Passive voice is the rule in Russian. Pledge category

State) was used in ancient grammars and was transferred to Russian soil a long time ago, but the problem of pledge still remains unresolved and relevant.

Scientific discussion

Grammarists have defined the scope and grammatical content of the category in different ways. collateral. Some scientists saw in the pledge a reflection of the relationship of the action to the object, others included in the circle of pledge meanings super-object relations and various relationships to the subject; others sought to limit the concept collateral the relation of action to subject.

The issue has not been resolved either number of pledges In russian language. M.V. Lomonosov identified six pledges, and until the middle of the 19th century, i.e. until the appearance of the works of F.I. Buslaev, this opinion persisted. F. F. Fortunatov identified two voices (see his works “On the voices of the Russian verb” (1899), “Old Slavonic -t in the 3rd person of verbs” (1908), etc.) and spoke of them as verb forms, which express action relations And subject. Fortunatov based the classification of pledges on grammatical correlation of forms. The formal sign of a pledge, according to the researcher, is the postfix -sya, therefore Fortunatov allocated two pledges - returnable And irrevocable .

A. A. Potebnya considered pledge as a category expressing subject-object relations. Academician A. A. Shakhmatov, sharing this point of view, laid down the signs of transitivity/intransitivity and identified three pledges: active, passive, reflexive .

Grammar - 70.80, works by A.V. Bondarko, L.L. Bulanin and others distinguish two voices: valid And passive .

The question is controversial as to which forms verbs covered collateral. Since collateral does not have formal indicators, some scholars argue that pledge in Russian they only have participles(active voice - suffixes -ush-/-yush-,-A sch-/-box-; passive voice - om-/-eat-, -im-). IN conjugated In forms, the pledge is not expressed formally.

Not defined itself volume concepts collateral In russian language. A. A. Potebnya formulated the concept collateral How relationship between action, subject, object. However relationship between action And object overlap with the concept transitivity/intransitivity, and for collateral they also remain relationship between action And subject. Scope of concept collateral (collateral) determines the number of allocated voices in the modern Russian language.

Pledge category is a morphological inflectional verb category denoting action relation(procedural feature) to the figure (subject And object) contrast of forms valid And passive pledges. These relationships are twofold.

Firstly, the actor performs an action that can directly transfer to the object or become locked in it. Such verbs are called verbs valid collateral ( valid turn of phrase – assets). They can be:

a) transitive and intransitive: Child plays and listens to mother // Child (S) – plays– intransitive, active voice; listens– transitive, active voice – mom(direct object – accusative case without preposition);
b) returnable and non-refundable: The girl looked and smiled // Girl (S) – I looked – irrevocable, valid pledge; smiled – returnable, valid pledge.

Secondly, the verb can denote an action that is experienced by an object (object) on the part of the subject ( The picture is painted by the artist; The play is staged by a theater troupe; The house is being built by a team). Such verbs are called verbs passive collateral ( passive turn of phrase – passive). They can be like conjugated form ( is being built, observed, read etc.), and in unconjugated(participles - returned, loved and etc.). Conjugated forms of the passive voice are always reflexive; non-conjugated (participles) have specific suffixes: -eat- (readeat-y), -om- (Ved.ohm-y), -enn- (strengthenedenne-y), -im- (lovethem-th), -t- (openT-y), -nn- (readnn-th).

Active and passive voices are contrasted: a) by meaning; b) according to some morphological characteristics;

c) by syntactic usage.

Verbs passive have or may have the collateral instrumental case with meaning subject (Task is being decidedstudent– cf.: Pupils decidetask).

With the concept collateral closely related repayment/non-refundability verb, so in recent years they have been talking about three-pledge system in which collateral is allocated:

1) valid– subject-object relationship (Workers are digging a trench)
2) passive –object-subject relationship (The trench is being dug by workers) ,
3) mid-return– subjective relationship ( Relatives hug);

Verb forms expressing non-directional action (Child smiles) are defined as verbs that stand out of bail.

Medium-return verbs formed from transitive verbs (active voice) by means of a postfix have voice -xia. They express the action of the subject, which does not pass on to a direct object, but returns to the subject itself, concentrated in it ( S(= O) – V), compare: return the book And come back(= "yourself"). For example: The child smiles(similar to The boy laughs; The girl laughed) – non-directional action, out of bail; The girl looked and smiled- an action directed at someone I looked and to the one I looked at, smiled) – active voice.

For definitions of collateral For a verb, you can use the following scheme:

1. Is there a postfix -sya?
2. Is the verb transitive?
3. If you discard -sya, Will the semantic connection with the previous meaning remain?
4. Can a word without -xia be transitive in some context?
5. The verb denotes an action that produced by the subject(Bees stock up on honey); being tested on myself object(Frame opens)?

Verbs passive collateral is formed from transitional using postfix -xia V passive meaning. This value is close to formative morphemes (read[j]-yu – read[j]-yut-sya, deciding[j]-yu – deciding[j]-yut-sya).

It is necessary to distinguish derivational And formative postfix value -xia. Reflexive verbs have several meanings -xia.

1) direct-return (proper-return) – verb expresses action subject And an object which is the same person (washXia= "wash yourself");
2) reciprocal – verb denotes action several persons of which each person is simultaneously and subject And object (hugXia= "hug each other");
3) general return– verb expresses internal state subject closed in the subject itself, or reflects a change in the condition, position, movement of the subject (sad, boast = " himself, himself");
4) indirectly reciprocal– a verb denotes an action performed subject in their own interests (stocked ups mushrooms= "stock for myself", those. in your own interests);
5) objectless-reflexive– verb denotes action out of relation to the object, closed in the subject as its constant property ( wire bendsXia, the fabric is tearingxia –high quality characteristic, property = "by her own").

There are also other qualitatively characterizing meanings of reflexive verbs, for example:

– active-objectless as a characteristic feature of the action producer: the boy fights, the nettle stings;
– passive-qualitative as the ability of an object to undergo any action: the threads break, the problem is easily solved.

Refundable verbs formed from intransitive verbs do not indicate closed action in the producer. Verbs with the following meaning are identified.

The meaning of VOICE OF VERB in the Dictionary of Linguistic Terms

VOICE OF VERB

A verbal category denoting various relationships between the subject and object of an action, which are expressed in verb forms. According to the most widespread modern theory, such forms are either formations with the affix -sya (to wash - to wash), or passive participles (washed, washed). Voice meanings are expressed only by transitive verbs, since only they can show changes in the relationship between the subject and object of the action, which are reflected in the above forms. Intransitive verbs (run, sit, breathe, scream, etc.) that do not have the affix -sya, as well as reflexive verbs (with the suffix -sya) that do not have collateral meanings are not included in the system of voices:

a) verbs with -sya, formed from intransitive verbs (threaten, knock, turn white, etc.);

b) verbs with -sya, formed from transitive verbs, but isolated in their lexical meaning (to obey, to choke, etc.);

c) impersonal verbs with -sya (it’s getting dark, I want to, I’m wondering, I can’t sleep);

d) verbs used only in the reflexive form (fear, be proud, hope, laugh, etc.).

Active voice, a form of voice showing that the action indicated by the transitive verb is directed to a direct object, expressed in the accusative case form without a preposition. A student is reading a book. Young people love sports. Reflexive-medial (middle-reflexive) voice, a form of voice formed from a transitive verb (active voice) through the affix -sya, showing the direction of the action towards its producer, the concentration of the action in the subject itself.

