Stylistically unjustified use of jargon. Stylistically unjustified use of synonyms and antonyms

The vocabulary of the Russian national language includes national vocabulary, the use of which is not limited by either the place of residence or the type of activity of people, and vocabulary of limited use, which is widespread within one area or among people united by profession, common interests, etc.

Popular vocabulary forms the basis of the Russian language. It includes words from different areas of society: political, economic, cultural, everyday, etc. Common words, unlike vocabulary of limited use, are understandable and accessible to any native speaker.

1.8.1. Dialectal vocabulary. Penetration of dialect vocabulary into literary language

Throughout the history of the Russian literary language, its vocabulary has been replenished with dialectisms. Among the words that go back to dialectisms, there are stylistically neutral ones (taiga, hill, eagle owl, strawberry, smile, plow, very) and words with expressive connotations (boring, clumsy, mumble, take a nap, nonsense, hassle). Many words of dialect origin are associated with the life and way of life of the peasantry (farm laborer, harrow, spindle, dugout). After 1917, the words grain grower, plowing, greenery, steam, mow, milkmaid, initiative, new settler entered the literary language.

The Russian literary language is also enriched with ethnographic vocabulary. In the 50-60s, the Siberian ethnographic words pad, raspadok, suga, etc. were mastered. In this regard, modern lexicography expresses the opinion that it is necessary to revise the system of stylistic markings that limit the use of words by indicating their dialectal nature.

And yet, for the development of a modern literary language, dialect influence is not significant. On the contrary, despite isolated cases of borrowing dialect words into a literary language, it subjugates dialects, which leads to their leveling and gradual extinction.

1.8.2. Dialectisms in artistic speech

In artistic speech, dialectisms perform important stylistic functions: they help convey local flavor, the peculiarities of the characters’ speech, and finally, dialect vocabulary can be a source of speech expression.

The use of dialectisms in Russian fiction has its own history. Poetics of the 18th century. allowed dialect vocabulary only in low genres, mainly in comedy; dialectisms were a distinctive feature of the characters’ non-literary, predominantly peasant speech. At the same time, dialect features of various dialects were often mixed in the speech of one character.

Sentimentalist writers, prejudiced against coarse, “peasant” language, protected their style from dialect vocabulary.

Interest in dialectisms was caused by the desire of realist writers to truthfully reflect the life of the people, to convey the “common” flavor. Dialect sources were consulted by I.A. Krylov, A.S. Pushkin, N.V. Gogol, N.A. Nekrasov, I.S. Turgenev, L.N. Tolstoy and others. In Turgenev, for example, words from the Oryol and Tula dialects are often found (bolshak, gutorit, poneva, potion, volna, lekarka, buchilo, etc.). Writers of the 19th century used dialectisms that corresponded to their aesthetic attitudes. This does not mean that only some poeticized dialect words were allowed into the literary language. Stylistically, the use of reduced dialect vocabulary could have been justified. For example: As luck would have it, the peasants met all worn out (T.) - here dialectism with a negative emotional-expressive connotation in the context is combined with other reduced vocabulary (the willows stood like beggars in rags; the peasants rode on bad nags).

Modern writers also use dialectisms when describing rural life, landscapes, and when conveying the characters’ speech pattern. Skillfully introduced dialect words are a grateful means of speech expression.

It is necessary to distinguish, on the one hand, from the “quotational” use of dialectisms, when they are present in the context as a different style element, and, on the other hand, their use on equal terms with the vocabulary of the literary language, with which dialectisms should stylistically merge.

When using dialecticisms in quotation terms, it is important to maintain a sense of proportion and remember that the language of the work must be understandable to the reader. For example: All evenings, and even nights, the [guys] of the ugonchiks sit, speaking in the local language, and bake opalihi, that is, potatoes (Abr.) - this use of dialectisms is stylistically justified. When assessing the aesthetic meaning of dialect vocabulary, one should proceed from its internal motivation and organic nature in the context. The mere presence of dialectisms cannot yet indicate a realistic reflection of local color. As rightly emphasized by A.M. Gorky, “everyday life needs to be laid in the foundation, and not stuck on the façade. Local flavor is not in the use of words: taiga, zaimka, shanga - it should stick out from the inside.”

A more complex problem is the use of dialectisms along with literary vocabulary as stylistically unambiguous speech means. In this case, a passion for dialectisms can lead to clogging of the language of the work. For example: Everything is amazing, bewitching; Belozor swam far away; Slope with screws up- such an introduction of dialectisms obscures the meaning.

When determining the aesthetic value of dialectisms in artistic speech, one should take into account what words the author chooses. Based on the requirement of accessibility and understandability of the text, the use of dialectisms that do not require additional explanation and are understandable in context is usually noted as proof of the writer’s skill. Therefore, writers often conditionally reflect the features of the local dialect, using several characteristic dialect words. As a result of this approach, dialectisms that have become widespread in fiction often become “all-Russian”, having lost connection with a specific folk dialect. The appeal of writers to the dialecticisms of this circle is no longer perceived by the modern reader as an expression of the author’s individual manner; it becomes a kind of literary cliche.

Writers should go beyond “interdialectal” vocabulary and strive for non-standard use of dialectisms. An example of a creative solution to this problem can be the prose of V.M. Shukshina. There are no incomprehensible dialect words in his works, but the speech of the heroes is always original and folk. For example, vivid expression distinguishes dialectisms in the story “How the Old Man Died”:

Yegor stood on the stove and put his hands under the old man.

Hold on to my neck... That's it! How light it has become!..

I threw up... (...)

I'll come by in the evening and check on you. (...)

“Don’t eat, that’s why you’re weak,” the old woman remarked. - Maybe we’ll chop the trigger and make some broth? It's delicious when it's fresh... Eh? (...)

No need. And we won’t eat, but we’ll decide to eat. (...)

At least don’t fidget now!.. He’s standing there with one foot, and he’s making some noise. (...) Are you really dying, or what? Maybe he's gotten better.(...)

Agnusha,” he said with difficulty, “forgive me... I was a little alarmed...

The processes of increasing spread of the literary language and the extinction of dialects, characteristic of our historical era, are manifested in the reduction of lexical dialectisms in artistic speech.

1.8.3. Stylistically unjustified use of dialectisms

Dialectisms as an expressive means of speech can be used only in those styles in which going beyond the normative boundaries of the vocabulary of a literary language into folk dialects is stylistically justified. In scientific and official business styles, dialectisms are not used.

The introduction of dialect vocabulary into works of journalistic style is possible, but requires great caution. In journalism, the use of dialecticisms along with literary vocabulary is undesirable; dialecticisms are especially unacceptable in the author’s narration. For example: Then Shirokikh saw Lushnikov, and they returned to the gathering place, built a fire and began to shout to their comrades; The icebreaker was moving quickly, but Stepan hoped to slip through to the right bank before the path on the river was destroyed - by replacing dialecticisms with commonly used words, the sentences can be corrected as follows: ... to steel your comrades; The icebreaker was moving quickly, but Stepan hoped to slip through to the right bank while the ice on the river was still intact (until the ice began to move).

