to understand the image of any familiar object. Researchers at the Johns Hopkins Institute used mild electrical currents to measure brain activity at different time intervals 27 .

There are four types of brain waves:

- alpha, when we relieve tension;

- beta, when we think about problems;

- theta, when we are illuminated by bright ideas;

- delta when we sleep.

The human brain contains two types of nerve cells: neurons and glia. Neurons are responsible for transmitting information within the brain. Each neuron consists of an axon, which sends information, and a dendrite, which receives it. Glia are represented by 10 times more cells and form a layer that protects neurons.

The brain uses 10 times more oxygen than all other parts of the body combined.

There is a strong belief that the human brain uses approximately 15% of its capacity.

Brain cells transmit information very quickly, but modern computers transmit information 100,000 times faster than neurons.

To simply recognize a geometric shape - circle, square or triangle - your brain uses about 25 million nerve cells.

It is possible that the human brain is capable of storing 10 trillion bytes of information.

Can the brain shrink?

Your brain may shrink due to injury. Research confirms that people who have experienced severe stress due to war or sexual assault have an unusually small gighocamp. The hippocampus, a brain structure shaped like a seahorse, is believed to regulate memory. According to research by Dr. Tamara Gurvits, military personnel suffering from post-traumatic disorders after the Vietnam War lose about 24% of the size of their hippocampus. Research by Dr. Murray Stein suggests that women who have experienced sexual assault lose about 5% of the size of their hippocampus. However, scientists cannot say for sure whether severe trauma causes the hippocampus to shrink or whether smaller hippocampuses are somehow associated with susceptibility to traumatic situations 28 - 30 .

Over the course of a person's life, brain cells gradually disappear. However, the brain is good at adapting. This plasticity helps it cope with cell loss. The brain can compensate for aging or even injury by changing its own structure. Typically, in such cases, the number and efficiency of connections between neurons change.

What is “short-term general amnesia”?

This is a sudden loss of memory, profound but temporary. A person suffering from amnesia does not lose consciousness. After a few hours, the memory gradually returns to normal. Usually this happens to a person only once in a lifetime. It is believed that such amnesia may relate to high blood pressure. Other evidence suggests that it is associated with overexertion in sexual activity in those people who are not accustomed to such stress and stress.

Have you ever talked to yourself when you were thinking about something? Psychological research indicates that many people talk to themselves. Such conversations require a high level of intelligence. By talking to yourself out loud, you learn what you are talking about.

Does truth serum work?

Most experts agree that the so-called truth serum does not work, or at least is not reliable in its end results. Under the influence of truth serum, ordinary people often continue to adhere to lies, and neurotics sometimes confess to crimes they did not commit. True psychopaths are completely unpredictable.

Is it true that if you fall asleep thinking about a problem, you can easily solve it the next morning?

There is some evidence that this is indeed the case, although perhaps not all problems and not in all situations. Research shows that your short-term memory is 15% more effective in the morning than in the evening. So if you write something down during the day and in the evening you can’t remember where you wrote it down, wait until the morning and think about it right after you wake up.

The left side of the human brain is responsible for controlling speech. The left side of a bird's brain controls singing. At least in this respect, the human brain is similar to the bird's brain.

When thinking, women have more blood flow to their brain than men. However, the significance of this fact has not been studied.

According to experts, your mental health is best before the age of 24 and after 64. At 20, a person is full of energy, expectation and confidence that he can overcome anything. At 60 years old, although there is usually less energy, a person understands that he has gone through a lot and now hardly anything will surprise him.

If you are left-handed, then most likely your mother was left-handed and your father was right-handed.

Premature babies are 5 times more likely to be left-handed.

People with dyslexia are 12 times more likely to be left-handed.

The percentage of left-handed smokers is much higher than that of right-handed smokers.

Left-handers use their right hand much more often than right-handers use their left.

Women aged 40 are 128% more likely to give birth to left-handers.

In his collection of poems, A Shropshire Lad, the poet Alfred Edward Hausmann (1859-1936) wrote: “An empty head and chatter will make a long journey easier.” No, Hausmann did not predict the emergence of modern soap operas. However, since he mentions the head, which we will talk about below (we all have one), these lines are a somewhat awkward introduction to what follows.

The human face in medicine has its own term - reglo facialis...

Is it true that the larger the skull, the smarter the person?

People have been asking this question for over 200 years, and there are many myths surrounding it. The pseudoscience called phrenology is based on the theory that the size of the skull, its shape and protuberances determine a person's intelligence, personality and even a person's position on the tree of evolution. Phrenology reached its peak of popularity in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. We can once and for all debunk the myth that the larger the head, the smarter the person. This is confirmed by research conducted by Dr. Theresa Brennan of the Department of Pediatrics at the University of Virginia Medical Center in Charlottesville. She studied whether there was a connection between children's "relatively small heads" and their later development.

The researchers used standard developmental tests, including the Stanford-Binet IQ tests (for 4-year-old children) and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale (for 7-year-old children). Dr. Brennan's team found no difference in development between children with relatively small heads and children with average or relatively large heads 1 .

Similar studies have confirmed that the topography of the skull also does not affect the outcome of development. A team of scientists observed premature babies. The scientists were led by Dr Alison Elliman from Queen Charlotte's Hospital for Women in London 2. It's a pity, of course, that hat size has nothing to do with intelligence, because then intelligence tests would be done with a tape measure.

According to acupuncturists, there is a point on the head that, when pressed, stops you from feeling hungry. It is located in the hollow right in front of the ear.

It has been found that if you frown 200,000 times, one wrinkle will form on your forehead.

Can a severed head live?

Nowadays, medicine is quite capable of making a severed human head live. In 1988, the US government issued a patent for an injection device that preserves the life of a surgically severed head. According to the patent holder, thanks to his machine and modern drugs that can remove blood clots and other waste from the brain, a severed human head can be kept alive indefinitely. The procedure requires the head to be surgically separated from the body at the top of the neck, placed upright, and attached to an injection device. The device consists primarily of plastic tubes connecting the functional vessels of the head and neck with the circulatory mechanisms that keep the brain alive. Injection involves the process of artificial circulation of oxygen, blood, fluids and other elements that nourish the brain. Using this device will allow you to think, your eyes to see, your ears to hear, your eyelids to close during sleep, and also to perform some other brain functions.

This device, US Patent 4,666,425, is owned by Chet Fleming of St. Louis, a molecular biologist, engineer, and patent attorney. The patent was granted on the basis of drawings alone. This option is called a “patent for the future” because it does not rely on existing operating models. Mr. Fleming plans to build his machine and make it available to experimenters. He writes to British Medical Journal: “Technology to support life in the severed head has important potential benefits both for scientific research and for prolonging life in a conscious, communicative state, and perhaps with less pain, which many people experience today. The most difficult question is whether the advantages of this method outweigh its disadvantages and dangers.”3

Mr. Fleming believes that the operation to separate the head from the body and the use of his invention will have its customers. He's writing: “I spoke to half a dozen people who wanted to know when such surgery might be available and how much it would cost. Some of them die, others are paralyzed. Most say that if the mind remains clear and the head can think, remember, see, read, hear and speak, if this operation leads to insensibility of the body below the neck, relieving pain, they will give their consent.

In 1988, Mr. Fleming published a book at his own expense entitled If We Could Preserve Life in a Severed Head 4. In this scientific work, he defines the essence of his efforts aimed at creating an injection device. He claims that one of the reasons for obtaining the patent was to protect the technology from falling into dirty hands. In addition, he promises to make his device accessible "to any scientist or surgeon who wishes to try it" on animals or humans. However, before doing so, they must consult three independent panels of experts, similar to those already in place at all significant universities in the country.

One group should be the Animal Welfare Committee, which will oversee animal experiments. The other is the treatment observation group, responsible for human experiments. The last group should be the Committee for Medical Biosafety, which oversees experiments in the field of genetic engineering.

Experiments on animals involving cutting off heads have been conducted since the beginning of the 20th century. In a famous experiment in 1907, the entire upper half of a dog's torso was transplanted. For this work, French physiologist Alexis Carrel received the Nobel Prize in 1912.