Varieties of values of reflexive-middle pledge:

1) Proper reflexive verbs denoting an action, the subject and object of which are the same person (the affix -sya means “oneself”). Put on shoes, undress, wash.

2) Reciprocal verbs denoting the action of two or more persons, each of whom is simultaneously the subject of the action and the object of the same action on the part of the other producer (the affix -cm means “each other”). Hugging, kissing.

3) Generally reflexive verbs, denoting the internal state of the subject, closed in itself, or a change in the state, position, movement of the subject (these verbs allow the words “himself”, “most” to be attached to them). Be happy, be sad, stop, move.

4) Indirectly reflexive verbs, denoting an action performed by the subject for himself, in his own interests. Stock up (notebooks), get ready (to go), pack.

5) Objectless-reflexive verbs, denoting an action outside of relation to an object, as a constant active or passive property of the subject. Nettle stings. The cow is butting. The dog bites. The threads are breaking. The wire bends.

Passive voice, a form of voice showing that the person or thing acting as the subject of a sentence does not perform an action (are not its subject), but experience someone else's action (are its object). The active and passive voices are correlative in meaning: cf. : the plant carries out the plan (construction with the active voice) - the plan is carried out by the plant (construction with the passive voice). In an active construction (with a transitive verb), the subject of the action is expressed by the subject, and the object is expressed in the accusative case without a preposition, while in the passive construction (with a reflexive verb), the subject becomes the object of the action, and the subject turns out to be an object in the form of the instrumental case. The passive meaning is created either by adding the affix -sya to active verbs (the project is written by an engineer), or by passive participles (the work is written by a student). The most important grammatical indicator of the passive voice is the presence of the instrumental case with the meaning of the subject of the action.

In the history of the development of the theory of collateral, there were different points of view. Some grammarians saw in tax an expression of the relation of action only to an object, others - an expression of the relation of action only to the subject, and still others - an expression of the relation of action to both the object and the subject.

The traditional doctrine of pledges, originating from the theory of six pledges put forward by M. V. Lomonosov, persisted until the middle of the 19th century. and ends with the works of f. I. Buslaev, in whom this theory receives the most complete expression. Buslaev identified six voices: active (student reads a book), passive (son is loved by his mother), intermediate (sleep, walk), reflexive (wash, get dressed), mutual (quarrel, make peace) and general (fear, hope).

The category of voice by linguists of this period was understood as a category that expresses the relationship of an action to an object. In this regard, the concept of voice and the concept of transitivity-intransitivity were identified. In parallel with transitivity-intransitivity, another principle was used as the basis for the identification of voices - the distinction between verbs with the affix -sya and verbs without this affix. The confusion of the two principles did not allow the construction of a consistent theory of collateral. The category of pledge receives a fundamentally different interpretation in the works of K. S. Aksakov and especially F. F. Fortunatov. In the article “On the Voices of the Russian Verb” (1899), Fortunatov considers voices as verbal forms that express the relation of the action to the subject. Instead of the lexical-syntactic principle, Fortunatov used the grammatical correlation of forms as the basis for the classification of pledges: the formal sign of a pledge is the affix -sya, therefore only two taxes are distinguished - returnable and non-refundable. The concept of voice and the concept of transitivity-intransitivity are differentiated, but the connection of voice values with the meanings of transitivity-intransitivity is taken into account. Other researchers (A. A. Potebnya, A. A. Shakhmatov) considered pledge as a category expressing subject-object relations. Shakhmatov bases his doctrine of voice on the sign of transitivity-intransitivity and identifies three voices: active, passive and reflexive. A subtle analysis of the main meanings of the affix -cm in reflexive verbs is given. This analysis, as well as the principle of identifying three voices, was reflected in the academic “Grammar of the Russian Language” (1952).

Based on the fact that “the correlation and opposition of active and passive phrases is historically true of the category of voice,” V. V. Vinogradov points out that the category of voice in the modern Russian language finds its expression primarily in the ratio of reflexive and non-reflexive forms of the same verb . According to A.V. Bondarko and L.L. Bulanin, “pledge is a common Slavic inflectional category, which finds its expression in the opposition of the forms of active and passive voices. This opposition is based on the parallelism of active and passive structures."

Dictionary of linguistic terms. 2012

First person

The first person singular form shows that the action is performed by the speaker himself (that is, the subject of speech): I’m going, . This form corresponds to the pronoun “I”.

The first person plural form indicates that the action is performed by several persons, including the speaker: we go, we talk, we are interested. Accordingly, the first person plural pronoun is “we”.

Second person

The second person form expresses an action relating to the interlocutor (singular) or a group of persons, including the interlocutor (plural). The second person pronouns will be “you” and “you”. For example: (you) say, are interested; (you) walk, talk, are interested.

Third party

The third person form indicates that the action refers to an extraneous person or thing not participating in speech - in the singular, and to a group of persons or objects - in the plural. The corresponding pronouns are: “he”, “she”, “it” - singular, “they” - plural. For example: (he/she/it) walks, talks, is interested; (they) walk, talk, and are interested.

It should also be remembered that not all verbs have a person.

The category of person is possessed by: verbs of the indicative mood in the present and future tense (smile - smile - - smile - - smile, smile - smile - - smile - smile - smile) and forms of the imperative mood (here the face is not defined in all cases).

The following persons do not have the category:
- verbs of the indicative mood in the past tense (the forms are the same: I walked = you walked = he walked, we walked = you walked = they walked);
- verbs of the conditional (subjunctive) mood (would like, would go);
- infinitive verbs (initial form of the verb, in -т/-ть: walk, sing, draw);
- impersonal verbs (it’s getting dark, I want, there’s enough, etc.);
- participles and gerunds (who came, rejoicing). According to some systems of grammar, these parts of speech are classified as verbs, according to others - not. In any case, these parts of speech do not have the category of person.

Video on the topic

Sources:

Face category in 2019

What is Voice of a Verb?

Voice of the verb is a verbal category denoting various relationships between the subject and object of an action, which are expressed in the forms of the verb. According to the most widespread modern theory, such forms are either formations with the affix -sya (to wash, wash), or passive participles (washed, washed). Voice meanings are expressed only by transitive verbs, since only they can show changes in the relationship between the subject and object of the action, which are reflected in the above forms. Intransitive verbs (run, sit, breathe, scream, etc.) that do not have the affix -sya, as well as reflexive verbs (with the suffix -sya) that do not have collateral meanings are not included in the system of voices:

a) verbs with -sya, formed from intransitive verbs (threaten, knock, turn white, etc.);

b) verbs with -sya, formed from transitive verbs, but isolated in their lexical meaning (to obey, to choke, etc.);

c) impersonal verbs with -sya (it’s getting dark, I want to, I’m wondering, I can’t sleep);

d) verbs used only in the reflexive form (fear, be proud, hope, laugh, etc.).

Varieties of values of reflexive-middle pledge:

1) Sbbstvenno-v are reflexive verbs denoting an action, the subject and object of which are the same person (the affix -sya means “oneself”). Put on shoes, undress, wash.

4) Indirectly reflexive verbs, denoting an action performed by the subject for himself, in his own interests. Stock up (notebooks), get ready (to go), pack.