It is completely unacceptable to use dialect words whose meaning is not entirely clear to the author. Thus, narrating the anniversary voyage of the steam locomotive, the journalist writes: Everything was the same as 125 years ago, when the same little engine passed along the first route... However, he did not take into account that the word pervoputok means “the first winter route on fresh snow.”

It should be borne in mind that the use of dialectisms is not justified even as a characterological means if the author cites the words of the characters spoken in an official setting. For example: ...It is necessary to inspect the animal in a timely manner and notify the veterinary service; The chefs bring food, the bridges are washed, the laundry is taken to the laundry. And sometimes they’ll just come in to have fun (the speech of the characters in the essays). In such cases, dialectisms create an unacceptable diversity of speech means, because in conversations with journalists, rural residents try to speak in a literary language. The authors of the essays could write: ...We must take care of the animal in a timely manner; ...the floors will be washed; sometimes they'll just come in for dinner.

1.8.4. Professional vocabulary

Professional vocabulary includes words and expressions used in various fields of human activity, which, however, have not become commonly used. Professionalisms serve to designate various production processes, production tools, raw materials, resulting products, etc. Unlike terms that are official scientific names of special concepts, professionalisms are perceived as “semi-official” words that do not have a strictly scientific character. For example, in the oral speech of printers there are professionalisms: ending - “a graphic decoration at the end of a book”, tendril - “an ending with a thickening in the middle”, tail - “the lower outer margin of the page, as well as the lower edge of the book, opposite the head of the book.”

As part of professional vocabulary, groups of words can be distinguished, different in their sphere of use: professionalisms used in the speech of athletes, miners, hunters, fishermen. Words that represent highly specialized names used in the field of technology are called technicalisms.

Particularly highlighted are professional slang words that have a reduced expressive connotation. For example, engineers use the word snitch to mean “self-recording device”; in the speech of pilots there are words nedomaz and peremaz (undershooting and overshooting the landing mark), bubble, sausage - “balloon”; for journalists - snowdrop - “a person working as a correspondent for a newspaper, but enrolled in a different specialty”; what to call? - “how to title (article, essay)?”; add italics (in italics).

In reference books and special dictionaries, professionalisms are often enclosed in quotation marks so that they can be distinguished from terms (“clogged” font - “a font that has been in typed galleys or strips for a long time”; “foreign” font - “letters of a font of a different style or size, mistakenly included in the typed text or heading").

1.8.5. Using professional vocabulary in literary language

Under certain conditions, professionalisms find application in literary language. Thus, with insufficiently developed terminology, professionalisms often play the role of terms. In this case, they are found not only in oral, but also in written speech. When using professionalisms in a scientific style, authors often explain them in the text (So-called light hay enjoys a well-deserved bad reputation as low-nutrient food, with significant consumption of which cases of brittle bones in animals have been observed).

Professionalism is not uncommon in the language of large-circulation, trade newspapers (Putting down the cars after the dissolution of the train and diverting shunting means for this, ...disbanding the train with the pushing of another). The advantage of professionalisms over their commonly used equivalents is that professionalisms serve to distinguish between related concepts, objects that for a non-specialist have one common name. Thanks to this, special vocabulary for people of the same profession is a means of precise and concise expression of thoughts. However, the informative value of narrowly professional names is lost if a non-specialist encounters them. Therefore, the use of professionalisms in newspapers requires caution.

Professionalisms of a reduced stylistic sound, which are very common in colloquial speech, also penetrate into the language of the newspaper. For example, essayists refer to such expressive professionalisms as “shuttles”, shuttle business, turn on the meter (increase the loan percentage), etc. However, excessive use of professionalism interferes with the perception of the text and becomes a serious flaw in style. Professional slang vocabulary is not used in book styles. In fiction it can be used along with other vernacular elements as a characterological device.

1.8.6. Stylistically unjustified use of professionalisms

The inclusion of professionalisms in the text is often undesirable. Thus, the use of highly specialized professionalism cannot be justified in a newspaper article. For example: At a mine, the leveling of horizons and the slopes of roads are carried out very untimely - only a specialist can explain what he meant

In book styles, professional vocabulary should not be used because of its colloquial tone. For example: It is necessary to ensure that the filling of furnaces does not exceed two hours, and the smelting was sitting in the furnace no longer than six hours and 30 minutes (better: It is necessary to ensure that loading of the furnaces lasts no more than two hours, and melting - six and a half).

It is also unacceptable to use jargon-professional words in book styles, which are used in oral speech as informal versions of scientific terms and usually have a reduced expressive connotation. Such professionalisms are sometimes mistakenly mistaken for scientific terms and included in works of a scientific style (they write: doser instead of dispenser, high-frequency instead of high-frequency loudspeaker, reciprocity instead of reciprocity method, organics instead of organic fertilizers). The introduction of professional slang words into written speech reduces style and often becomes the cause of inappropriate comedy [Sandblasting makes it possible to thoroughly paint cars (better: Using a sandblaster, the surface of a car is well cleaned, which ensures high quality of its painting)]. In the 90s, the Russian literary language was actively replenished with colloquial vocabulary, and therefore professional and professional slang words appeared on the pages of newspapers and magazines. Many professionalisms have become widely known, although until recently lexicologists did not include them in explanatory dictionaries. For example, the name black box, meaning “protected on-board flight information storage device,” has ceased to be a narrowly professional name. When describing plane crashes, journalists freely use this professionalism, and comments on it appear only if the author of the article wants to depict the picture of the tragedy clearly:

Among the wreckage of the colliding aircraft scattered over a radius of ten kilometers, the emergency commission found two “black boxes” from the Il-76T and one similar device from the Saudi Boeing.

These devices, enclosed in the strongest orange metal cases, can withstand 1000-degree temperatures and a hundredfold overload upon impact without damage.

1.8.7. Slang vocabulary

Jargon vocabulary, unlike professional vocabulary, denotes concepts that already have names in the common language. Jargon is a type of colloquial speech used by a certain circle of native speakers, united by common interests, occupations, and position in society. In modern Russian, youth jargon, or slang, is distinguished (from the English slang - words and expressions used by people of certain professions or age groups). Many words and expressions have come from slang into colloquial speech: cheat sheet, cram, tail (academic debt), swim (do poorly on an exam), fishing rod (satisfactory grade), etc. The emergence of many jargons is associated with the desire of young people to express their attitude to a subject or phenomenon more clearly and emotionally. Hence such evaluative words: amazing, awesome, cool, laugh, go crazy, get high, donkey, plow, sunbathe, etc. All of them are common only in oral speech and are often absent from dictionaries.

However, slang contains many words and expressions that are understandable only to the initiated. Let us take as an example a humoresque from the newspaper “University Life” (09.12.1991).

Notes of one cool student at one killer lecture.