Perhaps the most famous experiment in this area was carried out in the early 70s. In 1971, at a conference of surgeons held in New Haven, 5 doctors from Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland presented evidence that they could keep a monkey's head alive for 36 hours. The team leader, Dr. Robert White, claims that the monkeys remained fully conscious. He noted: “Our Animals did not sleep: they followed them with their gaze, ate and bit if we carelessly carried our gentle hands past their mouths” 5.

According to Mr. Fleming, the reasons for the death of White's monkeys lay “in an excess of heparin, the amount of which in our time can be reduced artificially.” Heparin is a substance that prevents blood clotting. Mr Fleming adds that “Today the research is carried out on intact brains that continue to generate waves after all the sensory organs and the skull have been removed.”

Preserving severed human heads raises an incredible number of ethical, legal, and medical issues 6 . And if there really are people who would prefer such an operation, it just goes to show how desperately some of us cling to the hope of extending life - in whatever form it may take 7 .

It is estimated that banging your head against a wall every 10 seconds will burn 150 calories per hour.

Why do the heads of infant chimpanzees look so much like the heads of human babies, but the heads of adult chimpanzees differ significantly from the heads of adult humans?

This is a very insightful observation. If you shave the hair off a baby chimpanzee's face and head, wrap its body in swaddling clothes, and don't look too closely, it can pass for a human baby. However, the ears of these monkeys are quite large, so it will not be difficult to notice the forgery. However, in any case, infant chimpanzees and humans look extremely similar, but adult humans and chimpanzees are very different from each other.

Human babies are born with a round skull, flat nose, and the same jaw as baby chimpanzees. Human and chimpanzee embryos, and the fetal development processes of both mammals, are even more similar than their newborn children! However, the brain of a human infant grows rapidly, while the rate of growth of the brain of a newborn chimpanzee gradually slows down. As a chimpanzee matures, its jaw protrudes, its nose remains flat, its teeth become larger, and its brow ridges become more prominent. The cranial vault of these animals is lower and smaller than that of a human.

According to Dr. Stephen J. Gould, the famous paleobiologist at Harvard University, the difference between humans and chimpanzees is that the human brain grows faster and takes longer. The human skull adapts to its contents to fit the brain like a glove to a hand 8 .

What causes headaches?

The physiological cause of headache is still unknown. There are at least 4 main theories explaining its origin.

The most common theory is that the blood vessels in the scalp that supply the head and face narrow and dilate abnormally, stretching the artery walls. Pain receptors near these walls detect pain. The brain itself does not feel pain because it has no pain receptors.

The second theory is that the muscles of the head and neck are able to contract and sometimes convulse. This process triggers pain signals.

A third theory states that headaches begin with a wave of low electricity passing across the surface of the brain and disrupting the normal supply of oxygen to the blood vessels of the scalp. Tense blood vessels stimulate pain receptors.

The fourth theory states that there is a minor chemical imbalance in cellular metabolism in the brain tissue, including mediators 9 .

According to Dr. Nick Hoffman, the skulls of other animals are generally formed at the time of birth. However, in a human infant, the cranial sutures are not closed at birth and the bones have not yet hardened completely. A vital necessity for human development is a significant increase in the brain 10 .

How many types of headaches are there?

There are at least three types of headaches, not counting those that occur from the common cold, flu, sinusitis and other diseases. These include headaches, migraines and histamine pain.

The most common pain is headache. This pain creates a tightening sensation and throbbing that spreads across the head around the area corresponding to the rim of the hat.

Migraine pain typically includes throbbing pain on one side of the head, nausea, and sensitivity to noise. The onset of a migraine may be preceded by a “bad aura” (a visual neurological disturbance) as well as changes in mood. Perhaps up to 15% of Australians suffer from occasional, recurrent or persistent high-intensity migraines.

Less common is histamine pain. This sharp pain occurs on one side of the head and face and lasts from 20 minutes to 2 hours. The headache recurs one or more times over one or more days, weeks, or months. Then it stops for a long period of time, but only to return again without any apparent reason 11.

Humans are the only mammal species that get headaches.

Are headaches inherited?

It seems quite possible that headaches are inherited. Research shows that some of us "Born to have headaches." One medical theory that is gaining widespread support is that some people are genetically predisposed to headaches.

Dr. Joel Saper believes that “Most people who suffer from recurrent headaches are born with a biological tendency to experience them. Either this tendency is there or not, and, if it is, then the occurrence of a headache can be influenced by a variety of things, such as a change in the weather or a bad day at work* 12.

Unfortunately, recurring headaches, which affect 1 in 20 people, are high on the list of pains for which people seek relief, says Dr. Saper: “Recent research points to a biochemical breakdown in the brain that creates a susceptibility to headaches.” However, researchers are still trying to figure out what exactly is being destroyed there. It is believed that this is somehow related to the level of serotonin, which is a natural tranquilizer in the body. Dr. Saper says: “If you have this lower threshold, then the triggers in your life will influence the occurrence of headaches. For some, stress may be such a trigger. But the generalization that stress creates headaches is completely wrong.”

Among other things, Dr. Saper states that, "taking all factors into account" aspirin, which until recently was recommended by most doctors for headaches, is far from the best choice in such a situation. Instead, people suffering from recurring headaches should see a doctor. If, after examination, the pathological causes of their occurrence are not found, then “It will become clear that this headache is part of (a person’s) biological organization and that he has a predisposition to it.”

Dr. Saper warns: “We now know that using painkillers (usually recommended in pharmacies) more than two to three days a week for a long time can result in worsening headaches.”

There are 2 times more women experiencing headaches than men with the same illness.

Women living in villages and suburbs are much more likely to suffer from headaches than those living in cities.

This SWOT is asked quite often. People take aspirin with orange juice if their headache is due to a cold. They want aspirin to fight headaches and vitamin C from orange juice to fight colds. However, in some cases this may not be the best idea. Aspirin is acetylsalicylic acid. Orange juice contains ascorbic acid and other acids. When aspirin is taken with an acidic drink (orange, grapefruit and tomato juice), and also washed down with Coca-Cola, wine, beer, alcoholic beverage, coffee, tea, brine, vinegar, etc., the mixture of these substances has an excessively irritating effect on the stomach 13 .

The power of suggestion can affect headaches. Research shows that 40% of headache sufferers get immediate relief by taking a sugar tablet that is not medicated but given to them as a pain reliever. Such is the power of placebos!

Aspirin (if the tablet is uncoated) takes 30 seconds to enter the circulatory system.

What is Exploding Head Syndrome?

According to Dr. Phillip King, “Exploding head syndrome is an unusual sleep disorder that until recently received little attention in the medical literature.” This syndrome is characterized by a rumbling sound or sensation that occurs in the head just before or during sleep. Dr. King reports five cases of this syndrome that he encountered over a 4-month period 14 .

In one case, a 36-year-old man talked about "loud explosion" like his head "torn to pieces." In another, a thirty-three-year-old woman was worried “explosion”, “noise as if a balloon had burst”, or “a sound like plucking strings.” All these symptoms preceded sleep. Dr. King adds that it is likely that the cause of this syndrome has nothing to do with hallucinations or epilepsy. Fortunately, some improvements are seen with the drug clonazepam. Dr. King states that “The absence of this syndrome from textbooks on sleep disorders suggests that it is not very common, but the paucity of descriptions may indicate a lack of information rather than the rarity of the syndrome itself 15 .

Almost a third of all head injuries that negatively affect speech can also affect a person's ability to use sign language.

9 out of 10 cancers are related to the head.

The skull of the composer Franz Joseph Haydn was stolen by a Viennese phrenologist who was eager to examine its protuberances.

If a person's head is cut off, how long can the brain function?

This SWOT is asked quite often. Probably, after the head is cut off, consciousness remains in it for about 1-2 seconds. This is enough to understand what happened, but not enough to feel pain.

In 1996, Dr. Dean Edell, a famous physician from San Francisco, read several fragments of his report on the radio: “Certain research and collection of information were carried out on this issue... The main ones took place towards the end of the French Revolution. The guillotine worked around the clock. There were many objects to study back then. One French doctor was interested in the question of how long the brain can function without the support of body systems. He conducted the following experiment. When a person was placed on the guillotine bed, the doctor instructed him to blink at 1-second intervals.