Passive voice, a form of voice showing that the person or thing acting as the subject of a sentence does not perform an action (are not its subject), but experience someone else's action (are its object). The active and passive voices are correlative in meaning: cf.: the plant carries out the plan (construction with the active voice) - the plan is carried out by the plant (construction with the passive voice). In an active construction (with a transitive verb), the subject of the action is expressed by the subject, and the object is expressed in the accusative case without a preposition, while in the passive construction (with a reflexive verb), the subject becomes the object of the action, and the subject turns out to be an object in the form of the instrumental case. The passive meaning is created either by adding the affix -sya to active verbs (the project is written by an engineer), or by passive participles (the work is written by a student). The most important grammatical indicator of the passive voice is the presence of the instrumental case with the meaning of the subject of the action.

Verb concept

Pavlov Victor.

They often give this verb definition.
The verb is part of speech that denotes an action and answers the questions: what does it do? what will he do? what did you do? What did you do?

But considering all the definitions of the word “action”, we come to the understanding that the verb is not only “action”. Verbs are characterized by different words: action, inaction, activity, movements, phenomena, situation, states, events, acts, deeds, properties, relationships, feelings, natural phenomena. All these words are not synonyms, but they are united by a verb. Considering all the words characterizing verbs, we come to the conclusion that verbs are best combined according to the content of features associated with the word “process” and types of process.

Process (lat. processus - “flow”, “progress”, “promotion”)

The meaning of the word Process according to Efremova:

Process - 1. Flow, progress of something. phenomena. A set of sequential actions aimed at achieving a certain result.

2) A set of sequential actions to achieve a result (for example, a production process).

The sign of a process (verb) is change.

The following definitions of the word “change” are given.

CHANGE - becoming something else. I. is characterized by direction, intensity, speed and duration.

Philosophy: Encyclopedic Dictionary. — M.: Gardariki. Edited by A.A. Ivina. 2004.

CHANGE is a category of philosophical discourse that characterizes a state alternative to stability, a transition from one state to another, a change in content over time. In accordance with the localization of changes in space and time, changes in space (mechanical movement) and changes in time are distinguished.

New Philosophical Encyclopedia: In 4 vols. M.: Thought. Edited by V. S. Stepin. 2001.

CHANGE - CHANGE, changes, cf. (book). Action under Ch. change change to 1 value and change change. Change of functions. Voice change. To radically change something. Changing words by cases and numbers. In change... ... Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary

CHANGE - Change ♦ Changement Becoming or potency in action; transition from) one place to another (spatial movement, according to Aristotle); from one state to another; from one form or size to another, etc. “Everything passes, nothing ... ... Sponville’s Philosophical Dictionary

CHANGE - directed correspondence of object states; difference in the existence of an object; relation, sequence of states; one change is caused by another; connection of an object with itself (occur #. occurred #. cause #). transition. vz...... ... Ideographic Dictionary of the Russian Language

Change - CHANGE, modification, change, transformation, book. variation, book. modification, book transformation, book transformation CHANGE / CHANGE, modify / modify, change, change / change, ... ... Dictionary-thesaurus of synonyms of Russian speech

CHANGE - CHANGE, I, cf. 1. see change 1, xia. 2. Amendment, change, changing something. former. Make changes to the law. Radical changes in the life of society. Ozhegov's explanatory dictionary. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949 1992 ... Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary

CHANGE—eng. change; German Veranderung; Wandel. The process of movement and interaction of objects and phenomena, transition from one state to another, the appearance of new properties, functions and relationships in them. see QUALITY, QUANTITY. Antinazi. Encyclopedia of Sociology ... Encyclopedia of Sociology

Change - fluctuation, deviation from the nominal value, spread of parameters, variation - [L.G. Sumenko. English-Russian dictionary on information technology. M.: State Enterprise TsNIIS, 2003.] Topics information technology in general Synonyms fluctuation deviation from... ... Technical Translator's Directory

CHANGE - make changes. action to make some changes. action to make the necessary changes. action to make appropriate changes. action to make significant changes. the action of making changes. the action of introducing appropriate ... ... Verb compatibility of non-objective names

CHANGE - 2.2.7 change: a change in the design of electrical equipment that affects the parts, layout or function of the electrical equipment. Source... Dictionary-reference book of terms of normative and technical documentation (dictionary akademik.ru)

Change as a sign is most suitable for characterizing a verb as a process. For example. You have to love life. What to do? The verb to love is a feeling, but not an action or even a state. Feeling is a process that occurs inside a person, in his brain. Action is also a process. The process of influence and interaction in external space. For a more accurate understanding of the content of a specific verb, you can specify the type of process.

A verb is a part of speech that denotes processes that characterize the relationships between persons, objects and phenomena in a sentence.

The process is a change in space in time.

A verb is a part of speech that expresses processes associated with changes in the characteristics of space and time.

The process involves changes in space and time. The verb is the processes of speed and time. The verbal attribute “change” is given in relation to the subject of the process and assumes a temporal characteristic. Movement, being a comprehensive category and presupposing a certain change, covers many categories of verbal meaning. This is SxT=V and T.

Time (T) gives direction. Movement is the key.

A verb as a part of speech has a sign of a process - a change with a temporal focus.

A verb is a part of speech that combines words with a sign - change and answers the questions: what to do? what to do?

If someone is not satisfied with the characterization of the verb as a process, then one can define the verb according to its characteristics. Then it will be necessary to translate all parts of speech into signs.

A word is a complex unity of lexical and grammatical meanings.

Some of them - aspect, voice, mood, tense, person - are found only in the verb. So they determine the attribute of the verb - change.

The verb is expressed in procedural features, in the features of aspect, voice, mood, tense, person, number and gender, etc.

Signs of reflexive and non-reflexive verbs, division by prefixes, suffixes, etc. - signs of space - form (external relations). Feelings rule.

Signs of voice, transitivity, conjugation, time, number, gender, mood - signs of time - content, meaning (internal relations). Controls thinking. The human mind tries to classify everything. And verbs too.

Classification (typing) of verbs can be carried out by form - the external spelling of the word (grammatically) and by meaning - the internal content of the word (lexically). Division of verbs by form: by prefixes, suffixes, roots, etc. allows you to externally separate verbs from each other. It is more difficult to divide verbs according to semantic features. By connecting the features of form with features of content, we will be able to determine content by form. This is how thinking works.

The basis for dividing words by form was prepared by Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov. And already in separate paragraphs he gave instructions on the semantic concepts of words.

In the voices, M.V. Lomonosov saw a complete classification of verbs by process. Therefore, he divided all verbs into six groups. Active, passive, reflexive, neuter, general and reciprocal. Each group can then be divided into subgroups based on characteristics.

Over time, collateral acquired a narrower and deeper meaning. In the modern understanding, according to the three-voice theory, all verbs are divided into voice and non-voice. Voice is a purely syntactic category, syntactic phrases. “The voice,” according to A. A. Potebnya’s definition, “is the relation of the subject to the object, or more precisely: the relation of the predicate to the subject and the complement.” There are three main forms of voice: active, passive and reflexive. And several (three) voice forms that transform into each other in syntax. There are forms of pledge, and there are forms of pledge.

A verb is a part of speech with the internal content of the relationship between subject and object.

The content of the syntax of a verb - a word involves the idea of who or what performs the action (the subject of the action), as well as who or what it is directed at. Whom? What? The sign is direction. Transitivity - intransitivity. The content of the morphology of a verb - a word involves the idea of who or what the action belongs to, as well as by whom or what it is performed. By whom? How? A sign of ownership, the postfix -xia is added. Refundability is non-refundability. If the process belongs to the subject of the action (is associated with him) and is performed by the subject of the process himself, then the questions are by whom? how? disappear.