Hammurabi was a strong politician. He literally rolled a barrel at the surrounding kents. At first he ran into Larsa, but actually broke off. Fighting with Larsa was no show to the sparrows, especially since their Rim-Sin was such a sophisticated cabinet that he had no problem gluing Hammurabi’s beard on. However, it was not so easy to take him for a show-off, Larsa became purely violet to him, and he turned the arrows on Marie. He managed to throw noodles into the ears of Zimrilim, who was also a tough man, but in this case he clicked his beak. Having become coryphal, they ran into Eshnuna, Uruk and Issin, who bounced their tails for a long time, but flew by like a flock of rasps.

For the uninitiated, such a set of slang words turns out to be an insurmountable obstacle to understanding the text, so let’s translate this passage into literary language.

Hammurabi was a skilled politician. He pursued an expansionist policy. At first, the ruler of Babylon tried to capture Larsa, but he failed. It turned out to be not so easy to fight Larsa, especially since their ruler Rim-Sin was such a resourceful diplomat that he easily forced Hammurabi to abandon his intention. But Hammurabi continued his campaigns of conquest in order to expand the territory of his state. And, abandoning attempts to conquer Larsa for a while, he changed his political course, and the Babylonian army rushed north. He managed to conclude an alliance with the ruler of Mari Zimrilim, who was also a good politician, but in this case he yielded to the military power of Hammurabi. The combined forces conquered Eshnunu, Uruk and Issin, who stubbornly defended themselves, but were eventually defeated.

When comparing these very different “editions,” one cannot deny the first, full of jargon, its liveliness and imagery. However, the inappropriateness of using slang in a history lecture is obvious.

The expressiveness of slang vocabulary contributes to the fact that words from slangs move into national colloquial and everyday speech, not bound by strict literary norms. Most words that have become widespread outside of jargons can be considered jargons only from a genetic point of view, and at the time of their consideration they already belong to the vernacular. This explains the inconsistency of labels for jargon in explanatory dictionaries. So, in the “Dictionary of the Russian Language” S.I. Ozhegov fall asleep in the meaning of “to fail” (colloquial), in the meaning of “to get caught, to be caught in something” (simple), and in the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language”, ed. D.N. Ushakova, it has marks (colloquially, from the thieves' argot). Ozhegov has crammed (colloquial), and Ushakov has given a label for this word (school slang). Many jargons in the newest dictionaries are given with a stylistic mark (simple) [for example, in Ozhegov: ancestors - “parents” (simple, joke); tail - “the remainder, the unfulfilled part of something, for example exams” (simple); newbie - “newcomer, recruit, junior in relation to elders” (simple), etc.].

Slang vocabulary is inferior to literary vocabulary in accuracy, which determines its inferiority as a means of communication. The meaning of jargon tends to vary depending on the context. For example, the verb kemarit can mean to doze, sleep, rest; verb to run over - threaten, extort, pursue, take revenge; the adjective cool means good, attractive, interesting, reliable, etc.; This is the same meaning of the word lethal and a number of others. All this convinces us of the inappropriateness of replacing the rich, vibrant Russian language with slang.

A special socially limited group of words in the modern Russian language is camp jargon, which is used by people placed in special living conditions. He reflected the terrible life in places of detention: zek (prisoner), veneer or shmon (search), gruel (stew), tower (execution), informer (informer), knock (inform) and so on. Such jargon finds application in realistic descriptions of camp life by former “prisoners of conscience” who were given the opportunity to openly recall repressions. Let us quote one of the most talented Russian writers who did not have time to realize their creative potential for well-known reasons:

If you are called on duty, it means expect trouble. Either a punishment cell follows, or some other dirty trick...

True, this time they didn’t put me in a punishment cell or even “deprive me of a stall.” “Deprive with a stall” or “deprive with a date” are bossy formulas that arose as a result of a tendency to laconicism, this is 50% of the economy of expression. “Deprive the right to use a kiosk” or “...date.” The bosses, completely tormented by the desire for the ideal, had to resort quite often to the saving tongue twister, and they naturally tried to save seconds. So, something unusual awaited me. Upon entering, I saw several guards and at their head - “Regime”. We, too, were inclined to brevity, though for other reasons: when danger was approaching, it was easier and more profitable to whisper: “Regime!” than to say: “Deputy head of the camp for the regime.”

Besides the “Regime”, the guards and me, there was someone else in the room, and I immediately stared at him.

(Julius Daniel)

From this passage one can get an idea of the very “mechanism” of the appearance of these strange jargons. I would like to hope that there will be no extralinguistic conditions for their consolidation in the Russian language and that they will quickly become part of the passive vocabulary.

This cannot be said about the language of the underworld (thieves, tramps, bandits). This slang variety of language is defined by the term argo (French argot - closed, inactive). Argo is a secret, artificial language of criminals (thieves' music), known only to initiates and also existing only in oral form. Certain argotisms are becoming widespread outside the argot: blatnoy, mokrushnik, pero (knife), raspberry (stash), split, nixer, fraer, etc., but at the same time they practically pass into the category of colloquial vocabulary and are given in dictionaries with the corresponding stylistic markings: “colloquial”, “coarsely colloquial”.

1.8.8. The use of slang vocabulary in literary language

The emergence and spread of jargon in speech is assessed as a negative phenomenon in the life of society and the development of the national language. However, the introduction of jargon into literary language in exceptional cases acceptable: this vocabulary may be needed by writers to create speech characteristics of characters or by journalists describing life in the colonies. To emphasize that jargon in such cases is quoted, the author usually encloses it in quotation marks. For example: “Pakhany”, “hillocks” and others (title of a newspaper article); ...People are “released” by the verdict of thieves for various sins: snitching, non-payment of a gambling debt, disobedience to “authority”, for having “turned in” accomplices during the investigation, for having relatives in law enforcement agencies... (Trud. 1991. 27 Nov)

Many famous writers were wary of jargon. Thus, I. Ilf and E. Petrov, when reprinting the novel “The Twelve Chairs,” abandoned some jargon. The desire of writers to protect the literary language from the influence of jargon is dictated by the need for an irreconcilable fight against them: it is unacceptable for jargon to be popularized through fiction.

In journalistic texts it is possible to refer to argotisms in materials on a certain topic. For example, in the “Crime Stories” section:

The “cream” of the criminal world are “thieves in law”... Below are ordinary thieves, who in the colony are called “denial” or “wool”. The life credo of the “denialist” is to resist the demands of the administration and, on the contrary, to do everything that the authorities prohibit... And at the base of the colony pyramid are the bulk of the convicts: “men”, “hard workers”. These are those who sincerely embarked on the path of correction.

In rare cases, jargon may be used in newspaper materials that have a sharp satirical focus.

1.8.9. Stylistically unjustified use of jargon

The use of jargon in non-satirical contexts, dictated by the authors’ desire to enliven the narrative, is regarded as a stylistic flaw. So, the author got carried away with the play on words, calling his note like this: The artist Dali was completely stupefied (the note describes the artist’s unusual sculpture - in the form of a lamp, which gave the correspondent grounds for a pun: a lantern - stunned). For a reader who does not know the jargon, such words become a mystery, but the language of a newspaper should be accessible to everyone.