When the knife was lowered, the doctor followed the head and counted the number of blinks. The results of his observations indicate that after separation of the head from the body, a minimum of 2 blinks and a maximum of 15-20 occurred. The average number was 3-4 blinks. This mysterious study surfaced when NASA was studying the effects of high speeds on high-speed aircraft pilots in the early to mid-1960s. The problem was that when the pilot was subjected to high G-forces, the heart did not have time to pump enough blood to the head. How long does it take for a pilot to cope with a difficult situation?.. The French study laid the foundation for very important decisions regarding the safety of flights at high speeds” 16.

The head size of any great world famous ballerina is much smaller than the head size of women of average constitution.

Women of Ancient Egypt plucked hair from their heads and rubbed their skin until it shined. Wax and other polishing agents were sometimes used to enhance the shine.

Humans are the only mammals with a prominent chin.

Is it possible to transplant a human head?

We previously discussed whether it is possible to maintain life in a severed head. As for transplantation, theoretically, based on modern medical technologies, this is possible, but we do not have the technical capacity to successfully carry out such operations. Of course, moral and ethical considerations may interfere with such operations. Nevertheless, research in this direction is underway.

In 1997, a neurosurgeon from the United States reported transplanting the heads of some monkeys to others. Dr. Robert White of Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland said that after the transplant, the monkeys continued to do their normal activities - eat, drink, sleep and wake up. They “They even watched the laboratory assistants with their new eyes.” The monkeys' hearing seemed to remain intact after the surgery as they responded to laboratory noises. According to Dr. White, “the nerve fibers of the head and body of the animals could not be reconnected to each other, and therefore they remained paralyzed.” A week later the monkeys died 17.

If you believe that every part of the human body has been examined and anatomized, a new discovery may greatly surprise you. After more than 1,500 years of studying human anatomy, in 1996, doctors at the University of Maryland in Baltimore announced that they had discovered a new, previously unknown anatomical structure. This is a small muscle that runs from the back of the eye socket to the lower jaw. After doctors first saw this muscle in autopsies, they conducted a series of studies using magnetic resonance imaging of living people. The discovery was made by accident when doctors were studying the muscles associated with chewing 18 .

Of all living beings, humans have the largest number of facial muscles.

The strongest muscle in your body is the one that moves your jaw.

Everyone knows that the vertical groove above the upper lip is called the philtrum, or philtrum. But no one knows what it is for.

If a human head could be transplanted and my friend and I swapped heads, what would I become?

Scientists say - “your friend.” Personality is related to the brain, not the body. Therefore, “you” will not think of yourself as someone who has received a new head and brain. You will think that you have received a new body. And your friend will think the same way.

What are dimples and why do they happen?

If dimples appear in the right places, we love them, but if they look ugly, we hate them.

Dimple is a general term used to refer to indentations in the skin. Docure William Jolly states that, most likely, they appear due to insufficient development of the tissue that attaches the skin to the bone. Dimples occur where muscle fibers are attached to the deep superficial layers of the skin (such as the cheek or chin) or where the skin is connected to bones by fibrous tissue (on the shoulders, back, or elbows). They can occur in areas where fat accumulates and is visible beneath the surface of the skin. The location of dimples in some places is a hereditary trait. Most likely, there is a genetic predisposition to their occurrence. It is also true that plastic surgeons can create

Stephen Juan

Oddities of our body – 2

To all the wonderful, life-saving staff of Sydney's Prince Alfred Hospital, where real guardian angels work every day

Introduction

Hello reader!

Welcome to the world of “Oddities of Our Body 2”. I will be very glad if you flip through this book, read a couple of pages, and maybe even the whole thing - from cover to cover. Regardless, I hope you enjoy it, get something out of it, and find it engaging.

Before this book, another one came out, called “The Oddities of Our Body.” When I started writing it, I didn’t think that it would have a continuation. But the very fact of the appearance of the second book indicates that the previous one was liked very much - at least by some readers. Today these books are read all over the world, for which many thanks to you, reader. This confirms that people all over the world are interested in the mysteries of their bodies. There seem to be countless questions regarding the human body, and not all of them can yet be answered.

The first book in the series was published in Australia in 1995. I receive numerous, frequently repeated questions from readers (for example: “Why do men have nipples on their chests?” “Why does hair turn gray?” “Why do wrinkles appear?”) . If the answer has not been found by anyone before, I drop everything and start looking for it. I often work on several problems at the same time, and when I find an explanation for yet another oddity of the human body, I rush to publish the results of my research in a newspaper article or in one of my books.

After the publication of my work “The Oddities of Our Body,” people began to ask truly fantastic questions, and I answered most of them in the new book. Of course, I couldn't cover everything, but I did what I could.

Readers of different ages come to me, and it’s very interesting for me to observe what and who is interested. I even noticed a certain pattern. Young people typically (though not always) ask about things related to blood, bleeding, mucus, and so on. They also show curiosity about puberty and death. Older readers are interested in issues of aging and disease. And middle-aged people ask about both. You will be surprised, but one middle-aged woman asked several questions about nose picking. She not only sent me an email, but also called me on the phone. Very often letters from readers begin with these words: “For many years I have been interested in...”

There are over 800 more questions in my files awaiting answers, and the number is growing quickly. I write to everyone personally by email - after all, I am a very curious person myself.

In The Weirdness of Our Bodies 2, I tried to cover everything from head to toe, but I didn't include a chapter on brain-related issues. Perhaps I will soon write a book, “Oddities of Our Brain-2,” which will include this material. There is also no chapter on sex, as I am about to release a separate book, Weird Sex 2. There is so much to write, and so little time!

You will see that the notes and references for each chapter include many quotes from my newspaper notes Sydney Morning Herald, Sun-Herald(Sydney), National Post(Toronto), New York Daily News And Register(London). Happy reading!

Birth

In Alice in Wonderland, Lewis Carroll wrote: “Begin at the beginning,” said the King solemnly, “and continue until you reach the end. Then stop." And one wise man once said: “The beginning is always easy. What happens next is much more difficult.” There are so many questions about our wonderful body that it is very difficult to know where to start and where to stop. Let us listen to the words of the King and start from the beginning. We will look at birth, growth and development of humans, as well as other interesting aspects regarding the oddities of our body.

What is the probability that life exists on other planets?

Does anyone know this? We can only guess.

In 1961, American astronomer Frank Drake proposed an equation for calculating the number of technologically advanced civilizations existing in our Galaxy. Drake's equation looks like this: N = R x f p x n e x f l x f i x f c x L. Here N is the number of civilizations in the Galaxy that are so developed that you can come into contact with them; R is the rate at which stars are formed that can form planets like ours; f p – fraction of stars with planets; n e – the number of planets around any star with a temperature regime that allows human existence; f l is the probability of the origin of life on a planet with suitable conditions; f i – the probability of the emergence of intelligent life forms on a planet where there is life; f c – the ratio of the number of planets whose intelligent inhabitants are capable of contact and are looking for it, to the number of planets on which there is intelligent life; L is the lifetime of civilization.

Using Drake's equation, scientists who called themselves the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence Team calculated that the rate of star formation was approximately 20 per year (R = 20). They also assume that half of all stars form planetary systems (f p = 0.5), that the number of planets in one system on which life can exist is 1 (n e = 1) and that life can appear and develop on one of five such planets (fl = 0.2). Given the fact that dolphins and whales are intelligent creatures but do not create any technology, scientists have suggested that the development of technology can be expected on half of the worlds where life exists (f c = 0.5). Thus, substituting these values into the Drake equation, we get: N = 20 x 0.5 x 1 x 0.2 x 0.5 x L. That is, the number of civilizations in the galaxy is equal to the number of years (L) during which they can exist technologically advanced civilization: N = L. Of course, we only know our own civilization. It can only be considered technologically highly developed over the last 50 years. Thus, the number of developed life forms in our Galaxy is at least 50. Of course, in all these calculations there are a lot of assumptions and assumptions, and our understanding of the Galaxy is constantly changing in accordance with new research 1.

Is it possible to create an artificial mother's womb?