A verb is a sign of persons, objects and phenomena. Signs of form and content, external signs and internal signs. The main features of a verb for thinking are semantic. Any word consists of an outer shell - form (written word) and internal content (semantic shell). The internal content of a word consists of signs of space and time. Parsing a word according to its characteristics allows us to understand the functioning of the brain, especially its central parts of the analyzers. They work with signs of objects and phenomena. And the perception of objects as parts of speech is based on them. For example, we perceive the word “sit” as the sum of various attributes. This is a morphological - semantic analysis of the word. And the word “sit” is perceived as a part of speech and a relationship with other parts of speech. This is a syntactic - semantic analysis of a part of speech. The word in thinking is already connected by relations with a non-existent sentence. And it is not necessary to construct sentences with this word in order to understand these relationships. The word, as a part of speech, already carries within itself these relations of subject, object (both internal and external). For example, the word “break” is associated with the following process: someone acted on something and this something lost its value, its characteristics (deteriorated), and someone divided this something into parts (two or more). The aggressive activity of the subject of the process and the passivity of the object can be traced. The thinking of the subject connects the action with the subject to whom the thinking belongs, otherwise the person who speaks or reads this word connects the word “break”, first of all, with himself. And all the signs that are contained in memory with this word are involved in the analysis. The word requires additional information. Questions arise. We will answer them. Give it a try. And the more questions we answer, the more questions arise to gain absolute knowledge about the process.

To give - the subject of the process performs an action regardless of the attitude of the subject or object towards it. Propose - the subject of the process performs an action and “lays down” something with the expectation of the subject’s choice. The subject of the process performs the action and waits. The sign “choice” is the main sign of this word. Decomposition of a word by characteristics allows you to accurately separate words from each other according to content. This will result in the division of words according to form.

The word in consciousness is associated with signs fixed in reflexes. These signs interact with each other. The interaction between reflexes is manifested in the psyche. These relationships actually manifest themselves in syntax. The word contains not only a concept, but also signs of a process. The same work of thinking unites all people with each other, unites them through the same interaction of reflexes. Because the thinking of any person works with signs. Knowing the signs of gender, we can explain why the words: table, doctor are masculine, and the words: snake, car are feminine. Dividing verbs into voices is not “schooling”, but the basis for dividing verbs according to characteristics.

We compose a verb classification tree according to processes, according to procedural characteristics.

Morphologically - semantic analysis of the part of speech - verb - procedural.

Verbs are concepts in change. The concept carries various signs of feelings and thinking. From the concepts we can identify all the signs with which the human psyche operates. Concepts and their signs. This is the basis of language. Noun.

Feelings work with certain features of a verb. Suffer. The concept of suffering is based on the sensation of pain and displeasure.

Thinking works with certain features of a verb. To come is the concept of walking, walking and all the sensations associated with it.

Verbs characterize all types of processes occurring in the environment (including humans). Although there are processes that do not have a name. There are about 4000 words of frequently used verbs. To understand all processes, of course, they need to be typified and analyzed. There are few words for the computer age. There are a lot of word changes. Each word is a sign of a process. They need to be grouped. You can type by appearance and content.

Division of verbs by reflexivity, aspect, prefixes, suffixes, etc. This is an external division in shape. Formal analysis. Grammatical.

For example. We write down all the verbs with prefixes: at, on, at and others. With suffixes, with roots, etc. We separate individual forms according to the semantic characteristics of space and time. By looking at individual forms of a verb, we see its content and vice versa. People are also classified according to form and content. The connection between form and content is a connection between space and speed.

It is necessary to classify verbs either by form or content. And only then compare the form with the content. And then make a classification according to form and content. Classification is morphological and syntactic.

Division of verbs according to content - perfect, imperfect, gender, etc. Defined as a division based on interaction with the internal and external environment. Processes with an object, in an object, near an object, not related to objects, etc. Content analysis. Lexical.

Since language appears as a means of communication, then, accordingly, all words are initially associated with communication between people and only then words are distinguished as a characteristic of the environment. And verbs in particular. There are two interacting categories in nature: subject and object. All verbs are divided into words tied to a person, tied to the environment and impersonal.

All verbs are associated with the subject of the process, and this determines the relationship between subject and object. Who is the subject of the process? or what? produces the process. Subject or object. Active part of the process, source. It gets dark - the process produces light from the sun (object). A verb always has a subject of the process. Every process has a cause, just as there is a God.

Let's divide verbs by process type.

Processes associated with a person can be divided into three groups.

1. Verbs expressing external processes associated with the subject of the process and the environment. External.

2. Verbs expressing processes associated with the subject of the process. Externally - internally.

3. Verbs expressing internal processes occurring in the subject of the process, without indicating the subject of the process. Internal.

Dividing verbs by process

1. Verbs expressing external processes associated with the subject and the environment.

A) Verbs expressing processes (actions, deeds) associated with the influence of the subject on the environment (object, subject). Subject of the process (subject) - object, subject. Whom? What? Change (S and T=V).

Hit, meet, kiss, saw, blow. Wash, comb (including processes that express the mutual action of subjects among themselves - hitting, meeting, kissing).

B) Verbs expressing processes associated with the impact of the environment (and person) on a person. The subject of the process (object, subject) is the subject. Change (S and T=V). Same processes.

2. Verbs expressing processes associated with the subject of the process. Properties of the process subject. Change (T)

Subject.

Processes (provisions) associated with external inaction of the subject of the process. Sit, lie down. Change (T)

Processes (movements, movements) associated with the external movement of the subject of the process. Walk, swim, climb, work. Change (S and T=V)

Processes (sensations) associated with the sensory organs of the subject of the process. Look, see, listen. Eat, drink. Change (T) and (S and T=V)

Processes (properties) associated with the properties of the subject of the process - subject, object. Change (S and T=V)

Active property of a process subject. Butts (Cow). Subject.

Passive property of the subject of the process. It bends and breaks (Wire). An object.

3. Verbs expressing internal processes occurring in the subject, object, without indicating the subject of the process. “Impersonal” processes expressing actions and states that occur as if by themselves, without their producer. Change (T)

Subject.

Processes (communication) associated with speech, with language as a means of communication. Talk, be silent, talk, read, write.

Processes (bodily) associated with the human body. Sleep, rest, get sick, breathe,

Processes (of emotions) associated with emotions. Rejoice, tune in, have fun; worry.

Processes (emotives) associated with emotives (feelings). Love, hate, envy, be jealous.

Processes (thinking) associated with thinking and memory. Invent, think, decide, multiply, remember, dream.

Processes (impersonal) associated with an object, expressing processes, without indicating the subject of the process (evening, chilling, dawn, dusk).

You can also continue dividing groups into subgroups further, according to different criteria.

Voice of the verb

Many people believe and teach others that a verb is an action or a state. This is very general and narrow. A verb is not an action, it is a process. Words expressing a process connecting objects and the external world with subjects and their internal world in space and time.

The voice of the verb is a verbal category that expresses the direction of the process between the subject and the object of the action, which finds its expression in the forms of the voice of the verb. Considering the historical divisions of verbs according to voices, we can come to the conclusion that these divisions are increasingly pushing us towards dividing verbs according to characteristics.

The verb has many spatial and temporal features. One of the main signs of the process is a sign of directionality and derivativeness, correlation.