The infatuation with the jargon of journalists who write about crimes, murders and robberies in a humorous tone is also reprehensible. The use of argot and slang words in such cases gives the speech an inappropriate, cheerful tone. The tragic events are narrated as a fascinating incident. For modern correspondents of Moskovsky Komsomolets, this style has become familiar. Let's give just one example.

On Tverskaya Street last Thursday, police picked up two girls who were trying to “push” a VCR to passers-by for a fortune. It turned out that the girls cleaned it out the night before apartment on Osenny Boulevard. (...) The ringleader was a 19-year-old homeless woman...

The downward trend in the style of newspaper articles is clearly demonstrated by many newspapers. This leads to the use of jargon and argotism even in serious materials, and for short notes and reports, a style “colored” with reduced vocabulary has become common. For example:

And I won’t give you the corridor

The Kremlin has a new idea: to give fraternal Belarus access to the sea through Kaliningrad. “We are going to come to an agreement with the Poles and get their consent to build a section of the highway through their territory,” the President of Russia said just now.

However, this “sign of the times” does not meet with sympathy among stylists, who do not approve of the mixing of styles, which creates inappropriate comedy in such publications.

On Tverskaya Street last Thursday, police picked up two girls who were trying to “push” a VCR to passers-by for some gold. It turned out that the girls had cleaned out the apartment on Osenny Boulevard the night before. (...) The ringleader was a 19-year-old homeless woman...

And I won’t give you the corridor

However, this “sign of the times” does not meet with sympathy among stylists, who do not approve of the mixing of styles, which creates inappropriate comedy in such publications.

Outdated words

The process of archaization of vocabulary

Vocabulary that is no longer actively used in speech is not immediately forgotten. For some time, outdated words are still understandable to speakers, familiar to them from fiction, although when people communicate, there is no longer a need for them. Such words become part of the passive vocabulary; they are listed in explanatory dictionaries with the mark (obsolete). They can be used by writers depicting past eras, or by historians when describing historical facts, but over time, archaisms completely disappear from the language. This was the case, for example, with the Old Russian words komon - “horse”, usnie - “skin” (hence the hangnail), cherevye - “a type of shoe”. Individual obsolete words sometimes return to the vocabulary of the active vocabulary. For example, the words soldier, officer, ensign, gymnasium, lyceum, bill, exchange, department, which were not used for some time, are now again actively used in speech.

The special emotional and expressive coloring of obsolete words leaves an imprint on their semantics. “To say that, for example, the verbs rake and march (...) have such and such meanings without defining their stylistic role,” wrote D.N. Shmelev, “this means, in essence, to abandon precisely their semantic definition, replacing it with an approximate formula of subject-conceptual comparisons.” This places obsolete words in a special stylistic framework and requires a lot of attention to them.

Composition of obsolete words

The archaic vocabulary includes historicisms and archaisms. Historicisms include words that are the names of disappeared objects, phenomena, concepts (chain mail, hussars, food tax, NEP, October child (a child of primary school age preparing to join the pioneers), NKVD officer (employee of the NKVD - People's Commissariat of Internal Affairs), commissar, etc. .P.). Historicisms can be associated both with very distant eras and with events of relatively recent times, which, however, have already become facts of history (Soviet power, party activists, general secretary, Politburo). Historicisms do not have synonyms among the words of the active vocabulary, being the only names of the corresponding concepts.

Archaisms are names of existing things and phenomena, for some reason supplanted by other words belonging to the active vocabulary (cf.: every day - always, comedian - actor, zlato - gold, know - know).

Obsolete words are heterogeneous in origin: among them there are original Russian (full, shelom), Old Slavonic (glad, kiss, shrine), borrowed from other languages (abshid - “retirement”, voyage - “travel”).

Of particular interest stylistically are words of Old Church Slavonic origin, or Slavicisms. A significant part of Slavicisms were assimilated on Russian soil and stylistically merged with neutral Russian vocabulary (sweet, captivity, hello), but there are also Old Church Slavonic words that in modern language are perceived as an echo of high style and retain their characteristic solemn, rhetorical coloring.

The history of poetic vocabulary associated with ancient symbolism and imagery (the so-called poetisms) is similar to the fate of Slavicisms in Russian literature. Names of gods and heroes of Greek and Roman mythology, special poetic symbols (lyre, ellisium, Parnassus, laurels, myrtles), artistic images of ancient literature in the first third of the 19th century. formed an integral part of the poetic vocabulary. Poetic vocabulary, like Slavicisms, strengthened the opposition between sublime, romantically colored speech and everyday, prosaic speech. However, these traditional means of poetic vocabulary were not used for long in fiction. Already among the successors of A.S. Pushkin's poetisms are archaized.

Stylistic functions of obsolete words in artistic speech

Writers often turn to outdated words as an expressive means of artistic speech. The history of the use of Old Church Slavonic vocabulary in Russian fiction, especially in poetry, is interesting. Stylistic Slavicisms made up a significant part of the poetic vocabulary in the works of writers of the first third of the 19th century. Poets found in this vocabulary the source of the sublimely romantic and “sweet” sound of speech. Slavicisms, which have consonant variants in the Russian language, primarily non-vocal ones, were shorter than Russian words by one syllable and were used in the 18th-19th centuries. on the basis of “poetic license”: poets could choose from two words the one that corresponded to the rhythmic structure of speech (I will sigh, and my languid voice, like a harp’s voice, will die quietly in the air. - Bat.). Over time, the tradition of “poetic license” is overcome, but outdated vocabulary attracts poets and writers as a powerful means of expression.

Obsolete words perform various stylistic functions in artistic speech. Archaisms and historicisms are used to recreate the flavor of distant times. They were used in this function, for example, by A.N. Tolstoy:

“The land of Ottich and Dedich are those banks of deep rivers and forest glades where our ancestor came to live forever. (...) he fenced off his dwelling with a fence and looked along the path of the sun into the distance of centuries.

And he imagined many things - difficult and difficult times: the red shields of Igor in the Polovtsian steppes, and the groans of the Russians on Kalka, and the peasant spears mounted under the banners of Dmitry on the Kulikovo field, and the blood-drenched ice of Lake Peipus, and the Terrible Tsar, who pushed apart the united, henceforth indestructible , the limits of the earth from Siberia to the Varangian Sea...".

Archaisms, especially Slavicisms, give speech a sublime, solemn sound. Old Church Slavonic vocabulary performed this function even in ancient Russian literature. In poetic speech of the 19th century. Old Russianisms, which also began to be used to create the pathos of artistic speech, became stylistically equal to the high Old Slavonic vocabulary. The high, solemn sound of outdated words is also appreciated by writers of the 20th century. During the Great Patriotic War, I.G. Ehrenburg wrote: “By repelling the blows of predatory Germany, it (the Red Army) saved not only the freedom of our Motherland, it saved the freedom of the world. This is the guarantee of the triumph of the ideas of brotherhood and humanity, and I see in the distance a world enlightened by grief, in which goodness will shine. Our people showed their military virtues..."