In a sense, it already exists. Equipment is now being developed that creates an artificial environment outside the mother's womb, in which the fetus can develop and grow until it is able to breathe on its own. Such devices are usually called artificial wombs; they are already used for experiments with animals. Ethical considerations aside for the moment, an artificial womb could be created within a few years, and a third trimester (26 weeks of pregnancy) and even second trimester (13 weeks) fetus could be transferred there from the mother's uterus. The baby will continue to develop there and will be born at full term (38–40 weeks gestation). Theoretically, there are no obstacles to obtaining such an artificial womb, where a pre-embryo can be placed, which will develop there for all 9 months. All it requires is new technology.

The use of an artificial womb will help women suffering from diseases of the uterus who cannot bear a child themselves. A mother who does not want to take risks, experience pain and other inconveniences associated with pregnancy, or lose her job (due to good wages, high position, etc.) can also use such an invention. A woman can simply get pregnant, place the embryo in an artificial womb, and receive a newborn 9 months later. Dr. Yoshinori Kuwabara from Japan's Juntendo University created a rectangular artificial womb from acrylic and filled it with warm amniotic fluid. The fetus is immersed in this reservoir in the third week of pregnancy. The fetal blood is cleaned by a dialysis machine connected to the umbilical cord.

Isn't this a solution for women who really want to have a child, but cannot carry it to term? Or is this the embodiment of the nightmare from Aldous Huxley's Brave New World?

What is the baby like at birth?

Pregnancy is divided into three periods (trimesters) of approximately three months each. During the third trimester (weeks 26-40), the baby continues to grow steadily. At birth, the average weight of a child is from 2.7 to 4 kg.

The bones of a newborn's skull are soft, which makes it easier for him to pass through the reproductive canal.

The so-called fluff (lanugo) almost completely disappears in the fetus by the 38-40th week.

The lungs are fully formed. Just before birth, a surfactant coats the lungs, preventing fluid from entering them.

At birth, the baby's skin is covered with a protective mass - vernix.

Typically, by the 36th week of pregnancy, the baby's head drops down. When this happens, you should go to the hospital quickly.

Most children have a bluish-gray iris. Permanent eye color does not appear until a few days or weeks after birth.

The kidneys are in the process of development.

The brain also develops.

The child may suck his thumb.

The child has developed vision. He sees best what is located at a distance of approximately 25 cm.

The child hears well, even during sleep.

The child has a developed sense of smell - he distinguishes the smell of the mother from the smells of other women.

The child prefers something sweet to taste.

The child dreams.

Baby's skin is sensitive. Massaging a newborn accelerates growth and development (see later in this chapter).

How old and how large does a newborn need to be to survive?

(Asked by Don Williams, Penshurst, New South Wales, Australia)

The child must be born as a result of a pregnancy lasting 40 weeks. If he was born before the 20th week and weighs less than 500 g, then he is considered premature. Such a newborn will not be able to survive. It is believed that if a baby lives for 28 days, it means he will survive. It is very rare for babies to survive beyond 21 weeks. In the Netherlands, studies were conducted to determine the survival rate of premature infants. The results were as follows:

22 weeks – 4.6%;

23 weeks – 46%;

24 weeks – 59%;

25 weeks – 82%.

As you can see, the survival rate increases significantly with each subsequent week 2 .

Can we talk to unborn children?

Welcome to the wonderful world of haptonomy. If this word is not yet in your dictionary, then let it appear now. Research has shown that we begin to communicate with other people even before we are born. Haptonomy is a method of communicating with the fetus through touch and voice. Haptonomic communication involves words, thoughts, and feelings and can be described as “psychotactile contact.” Privately practicing experimental psychologist Dr. Ludwig Janus from Heidelberg (Germany) conducts research proving that communication between the baby in the mother's womb and other people is quite real 3 . He also describes the results of such communication for the child and for the mother.

The main expert in this new field of research is Dr. Frans Veldman 4 . In experiments conducted by Dr. Veldman using ultrasound diagnostics, it was observed that if, during the last trimester of pregnancy, a man places his palm on the bare belly of his pregnant wife, then simply incredible things happen: the child responds to an invitation to communicate, moves in the direction of the father's palm and clings to her. When the father removes his palm, the child moves away 5.

The fetus clearly shows a desire to establish contact. Dr. Janus believes that children with parental contact during pregnancy develop very well after birth. They have higher mental development than other children, they speak better, are more receptive, less irritable, and have fewer problems with weight and digestion.

Haptonomy also has a beneficial effect on the mother. For example, many women experience difficulties during childbirth because their pelvis and birth canal are too narrow. Medicines are often used to improve stretching of the birth canal. If they do not help, then the child and mother are at risk. A lack of literally 2 cm of space often causes difficulties during childbirth. You have to use forceps or even resort to a caesarean section. As Dr. Janus testifies, mothers who maintain contact with their baby soften the pubic cartilage and sacropelvic joint. This, in turn, allows the birth canal to expand. Thus, communication benefits both the child and the mother.

A mother can wake up her baby without a word. This is often observed during ultrasound examinations: if the mother is told that the baby’s movements are not visible on the monitor, she certainly begins to worry. This excitement is quite enough to wake up the baby sleeping in the stomach. Almost always in such cases you can see on the monitor that it has begun to move. This phenomenon was discovered in the 1980s. Dr. Erik Reinhold 6, a neonatologist from Stuttgart (Germany).

Sometimes it seems that the child is desperately trying to “tell” something to the mother. Pregnant women often have to leave rock concerts because their baby becomes restless due to the noise. According to Dr. B. R. G. Van den Berg, a neonatologist at the University of Leuven, Belgium, this manifestation of fetal sensitivity also falls within the realm of haptonomy 7 .

Dr. Janus notes that “immense, untapped human potential lies in this area of prenatal relationships. In the last 100 years, the mortality rate of infants has decreased significantly, and now we have a chance to ensure that the child is not only born physically healthy, but also receives everything necessary for further good mental development.” Dr. Veldman advises parents to take time to establish emotional connections with the fetus. It's easy and natural, but sometimes it takes time to learn how to communicate on a feeling level. Dr. Veldman writes that research in the field of haptonomy “demonstrates that the abilities that every person should have are now increasingly developed, whereas previously they atrophied or were completely absent. These abilities are very important for relationships between people." The doctor regrets that in our world, where pragmatism dominates, we very often ignore “communication at the level of feelings.” Everything that is connected with emotional life, with feelings, has no material value, which means it has no place in our world. Emotionality can only hinder economic development and production. When our children try to tell us something, are we always willing to listen? 8, 9

How to get rid of pain during childbirth?

(Asked by Heather Andrews, St Kilda, Victoria, Australia)

There is a joke: if menstruation and labor pains are the destiny of women, then God is a man.

As you know, anesthesia during childbirth differs from pain management for physical injuries. The human body responds to trauma through survival mechanisms. However, during childbirth, the female body does not perceive uterine contractions and stretching of the vaginal walls as trauma, since childbirth is a completely natural, normal process for a woman.

Interestingly, many (if not most) women experience a rush of pain-relieving endorphins during labor. Therefore, many women forget about pain some time after childbirth. They may remember the hospital, interactions with the staff and other women in labor, but they do not remember the pain well.

Research shows that exercise can strengthen muscles, making uterine contractions less painful. Breathing exercises and imagining certain colors in your mind (especially orange) also help. Squatting or even standing often makes labor easier due to the pressure of the baby's weight. During the second birth, the period of contractions becomes shorter and the pain is weaker than the first time.

There are also medical options for pain relief, including epidural and spinal anesthesia, as well as caesarean section with epidural or general anesthesia.

Is it true that being a man is dangerous to your health?

(Asked by Sally Porter, Little Rock, Arkansas, USA)

As strange as it may seem, being a man is really dangerous. From the very moment of conception. In the womb, the embryo has to fight to become a man. Men are more susceptible to genetic and other diseases, have higher mortality rates at all ages, and have a life expectancy that is nearly 10% shorter than women.

Biologically it is much easier to become a woman. We can say that the development of an embryo into a woman is the rule, and into a man is the exception. Dr. Alfred Hoeth wrote: “The basic form of the human organism capable of survival is the woman, and the man is something additional.”