Directionality is associated with the sign of transitivity - intransitivity. Correlativity is associated with the sign of recurrence - irrevocability. The lexical category of voice is a verbal category that expresses the relationship of the subject of the process to the subject and object (the object on which the action is performed). The lexical category of voice is revealed in syntactic connections.

Researchers of the Russian language associated with the category of voice the division of verbs into different types according to differences in the lexical meanings of verbs. The grammatical correlation of forms was not taken into account or was overlooked. In the category of voice, the development paths of various grammatical and lexical phenomena in the area of the verb are confused.

Table 1. Classification of processes by collateral, by the direction of the process.

There are two interacting categories: subject And an object.

According to their direction, processes are: a process from subject to object, a process from object to subject, a subject is a process towards itself, processes without direction, an object is a process towards itself.

Processes that have an orientation are all external, derivative, correlative.

The main voices are: active, passive and reflexive (medium reflexive).

Process from subject to object - active voice. See, stroke. Outwardly, they all look without postfix, irreversible. The verb is used with a noun or pronoun in the accusative case without a preposition. Transitive verbs. Transitive verbs have active voice, denoting an action performed by the subject and actively directed at the object. The active voice has a syntactic characteristic: the subject of the process is the subject, and the object is the object in the accusative case without a preposition: the boy is petting the cat. Whom? What?

Process from object to subject - passive voice. Opens. Externally, everything is with a postfix, returnable. Intransitive verbs.

The passive voice is similar in meaning to the active voice, but has its own morphological and syntactic characteristics. The passive voice is expressed by adding the affix -sya to active voice verbs. A comparison of the construction - “The boy is stroking the cat” (active construction) and “The cat is being stroked by the boy” (passive construction) shows that in the active construction (with a transitive verb), the subject of the action is expressed by the subject, and the object is expressed by the object in the accusative case, and in the passive (with a reflexive verb) the object becomes the subject, and the former subject turns out to be the object in the instrumental case. By whom? How? Thus, the passive voice represents a passive action directed from the object to the subject. The most important grammatical indicator of the passive voice is the instrumental case of the noun with the meaning of the subject of the process.

The subject of the process is to himself. Verbs formed from transitive verbs (active voice) by means of the postfix -sya have reflexive (medium reflexive) voice. They express the action of the subject, which turns (returns) to the subject itself; cf.: return money and return (by yourself). The subject of the process to himself is a returnable deposit. Who? What? Stocking up. Outwardly, they all look like they have the postfix -sya - reflexive and intransitive.

Depending on the lexical meaning of the stems and the nature of the syntactic connections, reflexive verbs can express different meanings that characterize the relationship between the subject and the object of the action.

Reflexive verbs, as well as processes associated with a person, can be divided into three groups.

1. Verbs expressing external processes associated with the subject of the process and the environment. External. Get ready, line up, pack up (indirectly - reflexive verbs), meet, kiss (mutually - reflexive verbs).

2. Verbs expressing processes associated with the subject of the process. Externally - internally. Wash, comb your hair, undress, humiliate yourself (actually reflexive verbs).

3. Verbs expressing internal processes occurring in the subject of the process (without indicating the subject of the process). Internal. Rejoice, tune in, have fun; worry (general reflexive verbs). Objectless reflexive verbs. The active property of the subject of the process is the cow butting. The passive property of the subject of the process is that the wire bends.

Object process to itself - do not exist. A process cannot originate from an object. There is no subject of the process. Verbs are both transitive and reflexive, therefore they do not exist.

Processes without direction. These verbs are out of voice. Directional characteristics of transitive and intransitive verbs. There is no direction, no collateral, no transitivity and intransitivity. Transitivity and intransitivity are categories of voice. The process of the subject (external, internal) without a goal object.

1. Without direction.

2. Verbs with the particle -sya, which cannot be separated (by separating it, it is impossible to obtain a living form of the verb), for example: wander, be afraid, sleep, dream, laugh, smile. These are the so-called "common" verbs. Non-derivative reflexive verbs.

3. Verbs without a particle -sya, which cannot be added (i.e., it is impossible to obtain a living form of the verb), for example: run, sit, breathe. Non-derivative verbs are irreflexive. Feelings work with these signs.

When analyzing verbs that do not have a voice in the modern sense, we can divide them into two groups.

1. External processes without direction.

Processes associated with external signs of the subject of the process. External processes, a sign of movement, a sign of external change - not derivative, irreversible - to run, to go, to be. External processes, a sign of position, a sign of external non-change - derivative, correlative, irrevocable - sitting, sleeping, silent, etc. They are all intransitive, irrevocable.

2. Internal processes without direction.

Verbs expressing internal processes (feelings - emotives), states of the subject of the process. Not derivative, reflexive - to be afraid, to be proud, to hope, to like, to be unwell, to get dark. Derivatives, correlatives, reflexives - sleep, want, etc. They are all intransitive, reflexive. Derivatives, not correlatives.

Outside the bail are:

1. Non-derivative verbs. (Refundable - Non-refundable)

2. Derivative, non-correlative verbs. (Refundable - Non-refundable)

3. Derivatives, correlative without an external process of action. (Refundable - Non-refundable)

This means that the deposit does not belong to the refundable category. Voice is determined not by the form of the word, but by the content (and sentence).

Lecture, abstract. Verbs and voices. - concept and types. Classification, essence and features.

Recurrence is a category of morphology.

Table 2. Division of verbs by reflexivity (belonging relations).

	Verbs
	Irreversible verbs.

Presence	Presence	Presence	Presence
subject and	subject of the process	subject of the process	subject and object.
object.	and the absence of an object.	and the absence of an object.
Derivatives	Derivatives	Non-derivatives	Derivatives
Correlative	Correlative		Not correlative
Whom? What?	Who? What?	No	Different
Who? What?
there is action	no action	there is action	action
belonging	accessories	accessories	accessories
object	No	No	different
non-refundable	non-refundable	non-refundable	intransitive, reflexive

Focus	No direction	Focus	Focus
subject to object	inaction of the subject	subject's actions	Different
transitional	intransitive	intransitive	transitional, irrevocable

Valid	No deposit	No deposit	No deposit
pledge

		Verbs
		Reflexive verbs.

Presence	Presence		Presence	Presence
subject and object.	subject of the process.		subject of the process	subject of the process
	object = subject		and the absence of an object.	and the absence of an object.
Derivatives	Derivatives		Non-derivatives	Derivatives
Correlative	Correlative			Correlative
By whom? How?	Different		No	No

there is action	there is action		no action	no action
belonging	belonging		accessories	accessories
subject	subject		No	No
returnable	returnable		returnable	returnable

Focus	Focus		No direction	No direction
object to subject	process per subject		subject of the process	subject of the process
intransitive	intransitive		intransitive	intransitive

Passive	Returnable		No deposit	No deposit
pledge	pledge

Voice verbs, minimally, can be divided into three component groups.
1. Derivatives are non-derivatives.
2. Correlative and non-correlative.
3. Returnable - non-refundable (belonging - objective and subjective).
4. Transitional - intransitive (directional).

1. Derivatives are non-derivatives.

Derived verbs have “pairs” based on their stem. When adding the postfix -sya, you get a reflexive verb that is full in meaning, or when you remove the postfix -sya, you get a non-reflexive verb that is full in meaning. To see - to see, to put on shoes - to put on shoes, to crush - to choke.