Outdated vocabulary can take on an ironic connotation. For example: Which parent does not dream of an understanding, balanced child who grasps everything literally on the fly. But attempts to turn your child into a “miracle” tragically often end in failure (from the gas). The ironic rethinking of outdated words is often facilitated by the parodic use of elements of high style. In a parody-ironic function, outdated words often appear in feuilletons, pamphlets, and humorous notes. Let us cite an example from a newspaper publication during the preparation for the day the president took office (August 1996):

The new head of the working group preparing the celebration, Anatoly Chubais, set to work with enthusiasm. He believes that the script of the ceremony should be developed “for centuries”, and therefore there is no place in it for “temporary”, mortal delights. The latter included an ode already written for the holiday, which could conditionally be called “On the day of President Yeltsin’s accession to the Kremlin.” The work suffered a bitter fate: Chubais did not approve it, and on August 9 we will not sing:

Our proud state is great and majestic.

The whole country is full of strength, she made the choice!

("Inauguration is not a game")

There is an opinion that outdated vocabulary is common in official business style. Indeed, in business papers certain words and figures of speech are used, which in other conditions we have the right to consider as archaisms [for example, the legal terms act, capable, deed, punishment, retribution in dictionaries are accompanied by the mark (arch.)]. In some documents they write: this year, attached to this, the undersigned, the above, etc. These special official business words do not have an expressive connotation within “their” functional style. Such outdated vocabulary in an official business style does not carry any stylistic load.

Analysis of the stylistic functions of archaisms in a particular work requires knowledge of general linguistic norms in force in the era being described. For example, in the works of writers of the 19th century. There are words that were archaized at a later time. So, in the tragedy of A.S. Pushkin’s “Boris Godunov”, along with archaisms and historicisms, there are words that became part of the passive vocabulary only in Soviet times (tsar, reign, etc.); Naturally, they should not be classified as outdated vocabulary that carries a certain stylistic load in the work.

Errors caused by the use of outdated words

The use of outdated words without taking into account their expressive coloring becomes the cause of gross stylistic errors. For example: Sponsors were greeted with joy at the boarding school; The laboratory assistant came to the boss and told him about what had happened. The young entrepreneur quickly saw the efficiency of his manager - in these proposals the Slavicisms are archaic. The word welcome is not even included in S.I.’s “Dictionary of the Russian Language.” Ozhegov, in “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language,” ed. D.N. Ushakov it is given with the mark (obsolete, poetic); the word to tell Ozhegov marked (obsolete), and Ushakov - (obsolete, rhetorician); see has a mark (old). A context in which there is no attitude towards a humorous coloring of speech does not allow the use of outdated words; they should be replaced with synonyms (greeted, told, saw [noticed]).

Sometimes authors, using an outdated word, distort its meaning. For example: As a result of a stormy meeting of household members, house renovation was started - the word household, which has the mark (obsolete) in Ozhegov’s dictionary, is explained as “people who live in a family as its members,” and in the text it is used in the meaning of “tenants” . Another example from a newspaper article: At the meeting, even the most unpleasant shortcomings in work were revealed. The word impartial means “impartial”, moreover, it has limited lexical compatibility possibilities (only criticism can be impartial). The incorrect use of archaisms is very often complicated by a violation of lexical compatibility: Andreev was certified as a person who had worked on this path for a very long time (the path is chosen, the path is followed, but they do not work on it).

Sometimes the meaning of an outdated grammatical form of a word is distorted. For example: He refuses to testify, but this is not the point. The essence is the third person plural form of the verb to be, and the subject is singular, the connective must be consistent with it.

Outdated words can give the text a clerical feel. (Similar buildings that are not needed at one construction site are needed at another; Classes must be conducted in the proper premises). In business papers, where many archaisms have become established as terms, the use of such special vocabulary should be appropriate. It is impossible, for example, to consider it stylistically justified to resort to outdated figures of speech at your discretion, I add herewith, the above-mentioned violator, upon receipt of them, etc.

Stylists note that recently obsolete words that are outside the boundaries of the literary language have become widespread; and often they are given a new meaning. For example, the word is incorrectly used in vain, which has the mark (obsolete) in Ozhegov’s dictionary and is explained by synonyms fruitlessly, in vain [Intentions to find a reasonable compromise remained in vain; The issues of creating crop rotations and using a complex of fertilizers remain in vain (better: A reasonable compromise could not be found; ... Crop rotation has not been introduced and a complex of fertilizers is not used)]:

With frequent repetition, outdated words sometimes lose the archaic connotation that previously distinguished them. This can be observed in the example of the word now. In Ozhegov, this adverb is given with the stylistic marks (obsolete) and (high) [cf.: ... now there, along the renovated banks, slender communities are crowded with palaces and towers... (P.)]. Modern authors often use this word as stylistically neutral. For example: Many MIMO graduates have now become diplomats; Nowadays there are not many students at the faculty who would be content with a scholarship - in the first sentence the word now should have been omitted, and in the second it should have been replaced with the synonym now. Thus, neglecting the stylistic coloring of outdated words inevitably leads to speech errors.

New words

Replenishing vocabulary with new words

Each era enriches the language with new words. During periods of greatest activity in the socio-political and cultural life of a nation, the influx of new words especially increases. Our country has created extremely favorable conditions for enriching vocabulary. The turbulent events of the last decade - the collapse of the totalitarian state, the rejection of the command-administrative system, the collapse of the socio-economic and spiritual foundations of public life that had developed over 70 years - have made fundamental changes in all spheres of people's activities.

The emergence of new concepts also led to an influx of new words into the Russian language. They have replenished a variety of thematic groups of vocabulary, from the names of states (Russian Federation, Republic of Sakha, Tuva, CIS), government institutions (Duma, department, municipality, mayor's office, Federal Employment Service of Russia), officials (manager, prefect, sub-prefect), educational institutions (lyceum, gymnasium), representatives of public organizations, movements (Trudorossy, Demorossy), etc. to the names of new commercial enterprises (LLP [limited liability partnership], JSC [joint stock company]) and the realities that have become signs of economic restructuring (voucher, privatization, shares, dividends). Many of these words were present in the Russian language as foreign names for concepts from the life of other states (mayor, prefecture), or as historicisms assigned to the era of pre-revolutionary Russia (department, lyceum, gymnasium). Now this vocabulary is perceived as new and is becoming very common.

The fate of new words in the language develops differently: some quickly gain recognition, others pass the test of time and are consolidated, but not immediately, and sometimes are not recognized at all and are forgotten. Words that are widely used become part of the active vocabulary. So, in different periods of the 20th century. The words university, educational program, salary, cosmonaut, lunar rover, chewing gum, shuttle business, federals, etc. entered the Russian language. At the end of the 90s, they no longer seem new to us.