According to doctors Michael L. Gustafson and Patricia K. Donahue, for a man to appear, “a whole cascade of complex molecular and morphological transformations must occur at the right time and in a certain sequence” 10. If anything goes wrong during these changes, the embryo will develop into a woman. Sex depends on the set of sex chromosomes (X and Y). In the first six weeks of life, the embryo strives to become a woman. At this time, embryos of both sexes have a primitive gonad, which can develop into either an ovary or a testis. If the embryo is genetically female (XX), the primitive gonad develops into an ovary without the help of any feminizing hormones. The primitive gonad of a genetically male embryo (XY) develops into a testis, but this only occurs if the “testis determining factor” is present on the Y chromosome. This causes the production of the male hormone testosterone to begin, and the embryo becomes male.

According to the famous anthropologist, the late Dr. Ashley Montague, the prospect of having a Y chromosome rather than an X chromosome is a dismal one. The Y chromosome is only 1/5 the size of the X chromosome and is responsible for many genetic diseases. “The fact that a man has a Y chromosome seems to cause him a lot of problems.” 11 There are more than 30 genetic diseases that are much more common in men than women - from missing front teeth to Van den Bosch syndrome (a disease that includes congenital dementia, skeletal deformities, lack of sweat glands, etc.) . In addition, there are at least 63 other diseases that men are more susceptible to than women. In 1999, all children born in Finland in 1987 were examined and found that boys “had a 20% higher risk of Apgar scores and an 11% higher risk of being born preterm than girls.” After the perinatal period, boys have a 64% higher cumulative incidence rate for asthma, a 43% higher cumulative incidence rate for mental disorder, a 22% higher cumulative incidence rate for mental illness, and a 22% higher cumulative incidence rate for epilepsy and eye diseases. Moreover, “boys have a 2–3 times higher risk of developmental delays” 12 .

In Australia, the mortality rate of male children before birth is higher than that of female children. After conception, from 120 to 150 male embryos are formed per 100 female babies, but only 105 boys are born per 100 girls. We don't fully understand the reasons why more male babies die in the womb.

A similar trend can be observed after birth: in the first year after birth, for every girl who dies, there are three dead boys; By age 21, for every young woman who has died, nearly two young men have died. In Australia, life expectancy for women is longer than for men (83 years for women, 77 years for men). Life expectancy in men is 10% shorter, and this is the natural norm for them.

From birth onwards, men are weaker than women in literally every aspect of behavior. The exceptions are physical strength, muscle coordination and spatial perception. For example, a five-year-old boy's hand grip is often twice as strong as a five-year-old girl's. However, women, as a rule, have better developed speech, and this often gives great advantages in modern society.

Average boys are characterized by:

They start talking later;

In preschool age they have a smaller vocabulary;

Later they begin to use sentences in speech;

Completing sentences and stories is worse;

To a large extent, they form linguistic connections worse, as, for example, in tests where it is necessary to create an artificial language;

Less attentive to sounds;

They learn foreign languages more slowly;

They demonstrate worse memory abilities than girls;

They perform worse on logic tests;

They have a poorer imagination.

Research shows that men are less emotionally secure. According to Dr. M. Robbins, "researchers have agreed... that women are more socially oriented and men are more selfish" 13 . Women are stronger emotionally, so they can afford to be sociable 14 .

What determines the gender of a child? Does this happen at the moment of fertilization of the egg or later?

(Asked by Hugh York, Bega, New South Wales, Australia)

The sex of the child is determined as soon as the egg is fertilized. According to Dr. Robert J. Brzyski of the University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, “there is virtually no way to change the sex of an infant after fertilization has occurred.”15 In humans, sex is determined by the sperm, not the egg. All normal human eggs contain an X chromosome. Sperm can contain either an X or a Y chromosome. If the sperm contains a Y chromosome, then the baby will be male, and if X, then female. It's that simple.

However, in some rare cases, the Y chromosome may lack certain genes necessary for the development of the testes, which will subsequently produce seminal fluid and the male sex hormone testosterone. The child then develops female genitalia, although chromosome analysis will show the presence of a Y chromosome. To understand why this happens, it is necessary to remember the genotype and phenotype of a person.

A person's genotype is the totality of his genes. Based on a person’s genotype, his phenotype is formed - this is a set of external and internal characteristics of the body acquired as a result of individual development. Women who have problems with one of the X chromosomes or who have an abnormal Y chromosome do not have normally functioning gonads, although their phenotype is female. Because such women are unable to produce eggs, they are unable to reproduce normally. Moreover, they experience problems with puberty if they do not undergo hormonal therapy.

Is it true that girls' penises fall off before birth?

(Asked by Rodney Downes, New York, USA)

It is a myth that the penis develops in all embryos and then disappears in female children some time before birth. Where did this myth come from?

The fact is that male and female embryos have the same genitalia. During intrauterine development, some parts of the embryo's body are transformed. As a result of the processes of enlargement and fusion, sex differences arise. It all starts with the genital tubercle. In pictures of a large enough fetus, this lump may look like a penis. Some experts call this structure the “embryonic phallus.” This may be why some people have the misconception that all embryos have a penis.

Because the genital tubercle changes gradually, ultrasound examination for sex determination cannot be used until a certain stage of fetal development 16 . In male infants, the genital tubercle increases in size and develops into a penis. In female infants, this structure develops into the clitoris and labia minora. All this happens under the influence of hormones. If there are more male hormones, the baby becomes a man; if there are more female hormones, the baby becomes a woman.

Is it true that some people are born without an anus?

(Asked by Damien Fowler, Kessnock, New South Wales, Australia)

Surprisingly, there are indeed cases where people are born without an anus, and this happens even more often than you might imagine. Believe it or not, approximately 1 in 5,000 people are born without an anus. This happens a little more often to men than to women. There are varying degrees of severity of this disease, and it is often associated with complex problems. If necessary, surgery is performed.

Scientifically speaking, the anus is the final opening of the digestive tract. If the embryo does not develop intestines, it will not live long enough to be born. But the absence of an anus is a slightly different problem. An imperforate anus is a condition in which the anus is underdeveloped. The disease occurs early in the development of the fetus, just seven weeks after conception. As a result, the newborn has an abnormality in which the lower part of the intestine (rectum) ends just above the anus. This creates problems of varying degrees of complexity depending on the severity of the defect.

Is it possible for twins to be born from different fathers?

Yes, it's possible. The medical literature describes about ten cases where twins were born from different fathers. The latest case involved a Croatian woman who gave birth to twins in Zagreb in June 2002. The twenty-three-year-old woman had sex with two men at approximately the same time. A DNA test revealed that the babies had different fathers 17 .

How long can there be between the birth of twins?

Usually just a few minutes. But Maricica Tescu, a thirty-three-year-old woman from Cirlig (Romania), who turned out to have a double uterus, gave birth by Caesarean section to two boys two months apart! She gave birth to Catalin on December 11, 2004, and Valentina on February 7, 2005. Catalin was born two months premature and weighed 1600 at birth. Valentin was born at full term and weighed 2000. By that time, Catalin already weighed the same.

What is the smallest baby in the world?

The smallest surviving baby was Rumaisa Rahman. She weighed just 244 grams when she was born in September 2004 at Loyola University Medical Center in Chicago. The girl was born 14 weeks prematurely; she and her twin sister Hiba were removed from the womb by caesarean section. Hiba weighed twice as much as Rumaisa, namely 563 g. Both sisters were born with eye problems that had to be corrected with laser surgery.

It is known that of all infants weighing less than 369 g at birth, only 62 children survived 18.

What is the largest baby in the world?

The largest baby was a boy, weighing 10.2 kg, who was born in September 1955 by Carmelina Fedele, a resident of Aversa (Italy).

What is a false pregnancy?

False pregnancy is a condition in which a non-pregnant woman exhibits physical and psychological signs of pregnancy. A false pregnancy is also called an imaginary or imaginary pregnancy. False pregnancy occurs not only in women, but also in mice, rabbits, cats, dogs, goats, horses, bears and other mammals. In women, false pregnancy is usually the result of an overwhelming desire to have a child. In these cases, a woman's menstruation stops, her abdomen becomes enlarged, her breasts become swollen and may even leak milk, changes in the uterus and cervix occur consistent with pregnancy, and even urine pregnancy tests may show a positive result.