Non-derivative verbs do not have “pairs”. Verbs to which a postfix cannot be added or subtracted without loss of meaning. Non-derivative, irrevocable - run, breathe, scream. Non-derivative, reflexive - hope, fear, laugh.

Derivative verbs (in appearance) can be correlative (derivative in appearance and derivative in content) and non-correlative (derivative in appearance and non-derivative in content)

2. Correlative and non-correlative.

Correlatives are derived verbs that retain their meaning, one process. See - see each other. The contents of the verbs are correlated. Changing appearance does not change the direction of the process.

Non-correlative - derived verbs that have different meanings and different processes. Borrow - engage, push - choke. The contents of the verbs scattered. Some verbs have no direction, others have direction. These are verbs with the postfix -sya, formed from transitive ones, but changing their lexical meaning: listen - obey, forgive - say goodbye.

Correlativity is the relationship between reflexive and non-reflexive verbs.

Two verbs having different forms, but with the same base, have, in terms of the content of the verb, either a coincident direction of the process or a divergent one. There are no intermediate values. This is the fundamental difference between reflexivity and transitivity.

The presence of non-correlative verbs (that do not coincide in meaning) indicates that any word is associated with the naming of the external world, with conditioned reflexes. The form is connected with the content of the word in a reflex. To be - in the meaning: to remain, to be somewhere, to be in one state or another; To be - in the meaning: to reveal resourcefulness; To be found means: to be found, to be discovered. Find something. Identical words are stored in memory with different features. And they are reproduced from memory according to a situation with specific signs.

3. By affiliation. Objective and subjective. Non-refundable and returnable. This is the property of recurrence.

There are three types of human impact on the environment.

A) The subject influences the environment. The impact produced by the subject of the process belongs to the object. Object ownership. Irrevocability.

B) The subject influences the environment (specifically, himself - the main part of this environment). The impact produced by the subject of the process belongs to the subject. Subjective affiliation. Returnability.

C) The subject does not influence the environment and himself. External inactivity, internal processes in the subject, no participation of the subject. No affiliation. But the subject of the process exists. Internal processes are the same for all subjects - they are impersonal. Accordingly, the impact of the environment.

4. By direction. This is the property of transitivity.

Division of processes by direction.

1. Subject of whom? What? - an object. From subject to object. There is a process. There is direction. Voice verbs.

2. Object by whom? how? - subject. From object to subject. There is a process. There is direction. Voice verbs.

3. Subject - object = subject. From the subject to itself (object). There is a process. There is direction. Voice verbs.

4. Object - subject. From the object to yourself (subject). An object is not a subject of a process. There are no such verbs.

5. There is a process. There is no external direction. There are no subject and object relations. Out of bail.

The division of verbs into irreversible and reflexive was established in the Russian language regardless of the division of verbs into transitive and intransitive.

Transitive and intransitive verbs are expressed in active, passive and reflexive voice. Non-reflexive and reflexive verbs are also expressed in the active, passive and reflexive voice.

Transitivity is the division of words according to internal relationships in a sentence. Determined by semantic signs of direction. These are internal signs. Basis focus: active and passive and reflexive voices. Three pledges.

Reflexivity is the division of words by spelling. Determined by the presence or absence of the postfix -sya. These are external signs. Basis of focus: active and passive, reflexive voices. Two deposits.

It is possible to combine form and content with each other only by common features. These signs cannot be found. We go through various signs, and there are no signs common to reflexive, non-reflexive and transitive, intransitive verbs.

Reflexivity and transitivity do not go together. Therefore, it is better to classify separately by form (recurrence, etc.) and separately by content (transitivity, etc.). And it will be seen there. Most likely, form and content will have common features. Content is determined not by form, but by many forms.

All non-derivative and derived non-correlative verbs are outside the voice. Derivatives that are not correlative can be called conditionally non-derivative.

All verbs that have no direction and derivatives with different directions are out of voice.

Non-correlative verbs in Table 2 can be divided into voices.

You can separate non-correlative verbs into voices, and then verbs that have no direction will remain outside the voice. The key is direction. On the subject, on the object, on oneself.

Let's consider only derived correlative verbs (verbs with voice).

Transitive, intransitive verbs.

Transitivity - intransitivity is a syntactic category. Subject - object. Real, definite, complete. If we consider a word from the syntactic position of transitivity, without paying attention to the postfix, then for certainty it is necessary to distinguish between the object, the subject and the subject of the process. Their relationship. Select subject, predicate, object, etc. accordingly. All these concepts are united by the characteristic of directionality.

Transitivity is associated with the subject of the process and the subject, object. Transitivity is a relationship expressed in direction. Transitivity is associated with thinking. Thinking operates with relationships. It is clearly visible in passive constructions, when thinking becomes dull and it needs time to understand the sentence. The semantic emphasis is felt.

Transitive verbs are always voiced. Intransitive verbs - voicing and non-voice. Reflexive verbs - voicing and non-voice. Non-reflexive verbs - voicing and non-voice. Therefore, transitivity is a collateral category. But transitivity is directionality. Therefore, direction is a collateral category.

Transitive verbs are associated with the direction of the subject of the process towards the object.

The orientation is external, connected with the subject and object. Transitive verbs include verbs with the meaning of a process aimed at an object, changing or producing this object - an object: read a book, bite bread, wash a car. Intransitive verbs are associated with the relationship of the object to the subject of the process and the relationship of the object (the subject itself) to the subject of the process (in other words, the subject to the subject of the process, subject = object). Intransitive verbs include verbs denoting movement and position in space, physical and moral states, for example: fly, stand, get sick, suffer.

In some cases, removing prefixes from transitive verbs turns them into intransitive ones. To neutralize (who? what?) and harm (to whom? what?). Certainty in the operation of removing prefixes becomes uncertainty.

Reflexive and non-reflexive verbs.

Recurrence - irrevocability is a morphological category. It is determined by looking at the form whether there is a postfix or not. Reflexive verbs are associated with the subject of the process and with the concepts of oneself, oneself, oneself, oneself, etc. With self. The pronoun self is a reflexive pronoun, which means that the action with the actor belongs to the actor himself. The postfix does not indicate the direction, but indicates who the process belongs to? and for whom? Belonging - by whom? how? Who is affected? What? does the process affect and for whom? what? there is a process going on. Cases. Reflexive verbs - dependence on the self. Reflexive verbs are associated with feelings. Feelings receive external influences.

Reflexive verbs by transitivity-intransitivity are associated with the relationship between the object and the subject of the process and the relationship between the object (the subject itself) and the subject of the process. Therefore, they are associated with intransitivity, although they have different concepts: form and content. The process that the process subject does belongs to the process subject himself and is carried out for the process subject himself.

Non-reflexive verbs are associated with the external environment, with a sign of reality. The process that the process subject does does not belong to the process subject and is not carried out for the process subject. It cannot be said that for an object, because there are processes independent of the subject and the object. This is one collateral category and non-collateral category.

The opposition of reflexive and non-reflexive verbs to each other corresponds to purely external formal features. But adding two letters to the end of a word changes the content of the words in the mind. Why? Signs.

Reflexive verbs are those that indicate by their form that the process denoted by them is not and cannot be addressed to an external object: ring, appear, share, knock. Reflexive verbs are verbs with grammatically fixed affiliation.

In contrast to reflexive verbs, non-reflexive verbs do not contain in their form grammatical features indicating only the identity of the process: beat, smoke, run, knock, etc. Irreflexive verbs are verbs with a grammatically expressed focus.