In contrast, words not fully mastered by the language retain a connotation of unusualness. Thus, the word foresight, which appeared in the 1930s, has now given way to its synonym - television; in the first name of transmitting an image over a distance, the connotation of novelty and freshness has not yet been erased, since it has not become part of the active vocabulary. Neologisms that appear in a language as names of new objects can remain part of passive vocabulary for a long time if the corresponding concepts do not receive universal recognition. We cannot foresee the fate of such neologisms as pulsar (an electronic ignition device used by motorists), biofidoc (kefir enriched with biofidobacteria that protect against intestinal infections), euro (European currency). But time will pass, and they will declare themselves or be forgotten.

Of stylistic interest are new words that we have not yet gotten used to, that are not yet in dictionaries. Almost all new words remain in this capacity for some time. But over time, some of them lose the stylistic connotation of novelty, others even become archaic (compare the historicisms: Commissars, Stakhanovite, Red Army). Of the latest innovations, this fate is reserved for the notorious vouchers, the financial company MMM, the State Emergency Committee, etc.

Types of neologisms

Neologisms are words that retain a connotation of freshness and novelty. The term “neologism” narrows and specifies the concept of “new word”: when identifying new words, only the time of their appearance in the language is taken into account, while classifying words as neologisms emphasizes their special stylistic properties associated with the perception of these words as unusual names. Taking this into account, compilers of explanatory dictionaries usually refuse stylistic marks indicating new words.

Neologisms appear and function differently in the language, which makes it possible to distinguish several groups within them. The classification of neologisms is based on various criteria for their evaluation. Depending on the methods of formation, lexical neologisms are distinguished, which are created according to productive models or borrowed from other languages (signatory - an official person signing a document; post-communist, anti-perestroika, denationalization, party nomenklatura, special forces, armored personnel carrier, riot police, demoross, federal, videobar), and semantic, which arise as a result of assigning new meanings to already known words (shuttle - a small trader of imported goods, bringing them from abroad, hang out - communicate in a friendly atmosphere, cool (guy, motive), collapse (national currencies), etc.) .

Semantic neologisms are inferior in number to lexical ones, although in the 80-90s many words acquired meanings that were unusual for them. The uniqueness of semantic neologisms lies in the fact that as lexemes they have long been known in the language, but, having updated their meaning, they move from previous thematic groups to completely new ones, while changing lexical compatibility and often stylistic fixation and expressive coloring. Thus, the word collapse in Russian dictionaries is given in two meanings: 1. Fall of a separated mass (collapse of a building); 2. Snow blocks or fragments of rocks that fell from the mountains. When used in this way, the word collapse is stylistically neutral; semantics makes it similar to words related to natural phenomena (mudflow, rockfall, avalanche). The use of this word in journalistic speech in the early 90s radically changes its meaning: Collapse of the national currencies of Ukraine and Belarus; Record collapse of the dollar against the yen; There were practically no mutual lending operations on the Moscow interbank loan market, which is clearly associated with the collapse of the banking system... There will be no collapse, said the Minister of Finance (from the newspaper). In the new meaning - collapse, catastrophe - collapse belongs to the thematic group of words related to financial transactions; it becomes expressively colored and is assigned to the journalistic style of the Russian language.

As part of semantic neologisms, words with a bright expressive color are not isolated; it is no coincidence that fashionable new words are borrowed from jargons. So, hanging out was first used by gamblers, it was commented on in his dictionary by V.I. Dahl: Shuffle the cards, mix them at random, scatter them all over the deck. True, figurative meanings of this word were also indicated here: to shuffle goods - to interfere with bulk goods of different denominations, and also to shuffle people - to interfere with them. The literary version of the word required spelling with an A, since this verb is derived from the French tasser - to collect in a heap. A.S. Pushkin used it in a humorous context in a meaning close to the modern one: I’m shuffling around with you without rank. I love you with my soul, Fill the mug to the brim, - Reason! God be with you! Obviously, expression was the reason for the unusually widespread use of this slang word, which entered our language with a new meaning. It does not leave the pages of magazines and newspapers, acquiring related words: (party, party girl, party person, etc.): Our artists who are engaged in contemporary art have always stood apart in the European artistic community; The “humpback” crowd, which does not recognize authorities, and the nightclub regulars who quickly drive up to them in their Mercedes; “Autumn, autumn, let’s ask the party...” (article title); the name of the column in the newspaper “Arguments and Facts” is TUSOVKA, etc.

A no less expansive semantic neologism with vivid expression is another word - cool, a new meaning of which has also developed not without the influence of jargon. As a lexeme, this adjective has been known for a long time, so in any dictionary it is listed as commonly used and neutral.

In the “Dictionary of the Russian Language” by S.I. Ozhegova, the adjective steep is interpreted as follows: 1. sheer, steep. Steep bank; 2. With a sharp, sudden change in direction. Sharp turn; 3. Severe, strict. Cool character, tough measures; 4. Brought by cooking, kneading to a certain degree of density, density. Hard-boiled egg, hard-boiled porridge. Steep boiling water - bubbling boiling water. In these meanings, the word cool had limited possibilities for combinability with nouns: the combinations cool person, cool girl, cool motive were impossible. The use of the adjective in a new meaning - the highest degree of evaluation of the manifestation of quality - has changed its valency: now it can be combined with an unlimited range of nouns; the fashion for the word has made it commonly used. Let's give a few examples from different newspapers: The city, glory to the saints, is not yet divided into “settlements” on a communal basis, but its inhabitants have been in sharp discord with themselves for several years (“AiF”); ...Then Alexander Ivanovich looked confused and clearly did not know what to do. With his whole appearance, he seemed to be trying to say: “Actually, I’m cool, I’m just sick right now” (“MK”); Uncool evening with steep prices (headline in MK); column in Komsomolskaya Pravda - The coolest events of the week; It is absurd to assume that someone’s “cool” money was laundered under the roof of the branch (“Trud”).

Depending on the conditions of creation, neologisms should be divided into two groups: words whose occurrence is not associated with the name of their creator, they can be called anonymous, and words introduced into use by specific authors, that is, individual authorial neologisms. The vast majority of neologisms belong to the first group. And although every newly created word has a creator, usually he remains unknown (no one can say who coined the words earthlings, market man, Duma members, bezkhoz and the like). More often, a new word is created according to such a productive model that many people begin to use it at the same time (readable, watchable, developments, progress, hekachepists). The second group of neologisms includes, for example, the word pro-meeting created by V. Mayakovsky, which invariably makes us recall the poet’s satirical work written about endless meetings.

Having crossed the boundaries of individual authorial use and becoming the property of the language, such words join the active vocabulary. Thus, the Russian language created by M.V. has long been mastered. Lomonosov terms: constellation, full moon, attraction; introduced by N.M. Karamzin once “new” nouns industry, future, etc.