During a false pregnancy, a woman complains of weakness in the morning, nausea, changes in mood, and sometimes even feels as if a baby is moving in her stomach. When the baby ultimately doesn't arrive, the woman often becomes depressed.

Dr. H. Gringle wrote about a severe case of a female infertility patient who developed a false pregnancy. She had no previous history of mental illness or brain disease. She just really wanted to have a child, and infertility destroyed all her hopes 19 .

Have any men ever shown signs of pregnancy?

Yes, they do, and often. This is called couvade syndrome or sympathetic pregnancy. Couvade syndrome occurs when the expectant father experiences the same things as his pregnant partner: morning sickness and weakness, increased, perverted appetite, insomnia, strange dreams, mood changes, emotional sensitivity, breast swelling and weight gain. When a woman goes into labor, the future father also experiences labor pain. Sometimes these birth pains are even worse in the father than in the mother.

Couvade syndrome occurs in fathers all over the world. One study found that 22.5% of expectant fathers seek medical help due to the symptoms described above. Dr. S. Masoni and four colleagues write that various signs of couvade syndrome are observed in 65% of men. In their study, doctors note: in the future father, couvade syndrome manifests itself in “unusual imagination and behavior.” They suggest that this syndrome is psychosomatic in nature and is “an attempt to share anxiety and pain with a pregnant partner” 20 .

Canadian researchers suggest that the reason why some men develop couvade syndrome and others do not may be due to differences in the brain. Dr. A. E. Storey and three colleagues write: “Hormones may play a role in encouraging a man to care for his infant.” Doctors note that the hormone prolactin is very important for caring for the child. In experiments, a team of doctors found that men with couvade syndrome produced more prolactin when they “deeply empathized with their pregnant partner,” meaning they were “biochemically” more likely to care for the baby 21 . The word "couvade" comes from the French word cover, which means “to hatch eggs.” As for the explanation of couvade syndrome, the best theory so far belongs to the Canadian doctor Storey.

If you can't stand children, then you have misopedia.

At birth, children have 300 bones. By the time we reach puberty, there are only 206 bones left in our body.

The largest number of embryos ever developed in the human body was 15 - of which 10 were girls and 5 were boys. In July 1971, at 16 weeks of pregnancy, the children were removed from the belly of an Italian housewife. The woman was taking medications to improve fertility.

For about 6–7 months after birth, the baby is able to breathe and swallow at the same time. Children in later life and adults cannot do this.

A child may emit different amounts of urine at a time: sometimes just a few drops, and sometimes even more than 50 ml. This depends in particular on the weight of the child. Large children produce more urine than small children. A healthy child usually urinates 6 to 8 times a day.

UNICEF's World Children's Health report (2006) reported that 10.5 million children under 5 years of age died in 2004, mostly from preventable causes. 5.5 million children died from malnutrition, and another 1.4 million from diseases usually prevented by vaccination.

Does massage improve a child's development?

Research shows that massage stimulates the growth and development of children, especially those born prematurely. According to Dr. Tiffany Field and two colleagues, massage helps premature babies gain weight faster and leave the hospital earlier 22 . In the United States, 12% of babies are born premature, and 8% are underweight. These babies are more likely to die early, suffer from physical and mental illnesses, and require expensive medical care. The first study found that, on average, premature babies who received fifteen minutes of massage three times a day gained weight faster and were discharged from the hospital 4 to 6 days earlier than those who did not receive massage. Dr. Field believes that regular massage strengthens the nervous system and improves hormone production, which allows babies to actively feed and therefore grow faster.

In another study led by Dr. Field, mothers gave children with asthma a twenty-minute evening massage before bedtime for a month over a period of one month. It was found that both children and mothers became less anxious. The infants' mood improved and the level of the stress hormone cortisol decreased. But, most importantly, after a month the number of asthma attacks in children decreased and their breathing improved.

In another study, the same doctors wanted to determine whether massage improved the behavior of school- and preschool-aged children with autism. After one month of massage, the children's tactile sensitivity decreased, they were less frightened by sounds, they became more attentive in class, and their behavior improved.

Another study was conducted in children with diabetes and their parents who cared for them (by giving painful insulin injections several times a day). Studies have shown that after a month of massage, children's blood sugar readings "returned to normal." Immediately after the massage sessions, both children and parents had a “significant decrease” in anxiety and improved mood.

In the latest study, Dr. Field's team examined the effects of massage on post-traumatic stress in Miami schoolchildren affected by Hurricane Andrew. The children received massages twice a week right at school for a month. After this, the children’s depression and anxiety subsided and their cortisol levels decreased. Their drawings became less gloomy and their behavior more organized 23, 24.

We also present some conclusions from other studies.

Premature babies who received massage scored better on the Bayley Scale (a scale that assesses the mental and physical condition of young children), which means that they developed physically and mentally faster than those children who did not receive massage.

Newborns whose parents used cocaine are at high risk of developing neurological diseases. In a study of these infants, it was found that those who received massage had fewer neurological problems on the Braselton Behavior Scale and gained 28% more weight than those who did not receive massage.

HIV-infected infants experience severe developmental delays. Such children often do not reach normal physical, mental and behavioral levels. The study found that infected infants who received massage had improved Braselton scores.

Thus, we can say that massage is beneficial for babies in any case.

Can a man have children after gender reassignment surgery?

Gender reassignment surgery affects only the genitals. Men who have changed gender cannot have children because they lack the female reproductive system; they only undergo vaginoplasty. Many experts consider this operation to be a salvation for those who require complete gender correction. Other doctors object: in their opinion, this procedure is wrongly considered a panacea for individuals whose complex physical and psychological problems go far beyond the issue of gender. They warn that gender reassignment surgery can sometimes lead to dangerous emotional and psychological consequences.

In any case, to have a child, you still need the female reproductive system. Transplantation of certain parts of the female reproductive system into a man is possible, but such a “transplanted” system will not function normally. This requires hormones, many of which are produced by other organs. For example, in order for a transplanted female reproductive system to function normally in a male body, it is also necessary to transplant two parts of the female brain into the man - one from the hypothalamus, the other from the pituitary gland. In women, the hypothalamus and pituitary gland control ovulation in the ovaries. No ovulation - no pregnancy. No pregnancy - no child.

How loud can a baby cry?

Very loud. The volume of a baby's cry can reach 96 decibels (dB). (For comparison, safety regulations on construction sites limit noise levels to 85 dB, otherwise workers may lose their hearing.) Adults often hold a crying baby in their arms, that is, close to the ear, which is harmful to both hearing and nerves. Dr Mats Zakrisson from the University of Gothenburg in Sweden says it is unlikely that hearing loss will actually result from a crying baby. Dr. Zackrisson calculated that for 40% of parents to be “significantly deaf,” they would need to listen to a child cry at 96 dB for 8 hours every day for 30 years.

What does a baby's cry mean?

Crying is an expression of fatigue, sadness, fear, loneliness, frustration, anger, discomfort, pain, boredom or hunger. Hunger is the most common cause of newborn crying. And the last thing parents think about is that the child might just be sad. If he is bored in his crib, then he can be distracted, for example, with photographs on the wall and ceiling, pictures and the like. Most researchers believe that a newborn's crying is just a sign of distress. The intensity of crying varies depending on its cause. If the baby's needs are not met quickly enough, crying usually increases in intensity 26 .

Does my baby cry too much?

(Asked by Lindy Williams, Croydon, New South Wales, Australia)

Research shows that crying takes up 6 to 7% of a child's daytime time. But these numbers can vary from day to day for different babies. For example, if a child feels well, he reacts to toys with interest and pleasure. But if he is tired, then in the same situation he may burst into tears 26.

Is crying contagious?

(Asked by Lindy Williams, Croydon, New South Wales, Australia)

In a certain sense it is contagious. Research shows that a baby less than one day old cries when he hears a recording of another baby crying. However, it is interesting that he remains silent when he hears a recording of himself crying. Some scientists consider this evidence of man's innate ability to respond to the suffering of other people 26 .

Is it possible to predict how much a baby will cry?