Relationships.

1. Transitive, irreflexive verbs - objective, active voice. Orientation towards the object. The process is not owned by the subject of the process. Logical. The emphasis in the sentence is on the object.

2. Intransitive, reflexive verbs - subjective, passive voice. Non-contact direction towards the subject - passive voice. And as a special case, the contact focus is on the subject itself - a returnable pledge. The passive voice differs from the reflexive voice on the basis of contact. The process belongs to the subject of the process. The emphasis in the sentence is on the subject.

3. Intransitive, irreflexive verbs. No direction. Processes associated with the subject. You can't ask the question of whom? What? by whom? how? Independent processes. Be silent, go, sit.

4. Transitive, reflexive verbs. Different concepts of form and content and quite far from combining form and content. There is no whole. There are no such verbs.

The whole is form and content. There is a relationship between form and content. This is a philosophical category. To combine form and content, it is necessary to classify them. And in order to classify verbs, it is necessary to classify the noun according to content. According to the signs. And determine the laws of dependence.

Natural connections.

Reflexive verbs are all intransitive. Law? The law does not have retroactive force. Intransitive verbs are not all reflexive. This is not a law. Rule. The law with retroactive force allows us to highlight common features and combine form and content. If there are exceptions to a law, then those laws are wrong. Exceptions to the law indicate that the analysis and synthesis of the material is carried out on the wrong grounds, or that some features are not taken into account. See verb conjugations. The law has no exceptions, only rules have exceptions.

Rule. Reflexive verbs are all intransitive. The form, postfix, corresponds to the content, intransitivity. Postfix - is an affiliation with the subject of the process. The content of intransitive and transitive verbs is the direction of the object towards the subject of the process and also the direction of the object (the subject itself) towards the subject of the process (otherwise the subject towards the subject of the process). We substitute and we get that belonging to the subject of the process corresponds to the direction of the object to the subject of the process and also to the direction of the object (the subject itself) to the subject of the process (in other words, the subject to the subject of the process).

Rule. Transitive verbs are all irreflexive. Otherwise. Transitive verbs correspond to verbs without a postfix. This is not belonging to the subject and, accordingly, it is directed towards the object. Transitive verbs are associated with the relationship of the subject of the process to the object. They are connected by the questions Who? What? Verbs without the postfix -xia are processes that do not belong to the subject of the process. Fold it up.

Verbs associated with the direction of the subject of the process towards the object and associated with the questions of whom? What? correspond to verbs that express processes that do not belong to the subject of the process. Logical.

There are no transitive or reflexive verbs. Or maybe? We insert definitions. Verbs related to the relationship of the subject of the process to the object, related to the questions of whom? What? correspond to verbs with belonging to the subject of the process.? There is no logic. They don't match.

That's all there is in common. If it were so that reflexive verbs are all intransitive and intransitive verbs are all reflexive. Then it would be possible to establish common features of form and content between verbs. Law. Form and content must belong to one whole.

Verbs are divided into reflexive and non-reflexive, transitive and intransitive.

Non-reflexive and reflexive verbs.

This is the division of verbs by form. By affiliation.

Non-reflexive verbs do not have the postfix -ся, (-сь) (in what follows, for convenience, we will not indicate the postfix -сь, as this requires separate analysis and classification). The process that the process subject does does not belong to the process subject and is not carried out for the process subject.

1. Purpose, belonging - object.

Example: protect, wash, decide, call.

2. No goal, no belonging.

Run, walk, sit, remain silent.

Reflexive verbs have the postfix -sya. The process that the process subject does belongs to the process subject himself and is carried out for the process subject himself.

1 Purpose, belonging - subject.

Example: laugh, wash, make up your mind, take care.

2. No goal, no belonging. Sleeping, afraid, proud.

Reflexive verbs that have correlative pairs with non-reflexive verbs show that the action is associated with the subject itself or there is no action. Semantic emphasis on the subject of the process.

Have questions by whom? how? Or there are a lot of questions. 1. Swimming - many questions where? When? (bathe). Take (take) Have fun (have fun) Meet (meet) 2. (Dishes) beats (beats) (House) is built (build).

Irreflexive verbs that have correlative pairs with reflexive verbs show that the action is associated with the object itself or there is no action. Semantic emphasis on an object or process. Who have questions? What? Or there are no questions.

Bath who? What? (swim), build whom? What? (build up), meet whom? What? (meet).

Correlative verbs have a sign of semantic homogeneity, but different transitive orientation. On subject and object. Non-correlative verbs have a sign of semantic heterogeneity and different directions. Non-correlative reflexive and non-reflexive verbs with the same stem are perceived as forms of one word, but in content they are different words.

General function. The transitivity of non-reflexive verbs depends on the intransitivity of non-reflexive and reflexive verbs. After adding the postfix -sya to transitive verbs, the transitivity of the verb stops until it becomes completely intransitive, resting it on the subject of the process.

The classification of verbs by reflexivity - non-reflexivity also involves taking into account the division of verbs by endings, suffixes, prefixes, prepositions, etc.

There are words associated only with a person and they do not need a postfix for thinking. Eat, sit down, freeze, etc. They are already recurrent in the content of consciousness. They are already subjective in their thinking.

Lifting is a sign of upward direction. To rise - the addition of the postfix -sya indicates belonging to the human body while maintaining direction. There may be an opinion that the postfix is a property of only a person. Basically this is true. But there are words in which the postfix -sya indicates belonging to the subject of the process. It's getting dark. The subject of the process is not only a person.

Intransitive and transitive verbs.

Transitive and intransitive verbs express the division of verbs according to the content of the sentence. By direction.

Transitive verbs have a focus on the object and a sign of the object’s participation in the process.

Transitive verbs can be combined with a noun or pronoun in the accusative case without a preposition. Sign of object participation: questions (who? what?)

Example: write (who? what?) a report; the boy is stroking (who? what?) the cat.

Intransitive verbs have an obligatory focus (or sign of participation) on the subject of the process and a sign of the subject’s participation. A sign of the participation of the subject: questions cannot be posed to intransitive verbs (who? What?). Otherwise. Intransitive verbs cannot be combined with a noun or pronoun in the accusative case without a preposition. Can't you ask questions? What?

Example: quarrel - who? What? fly - who? What?). Or. The cat is being stroked (by whom? with what?) by a boy.

When classifying verbs, it is necessary to take into account the ability of prepositions and prefixes to translate intransitive meanings of a verb into transitive ones.

As soon as a person can completely separate words that are similar in form (for example: finish, finish, finish, finish, finish, finish, finish, finish, etc.), only then will he be able to understand the principles of how human thinking works. If there is a periodic table, then a table of morpheme compounds is needed, in which, with various external changes, the quality will change accordingly. The chemistry of verbal changes is based on characteristics.

Dividing verbs according to characteristics.

Quit. What? Someone, something, somewhere. The subject (singular) acts on the object (singular). Signs of the object - no effect, neutral. The object is removed from the point of the subject of the action. Action. Something, the only thing, once and finished, there is no continuation of the action. Determination of the object and uncertainty of the subject, singularity of the subject, removability (spatiality), disposability, non-repetition, completeness, direction, time limitation - limitation, tone - displeasure, perfection, satisfaction. Emphasis on the object.