Depending on the goals of creating new words and their purpose in speech, all neologisms can be divided into nominative and stylistic. The former perform a nominative function in language, directly naming concepts; the latter give figurative characteristics to objects that already have names. The emergence of nominative neologisms is dictated primarily by the needs of the development of science and technology. These neologisms arise as names of new concepts. Nominative neologisms usually do not have synonyms, although the simultaneous emergence of competing names is possible (cf.: cosmonaut - astronaut), one of which over time displaces the other. Nominative neologisms contain many highly specialized terms, which, as a rule, are stylistically neutral in emotional and expressive terms. Inventors try to introduce new objects and their names into use. This is facilitated by advertising of new goods and products. For example: pulsar (an electronic ignition device used by motorists), biofidok (kefir enriched with biofidobacteria that protect against intestinal infections).

New terms become known through the media, which publish popular science articles on various topics. For example:

All equations of physics, along with particles, allow for the existence of antiparticles with a reverse charge. And such particles (antiproton, antineutron, antielectron, also known as positron) have long been discovered. At the accelerator in Protvino, for example, there is an antiproton storage ring, where many unique experiments have been carried out. The problem, however, is to create a stable atom by anti-releasing a large amount of energy (from the gas).

Stylistic neologisms are created as a bright expressive means; they always have a positive or negative connotation. For example, failures and abuses during the privatization of state-owned enterprises gave rise to the satirical word privatization.

The product of perestroika and glasnost were such stylistic neologisms as sovki (i.e. Soviet citizens), sovkovy; sharply satirical word chlenvoz (personal car of a high-ranking official); horror films (horror films), chernukha (revealing films); chaos and so on.

Unlike nominative neologisms, the appearance of which is caused by the need to name a new phenomenon, object, scientific discovery, stylistic neologisms are created as names of already known concepts. The new word contains its assessment and reflects the speaker’s attitude towards it. Stylistic neologisms have synonyms, which are usually inferior to them in terms of intensity of expressive coloring. However, the frequent use of neologisms of this type in speech leads to the neutralization of their stylistic coloring.

Depending on whether neologisms are part of the language or are just facts of speech, created “on occasion,” a distinction is made between linguistic (national) and occasional neologisms (from the Latin occasionalis - random).

Over time, linguistic neologisms become part of cross-style or special vocabulary and are recorded in dictionaries. Like ordinary words, linguistic neologisms are reproduced in speech with meanings assigned to them. Examples of linguistic neologisms include all the lexical and semantic, nominative and stylistic, anonymous and individually authored neologisms we have considered.

Occasional neologisms are words used in a certain context only once. These include, for example, children's neoplasms: - Let me unpack the bags, - Look how it's raining! Among them there may be not only lexical, but also semantic neologisms [- Mom, look, a caterpillar with babies is coming! (about a goose); - Put this key in the closet]. Such occasionalisms arise especially often in oral speech; they are created involuntarily, which distinguishes them from other neologisms.

In written speech, occasionalisms can be quoted when conveying someone’s conversations, speeches, or jokes. Thus, the newspaper talks about the Golden Ostap festival, dedicated to comedians. In this regard, the “Speech from the Throne of the President of the Russian Academy of Humor” of Alexander I (Shirvindt) is published:

“GOLDEN OSTAP” is a wonderful nonsense among the general nonsense that exists in the country. (Meanless applause). The most hilarious nonsense. (Cheerful claps). Ostap is still relevant today in all respects, oddly enough. (Exclams: “He’s telling the truth!”). No matter how it is celebrated, it always turns out modern.

("Arguments and Facts")

An occasional word can be heard on TV; for example, the host of the Morning program promises to appear on screen every day. In book literary language, occasionalisms can be used if dialogue is reproduced in the text. For example, in an interview with the former presidential press secretary, journalist Sergei Medvedev:

Can you remember any funny incident from your television experience?

The worst thing on live television is when a laughing monster attacks and it’s terribly difficult to stop laughing...

("News")

A radio commentator, talking about the English Parliament, uses occasionalism, which, in his opinion, will help listeners vividly imagine the debates of the British: The backbencher Sir John gave a speech... Such innovations are not always successful, but, created for the occasion, they do not cause much damage to the language , because they are quickly forgotten.

The problem of occasionalisms has not been sufficiently studied: occasionalisms are usually considered as part of neologisms, but some linguists rightly emphasize that occasionalisms, being facts of speech, are not included in the language.

A special place among neologisms is occupied by the so-called individual stylistic neologisms- words created by writers, publicists for a specific artistic purpose [utreet (Bl.), leaflet (Es.), every evening (Past.)]. Individual stylistic neologisms are united with occasionalisms by their use within the context; they live only in the work of art in which the author used them. In special cases, these neologisms may be repeated, but in this case they are not reproduced, but “born anew.” For example, A. Blok introduced a new word into the text of the poem “On the Islands”: Newly snow-covered columns. Elagin bridge and two lights. And the voice of a woman in love. And the crunch of sand and the snoring of a horse. Six years later, A. Akhmatova used the same definition in her poem “December 9, 1913”: I realized that there is no need for words, snow-covered branches are light... The bird catcher has already spread the nets on the river bank. However, no one will argue that such word usage indicates the dependence of the style of one poet on another, much less a desire to repeat a “poetic find” or imitation.

Individual stylistic neologisms have a number of significant differences from occasionalisms. Occasionalisms are used in colloquial speech mainly in oral communication; individual stylistic neologisms belong to book speech and are recorded in writing. Occasionalisms arise spontaneously, individual stylistic neologisms are created in the process of conscious creativity with a specific stylistic purpose.

The use of slang vocabulary in literary language

For example: “Pakhany”, “hillocks” and others(title of newspaper article); ...People are “released” by the verdict of thieves for various sins: informing, non-payment of a gambling debt, disobedience to “authority”, for having “turned in” accomplices during the investigation, for having relatives in law enforcement agencies...

It is unacceptable for slang vocabulary to be popularized through fiction. In journalistic texts it is possible to refer to argotisms in materials on a certain topic. For example, in the “Crime Stories” section:

In rare cases, jargon may be used in newspaper materials that have a sharp satirical focus.

The use of jargon in non-satirical contexts, dictated by the authors’ desire to enliven the narrative, is regarded as a stylistic flaw.

On Tverskaya Street last Thursday, police picked up two girls who were trying to push a VCR to passers-by for a fortune. It turned out that the girls cleaned it out the night before apartment on Osenny Boulevard. (...) The ringleader was a 19-year-old homeless woman...

The downward trend in the style of newspaper articles is clearly demonstrated by many publications. This leads to the use of jargon and argotism even in serious materials, and for short notes and reports, the style of reduced vocabulary has become common. For example:

And I won’t give you the corridor

However, this “sign of the times” does not meet with sympathy among stylists, who do not approve of the mixing of styles, which creates inappropriate comedy in such publications.