(Asked by Lindy Williams, Croydon, New South Wales, Australia)

In their research, Drs Ian St James-Roberts and P Menon-Johansson tried to predict how much a baby would cry by studying fetal movements. They examined 240 mothers, recorded how often their babies moved in the womb, and also studied them using ultrasound. Doctors have suggested that a child’s tearfulness is determined even before birth, but one can only guess at the reasons for this 26, 27.

Can parents, and especially mothers, recognize the cry of their own baby? And when do they develop this ability?

(Asked by Lindy Williams, Croydon, New South Wales, Australia)

Yes they can. But this ability does not arise at the birth of a child. In the literature on child development, it was noted that already on the fourth day of a child’s life, most mothers are able to distinguish the cry of their own baby from the cry of other children. Moreover, mothers often understand perfectly well what exactly causes this crying: hunger, fatigue, pain or irritation 26 .

Are there types of crying?

(Asked by Lindy Williams, Croydon, New South Wales, Australia)

Child development experts define four types of crying:

Crying from hunger is rhythmic, begins with a whimper and gradually becomes louder and more monotonous;

Crying from fatigue - distinguishable from the previous one in rare cases;

Crying from pain - begins with a piercing scream, then there is a second of silence while the child catches his breath, and then resumes with renewed vigor;

Crying from irritation is rhythmic, but much more intense than from hunger 26.

If parents immediately react to a baby's cry, does this spoil the child?

(Asked by Lindy Williams, Croydon, New South Wales, Australia)

Responding immediately to your baby's cries calms him down. One study found that responding quickly can help your baby cry less. It also helps develop communication skills earlier. During the first year - while the child is helpless and depends on the parents for everything - instant reaction and care cannot spoil him. This way, children feel that the world around them is a safe place full of sympathetic people.

A child at an early age is not able to manipulate his parents. All he can do is express his needs in a way that is accessible to him and expect them to be met.

Should parents anticipate their child's needs?

(Asked by Lindy Williams, Croydon, New South Wales, Australia)

Smart parents try to anticipate their child's needs. If you notice his anxiety in time and take the necessary measures, you can avoid crying. After all, a child cannot say what is bothering him. At best: “Y-a-a-a!”

What is the best way to calm a crying baby?

(Asked by Lindy Williams, Croydon, New South Wales, Australia)

There are several ways to calm a crying baby. If he is hungry, naturally, he needs to be fed. Children often stop crying if you sit them on your shoulder. Rhythmic rocking and humming helps to calm the child, as it normalizes the heartbeat and breathing 26 .

Notes

The Apgar score is a system for quickly assessing the condition of a newborn.

The perinatal period is usually called the period from the 28th week of intrauterine development to the 8th day of a newborn’s life.

End of free trial.

Dr. Stephen Juan, in The Oddities of Our Body, reveals the many mysteries of the human being. From top to bottom, outside and inside, right and left - our entire body is a complete mystery. Birth and death, an accident and a happy event, the reality of getting sick and the possibility of surviving in a critical situation, how we are designed - everything you would like to know about your body, and even what you don’t even know or think about, he explains on the pages of your book. The author either seriously or with humor answers any questions from readers, even the most naive or stupid ones.

Stephen Juan

Oddities of our body.

Entertaining anatomy

Has this ever happened to you?

Has this ever happened to you? If yes, this book is for you. The desire to understand the human body should not be hindered. Most likely the book

If there is a lesson in the book, it is this: human beings

Chapter 1 Start

What makes me human?

monkeys lack tails, and this group includes gibbons, chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans. Within the superfamily hominoids there is a family of hominids. Hominids include living and extinct humans. Apes are not included in this family.

When did I first realize that I exist?

At 16 weeks, the baby begins to become frightened by loud noises and turns away when a bright light shines on the mother's belly. The fetus reacts to rock music by actively and violently pushing; he responds to calm music in the opposite way. It is unlikely that the fetus can hear it; most likely, it responds to the physical sensations of the sound wave, which are similar to the perception of noise coming from a neighboring house where music is playing loudly. You hear the pulsation of the bass, but you cannot distinguish the words.

From 12 weeks, the fetus begins to frown and squint its eyes. At 14 weeks he tries to grin or express displeasure. At 24 weeks, the fetus exhibits behaviors that may indicate true (cognitive) thinking. He already knows how to get angry, smile and grimace. But, more importantly, during ultrasound observation, a fetus at the age of 24 weeks, who was accidentally hit by a needle during the amniocentesis procedure, turned away from it with his whole body, determined the position of the needle with his hand, and hit its shaft with his palm

There is an assumption that, by demonstrating anxiety, the fetus may be thinking. At 24 weeks, an anxious fetus may suck its thumb, sometimes so vigorously that it develops blisters.

When did I first start feeling?

“although the fetus lives in liquid, it does not feel moisture” 9.

Just as a person swimming under water does not feel damp, but

“notices the pressure of the waves” 10.

When did I start seeing?

Visually, babies are attracted to two things - the human face and contrasting geometric shapes. The general results of research in this area are as follows.

From birth to 2 months, babies can see objects close to them well: about 20 centimeters from the eyes immediately after birth and about 30 centimeters after 6 weeks. They recognize shape, size, patterns and pay more attention to sharp contrasts than to color or brightness. They prefer patterns ranging from simple to medium complexity and tend to look at the outer parts of the design rather than at the inner elements. From 2 to 4 months, infants begin to look around the entire space visible in front of them and explore both external and internal areas of the image. Now they prefer more complex patterns, curved lines and rounded shapes to straight lines and pointed shapes. They are especially attracted to faces and smooth outlines. Babies begin to show the ability to remember what they see. After 4 months, babies can focus their gaze on near or far objects. They see all colors and prefer curved patterns and shapes. They look for complexity and novelty in their visual environment and gradually begin to develop a sense of depth

Children typically learn to recognize colors between 3 and 7 years of age. If they confuse colors after this age, they may be color blind.

Chapter 2 Brain

What is the brain?

Will we be able to live normally if we lose one hemisphere?

To save lives, some people simply

forced

part with one hemisphere. For example, in serious cases of Sturge-Weber syndrome, problems arise with both the brain and the body. Coffee-colored birthmarks appear on the face, especially around the eyes and on the forehead; pressure on the eyes causes glaucoma, which can eventually blind the patient. A person experiences epileptic seizures, lacks coordination on one side of the body, has learning difficulties and has mental retardation. According to Dr. Steve Roach, a neurologist in Denver and a consultant to the Sturge-Weber Foundation in Aurora, Colo., if seizure-preventing medications don't work,

“using a (surgical) procedure, the hemisphere is removed”,

responsible for the seizures. This operation has been performed for several years and is called hemispherectomy. Dr Roach adds that

“There is surprisingly little neurological deterioration following this procedure.”

He also explains that there is also a less radical procedure - callosotomy, where the hemispheres of the brain are surgically separated from one another, but not completely removed

But it is less likely to help prevent seizures.

If you could harness the power in your brain, it would be enough to light a 10-watt light bulb.

Why are most people right-handed?

“It is believed that left-handedness in most cases is a consequence of minor brain damage that occurs before or during childbirth. Many scientists believe that this damage is due to a lack of oxygen in the baby’s body before birth.”2

The average human brain contains about 100 billion nerve cells.

Do animals have a “dominant paw”?

According to Dr. Victor Denenberg, a professor at the University of Connecticut who studies animal behavior and psychology, many species of animals do have dominant paws. Just like in humans, the professor adds, the leading paws are controlled by the brain. However, unlike humans, any group of animals is usually divided equally between right-handers and left-handers. Moreover, according to research, some non-human primates use their left hand for simple tasks and their right hand for complex manipulations

Chapter 3 Head

Is it true that the larger the skull, the smarter the person?

It's a pity, of course, that hat size has nothing to do with intelligence, because then intelligence tests would be done with a tape measure.

According to acupuncturists, there is a point on the head that, when pressed, stops you from feeling hungry. It is located in the hollow right in front of the ear.

Can a severed head live?