Throw. What? Someone, something, somewhere. The subject (singular) acts on objects (plural). Something, the only thing many times. The only thing is the quality of the action and many times. There is a number and there is an action. Determination of the object and uncertainty of the subject, singularity of the subject, removability, uniformity, duration, repetition, incompleteness, direction, temporary limitation - limitation, tone - displeasure, imperfection, dissatisfaction. Emphasis on the object.

Rush up. How? Someone, something, somewhere. The subject (singular) acts on objects (plural). Belonging to the subject. Someone, the only one, many times. Repeatable action.

Lecture, abstract. Classification of verbs - concept and types. Classification, essence and features.

Questions - lemmas.

Divide - imperfect verb, action, plural of actions with a single object, parts of division more than two, transitivity to an object, the object of the process is indifferent, etc. Separate is a by-product of separation.

Divide - perfect verb, ending of an action, singular of an action with a single object, etc.

Derivatives, corresponding “paired” verbs are in a relationship of word-formation motivation, i.e. one verb is formed from another.

For example. In the formation of “paired” verbs of the verb type, 2 oppositely directed formation processes are involved: perfect from imperfect and vice versa. These verbs of the form have a common semantic mutual orientation. It is difficult to separate perfect and imperfect verbs according to the primacy of formation.

The corresponding verbs according to recurrence and irrevocability have the direction of formation: primary and secondary. There are also non-corresponding verbs, both reflexive and non-reflexive.

What are the primary verbs? Non-refundable or refundable. From non-refundable ones, returnable ones are built. And not vice versa. The principle of adding a postfix can be traced. Primary verbs are those on which others are built, and do not arise from them. This is confirmed by the fact that speech arose as a means of communication between people. Irreversible verbs. The active voice of a verb is the most primary of all. The person first communicates. A person begins to feel himself as a person later, which is expressed in changing the external form of the word by adding -sya (himself, himself, etc.) Considering real verbs, we come to the conclusion that their basis (signs) are potentially contained in the noun. The noun is primary in relation to other names. Looking at words and nouns, we find the primary word. MOTHER. The two letters of this word correspond to the primary vibrations - A and M. Yogis confirm this. And they add the third letter U. It is not surprising that AUM is a sacred mantra of vibrations. Tree of language development.

Thinking works according to the laws of signs.

Threatening is a sign of danger from outside, from the subject of the process. A thunderstorm is a natural phenomenon with certain signs that are preserved in thinking. Directed at the subject.

To threaten - the focus changes to the external environment (subject, object). The main sign (of danger) remains.

The primary word immediately appears in the mind - hope! Thinking immediately has the content of this word - signs. The word is associated with signs in the reflexes of the brain.

But the words are different in form. Hope and hope. Only four letters are the same! And there is only one understanding! The order of the four letters is the same and the features are the same. Further. Smile. Without the postfix -sya is not used. But the form is there. Smile. Thinking definitely determines that this word belongs to the word smile! Here, too, the four letters are the same and in the same order. But there is also one common vowel - a. This must be taken into account.

Beat - beat. Three letters are common, but the order is different! One concept? And thinking understands the difference between words. Not in order. Beat - beat. Beats and beats. Order. Sounds are associated with signs. Form and content.

Of course, we must take into account the origin of words. It's time to build the Tower of Babel.

Man is a living being and gives birth to a language that lives and develops in man. Of course, according to the laws of the psyche. Language is subject to constant mutation, otherwise it would be dead. Morphological mutations appear in oral speech. Syntactic in writing. Many are stuck in mutations of written language. The signs for mutations are uniform.

Semantic stress

Stress is the emphasis by some acoustic means on one of the components of speech: verbal, syntagmic, phrasal, logical. Acoustic stress. Sound highlighting.

Strengthened in Russian grammar since the 18th century. The division of words into significant and auxiliary is interesting as a symptom of semantic stress.

When studying verbs, you can also highlight semantic stress (emphasis). Semantic stress is the highlighting of a part of speech by changing the order of sentence construction and the relationships of parts of speech. It does not depend on the subject, but depends on the work of thinking and influences its work. Rearrangement of words in a sentence is perceived by thinking as stress (emphasis). Semantic stress is not always recognized by consciousness, but is always taken into account in thinking. This is an emphasis on thinking, as opposed to an emphasis on feeling. This is the direction of the verb. When training, it is easily recognized. Especially in the active and passive voice.

The semantic stress can be felt. If in our grammatical feeling the relationship to the actor - the subject of the process - outweighs, then this is an intransitive verb; if relations to objects outweigh, then it is a transitive verb. The relationship between passive and active phrases in modern Russian indicates the semantic stress of the sentence. Semantic emphasis is especially important when reading fiction. Semantic stress, influencing thinking, makes it possible to isolate individual main points from the picture of perception. Reading takes on the characteristics of a film. Of course, depending on the talent of the writer.

A boy petting a cat (actual construction). A boy strokes a cat. A boy is stroking a cat. A boy is stroking a cat. A boy is petting a cat. The boy is stroking the cat.

The semantic emphasis in the sentence falls on the word cat. The verb is associated with the word - cat.

Let's look at the process separately. The boy is stroking. Completeness. Petting the cat. Incompleteness, the verb requires the question who? Incomplete, questions arise. Question Who? or What? A cat.

Petting the cat. Definitely a subject of the process. Who? What? An active verb, an active sentence, has six forms. Transitivity.

The cat is being stroked by the boy (passive construction - unstable construction). To be specific, by hand.

A boy is stroking a cat. A boy is stroking a cat.? A boy is stroking a cat. A boy is stroking a cat. The cat is being stroked by a boy.

The semantic emphasis on the word is boy. The verb is related to the word boy. With the subject of the process. Unstable sentences, if used, are used for semantic emphasis in a sentence when writing, and not in speech.

The boy is ironing. The incompleteness of the verb requires the question who? What? The cat is being petted. Completeness.

The cat is being stroked. The question is - by whom? how? As a boy. The semantic emphasis on the word is boy. There is no subject of the process.

Does a passive verb have six sentence forms? Intransitivity.

The verb participates in highlighting the stressed part of speech.

There is a primacy of the part of speech in relation to which the sequence of analysis of the sentence in thinking occurs. Acoustic stress also changes the sequence of analysis in thinking. Primacy is associated with changes in parts of speech (verbs) and changes in words (endings).

The subject is not always a stressed word compared to the object. Stresses are related to questions and constitute important connections in the development of voices.

Of course, semantic stress needs to be learned. Then you can distinguish verbs by stress. And not only.

The word think contains two directional uncertainties that we are not consciously aware of. They participate in thinking processes. The perception of a machine is connected to a verb - a process in thinking.

I'm thinking about (buying) a car. Something. Something about a car. One uncertainty. What is what. Not about anything. My thought is the question - what? Lemma. About what - there is an answer: about the car. There are no offers without a car. The primary question is - what? I guess, that? And not about something else and other questions.

What is proof?

To prove something to someone. Prove the theorem. One uncertainty. Theorem - to someone. Prove the theorem to the teacher. The word - prove, contains a dulemma - what? to whom? The primacy of the issue plays a role in understanding the process.

Bathe. Whom? Someone, someone (something) in something. Imperfect form of the verb. External focus of actions. On someone. Contains questions - multilemma - trilemma. Three uncertainties. The primary question is - who? Lemma.

No lemmas.

Be afraid, be proud, be lazy, hope, like, laugh, doubt

There are non-reflexive verbs that do not have reflexive ones - they are not derivatives.

Know. What? Someone, something, about something.

Eat. What? Someone, something, something.