British Medical Journal: “Technology to support life in the severed head has important potential benefits both for scientific research and for prolonging life in a conscious, communicative state, and perhaps with less pain, which many people experience today. The most difficult question is whether the advantages of this method outweigh its disadvantages and dangers.”3

Mr. Fleming believes that the operation to separate the head from the body and the use of his invention will have its customers. He's writing:

“I spoke to half a dozen people who wanted to know when such surgery might be available and how much it would cost. Some of them die, others are paralyzed. Most say that if the mind remains clear and the head can think, remember, see, read, hear and speak, if this operation leads to insensibility of the body below the neck, relieving pain, they will give their consent.

Why do the heads of infant chimpanzees look so much like the heads of human babies, but the heads of adult chimpanzees differ significantly from the heads of adult humans?

What causes headaches?

The physiological cause of headache is still unknown. There are at least 4 main theories explaining its origin.

The second theory is that the muscles of the head and neck are able to contract and sometimes convulse. This process triggers pain signals.

The fourth theory states that a minor chemical imbalance occurs in cellular metabolism in the brain tissue, including mediators

Chapter 4 Eyes

Can people “bring” their eyes out of their sockets?

This is a very strange ability - and very rare. The first description in medical literature of a person who can bulge his eyes so that they crawl out of their sockets, and then retract them back without any harm to himself, was published and

Ateriсan Joinurnal of Orhta1to1ogu

for 1928

Dr. G. Ferrer reported about a twenty-year-old young man who

“could at will protrude his eyes out of their sockets, either one at a time or simultaneously.”

Four years later, Dr. Smith

Joint of the United States Medical Association

talked about how a certain eleven-year-old boy was able to do the same

Until now, articles appear from time to time about people who have this ability.

The late actor-comedian Marty Feldman had eyes

looking

as if they were about to jump out of their sockets, but in fact he could not do this. His face had been like this all his life. Feldman suffered from Crouzon's disease, sometimes called craniofacial dysostosis. With this disease, the eyes appear as if they are jumping out of their sockets, although vision is not impaired. Feldman was no exception. In the passport, when asked about “distinctive physical characteristics,” Feldman answered simply: “Face.”

Dr. Barnett Berman of Baltimore calls the ability to voluntarily push the eyes out of their sockets "double impact syndrome." He writes about this strange skill like this:

“In closing, I want to quote Emerson, who wrote: “Some eyes express no more than a common blueberry, and others are as deep as a well in which to drown.” If you have seen this once, you will have an unforgettable impression for life.” 3.

One blink of the human eye lasts approximately 0.05 seconds.

Why am I crying?

Research suggests that we cry for physiological or emotional reasons. In fact, crying can play an important role in a person's physical and mental health.

We all know that crying is an emotional release that relieves suppressed stress. But what is much less known is that tears are one of the best ways for the body to get rid of toxic substances. For example, the same salts that are excreted in sweat and urine come out with tears. Tears contain several different salts, which are released into the blood, freeing the body from them.

That tears contain table salt - sodium chloride - has been known since the first scientific study of tears was carried out by the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794) in 1791. However, tears also contain other salts, such as potassium chloride, as well as substances that take part in the formation of salts. Among them are calcium, sodium bicarbonate and manganese. Experiments conducted more than 30 years ago show that the concentration of sodium in tears is the same as in the blood.

There is a lot of truth in the expression “crying loudly will help you calm down.” The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BC) believed that crying during a theatrical performance entails catharsis - a beneficial process of relieving stress by releasing emotions. This word has made its way into the modern dictionary of psychology. In his classic 1906 article published in

American Journal of Psychology

Dr. Alvin Borgquist says 54 out of 57 patients reported feeling better after crying

Recent studies in this area report similar results.

Biochemist Dr. William Frey of the Ramsey Eye Research Center in St. Paul, Minnesota, discovered that the "emotional tears" caused by "tear" films are chemically different from the "tears of irritation" produced by inhaling onion juice vapor - they contain more protein. However, the significance of this discovery remains unclear

Is it true that women cry more often than men?

It is argued that if men cry at all, they do it extremely rarely, especially in public. A common stereotype is that crying indicates weakness in a man. From time to time, the strength of this stereotype even shapes public opinion

In 1968, U.S. Senator Edmund Muskie, the leading Democratic presidential candidate, had his hopes of being elected dashed when he was filmed making a public appearance with his eyes wet. Senator Muskie later denied that he had cried. He claimed that the tears were due to the cold weather. This could very well be true, since extreme cold often causes tears, but people did not believe him. His candidacy was rejected as "too weak to become president"; he ultimately dropped out of the presidential race, vanishing into obscurity and no one, pardon the pun; and did not shed a tear.

However, in recent years there has been some evidence that we have begun to allow our leaders to cry. Former Australian Prime Minister Bob Hawke is one such example. He cried in public several times, but went down in history as Australia's second-longest serving prime minister.

However, evidence suggests that men cry much more often than is commonly believed. For example, studies conducted in the United States show that women cry on average 5.3 times a month, and men 1.4 times. Thus, during the year, on average, a man cries almost 17 times

If crying is a vital factor in maintaining health, releasing emotions and relieving stress, and if women in our society cry more readily, this may well explain why men are so susceptible to stress-related illnesses and die earlier than women. Perhaps women simply remember that daily tears help better than doctors

Where do tears come from?

Below the frontal bones of the skull, directly above and slightly behind the eye, is the almond-shaped lacrimal gland. From this gland to the eye and eyelid there are a dozen tear ducts. When we blink, the lacrimal gland is stimulated and tears wash the eye. This way the eye remains moisturized and clean. Tears are sterile and contain enzymes that destroy bacteria, thereby protecting the eyes from infection.

Where else can tears go other than running down your face?

When we cry, a small percentage of moisture is lost through evaporation, but the bulk goes to the inner corner of the eye, flowing down two tear ducts into the peanut-shaped lacrimal sac, and then into the nasolacrimal duct, where the tears are absorbed into the nasal cavity. . Therefore, if you cry a lot, your nose often becomes stuffy.

A quarter of the human brain is associated with vision function.

Stephen Juan

Oddities of our body

The essential odd body

The essential odd body 3

Mysteries of our weird and wonderful bodies explained

THE ODD BODY First published in English in Sydney, Australia by HarperCollins Publishers Australia Pty Limited in 1995

THE ODD BODY#3 First published in English in Sydney, Australia by HarperCollins Publishers

Australia Pty Limited in 2007. This Russian language edition is published by arrangement with HarperCollins Publishers Australia Pty Limited

Introduction

Has this ever happened to you?

Have you ever had a question about the human body, but were afraid to ask it? Or didn’t know who to ask about this? Let's say you want to know why people yawn or why their skin wrinkles after taking a bath. The question may seem stupid (for example, why do men need nipples?) or incredibly strange: are there ways to keep a severed head alive? You could ask your parents, and you've probably even tried, but usually they can't answer. Most likely, they suggested that you “look in the book” (advice that preserves the dignity of parents when faced with their own ignorance) and you agreed, but could not find a book that contained the answer. Therefore, the issue faded into the background and was eventually forgotten. A few years later, at school, in a biology or sociology class, the question came to the surface again. Maybe ask the teacher? However, you decided it wasn't worth the risk. After all, this question has nothing to do with the syllabus, it will waste class time, your friends will think you're "weird", Mr Fletcher may not know anything himself, and besides, this question won't appear on the exam anyway . So you again pushed these thoughts away and eventually forgot about them.

If there is a lesson in the book, it is this: human beings incredible interesting, and learning a little more about yourself is one of life’s true pleasures.

Many of us wonder about our origins, intrauterine development, and how we are born. They say we come into this world with nothing. However, this is just the beginning of the story.

What makes me human?

Systematics is the science of classifying life forms. This is where, from her point of view, man is located; we belong to the kingdom of animals, the subkingdom of metazoans, the division of chordates, the subdivision of vertebrates, the class of mammals, the subclass of placentals, the infraclass of eutherians and the order of primates. Then it gets even more interesting. Within the order of primates is a suborder called anthropoids, which includes monkeys, apes, and humans. Within the suborder Anthropoids, there is a superfamily called hominoids, which includes apes, extinct humans, and modern humans. Monkeys that are not classified as anthropoids are excluded from it. Apes lack tails, and this group includes gibbons, chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans. Within the superfamily hominoids there is a family of hominids. Hominids include living and extinct humans. Apes are not included in this family.