The introduction of dialect vocabulary into works of journalistic style is possible, but requires great caution. In journalism, the use of dialecticisms along with literary vocabulary is undesirable; dialecticisms are especially unacceptable in the author’s narration. For example : Then Lushnikov saw Shirokikh, and they returned to the gathering place, built a fire and began to shout to their comrades; The icebreaker was moving quickly, but Stepan hoped to slip through to the right bank before the path on the river was destroyed - replacing dialectisms with commonly used words, the sentences can be corrected as follows: ... they began to call their comrades; The icebreaker was moving quickly, but Stepan hoped to slip through to the right bank while the ice on the river was still intact (until the ice began to move).

It is completely unacceptable to use dialect words whose meaning is not entirely clear to the author. Thus, narrating the anniversary voyage of the steam locomotive, the journalist writes: Everything was the same as 125 years ago, when the same steam train passed along the first route... However, he did not take into account that the word n first route means " first winter trek on fresh snow».

In such cases, dialectisms create an unacceptable diversity of speech means, because in conversations with journalists, rural residents try to speak in a literary language. The authors of the essays could write: ...We must take care of the animal on time; ...the floors will be washed; sometimes they'll just come in for dinner.

The second variety of the national language is vernacular.

It consists of widely used words of everyday speech, which, due to their roughness, deviate from the exemplary literary norms of pronunciation and use. Vernacular speech is not geographically limited, unlike dialects. This is the speech of a poorly educated population who does not know the norms of the literary language.

The vernacular developed as a result of the mixing of different dialectal speech in the city, where people from various rural regions of Russia have long moved (in search of work, etc.).

Let's note some character traits modern Russian vernacular:

1) Softening consonants before soft consonants: candy, brick, envelope;

2) Inserting the sound й or в between adjacent vowels within a word: shpien instead of spy, kakavo, radivo, piyanino;

3) Inserting a vowel inside consonant combinations: zhizin, rubel;

4) Assimilation of consonants in verb forms: I was afraid, I liked it;

5) Dissimilation of consonants: dilator, collidor, tranway, seclitary, laboratory;

6) Alignment of stems when conjugating verbs: want, want, want, bake, bake;

7) Mixing genders of nouns: I’ll eat all the jam, what a sour apple;

8) Mixing different case forms of one word: at my sister's, at my mother's, to my sister's;

9) The ending –OV in R.p. plural numbers for nouns that have a zero ending in the literary language: many things to do, no places, came from neighbors;

10) Declension of some indeclinable foreign words: without a coat, there will be no kin, we rode by meter;

11) Using kinship terms to address a stranger: dad, mom, sister, brother;

12) Using nouns with diminutive suffixes to express politeness: Would you like some tea? Do you have straight or slanted temples?

13) Widespread use of emotional vocabulary, and in an uncertain meaning: play, scald, chip, scratch: The rain scalds; He plays the guitar from morning to evening. She speaks great English.

The third type of national language is jargons.

Jargon vocabulary, unlike professional vocabulary, denotes concepts that already have names in the common language. Jargon - a type of colloquial speech used by a certain circle of native speakers, united by common interests, occupations, and position in society.

Jargons – words characteristic of the speech of individual social groups united by some characteristic (age, local, i.e. place of residence, professional).

So, for example, in pilots' jargon the bottom of the fuselage is called belly, training aircraft - ladybug. Sailors call grandfather not the one who is older than others on the ship, but the senior engineer; captain - cap, mechanic - bloodworm b, coca - Kanday.

The jargon of the ofeni - itinerant traders who existed in Russia in the 19th century, included the words: eye"house", melech"milk", Sarah"money", mind you"speak", tinker"build" etc.

All slang words are stylistically reduced vocabulary and are outside the boundaries of the literary language. They are used mainly among “our own” people, i.e. in communication with people of the same social circle as the speaker. Therefore, the main purpose of jargon is to make speech incomprehensible to others.

Jargons, like any words of a literary language or dialect, become obsolete and disappear over time, or instead of some jargons others appear. Thus, jargons are no longer found among the names of money crunch (ruble), fifth (five rubles), red (ten rubles), corner (25 rubles), piece (1000 rubles), but they appeared piece (1000), lemon, money and etc.

Some reinterpreted words of popular vocabulary are slang: car in meaning "car", with moltь "to leave unnoticed" ancestors"parents" etc.

In modern Russian language there are youth slang , or slang (from the English slang - words and expressions used by people of certain professions or age groups)/. Many words and expressions have come from slang into colloquial speech: cheat sheet, cram, tail (academic debt), swim (do poorly on the exam), fishing rod (satisfactory grade) and so on. The emergence of many jargons is associated with the desire of young people to express their attitude to a subject or phenomenon more clearly and emotionally. Hence these evaluative words: amazing, awesome, cool, laugh, go crazy, get high, play around, plow, sunbathe, etc..P. All of them are common only in oral speech and are often absent from dictionaries.

However, slang contains many words and expressions that are understandable only to the initiated. Let us take as an example a humoresque from the newspaper “University Life” (09.12.1991).

Notes of one cool student at one killer lecture.

For the uninitiated, such a set of slang words turns out to be an insurmountable obstacle to understanding the text, so let’s translate this passage into literary language.

When comparing these very different “editions” one cannot refuse the first , full of jargon, vividness and imagery. However, the inappropriateness of using slang in a history lecture is obvious.

Note that slang, like jargon in general, is based on expressive use; it has a “bright coloring”. This is where it lies danger constant use of slang: the predominance of evaluative vocabulary in speech leads to the fact that the speaker prefers to evaluate rather than transmit and analyze information (he can say what he likes or not, but cannot explain why). All argumentation comes down to uttering the words: cool, funny, super, etc. Another danger of being carried away by slang is that the speaker exhibits impersonal speech, no different from the speech of his peers. No speech individuality.

Thus, communication using slang makes not only the linguistic personality primitive, but also the social personality.

The expressiveness of slang vocabulary contributes to the fact that words from slangs move into national colloquial and everyday speech, not bound by strict literary norms. Most words that have become widespread outside of jargons can be considered jargons only from a genetic point of view, and at the time of their consideration they already belong to the vernacular. This explains the inconsistency of labels for jargon in explanatory dictionaries. So, in the “Dictionary of the Russian Language” S.I. Ozhegova z crumble in the meaning of “to fail” (colloquial), in the meaning of “to get caught, to be caught in something” (simple), and in the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language”, ed. D.N. Ushakova it has marks ( colloquially, from a thieves' argot). Ozhegov's cram ( colloquial), and Ushakov gives a mark for this word ( school argot).

Many jargons in the newest dictionaries are given with a stylistic mark ( simple.)[for example, from Ozhegov: ancestors- "parents" ( simple, jokey.); tail- “the remainder, the unfulfilled part of something, for example exams” ( pros T.); new guy -"newcomer, recruit, junior in relation to seniors" ( simple) etc.d.].

A special socially limited group of words in modern Russian is camp jargon , which is used by people placed in special living conditions. He reflected the terrible life in places of detention: convict ( prisoner), veneer or trouble(search), gruel a (pottage), tower(execution), informer(informer), knock(convey) and under. Such jargon finds application in realistic descriptions of camp life by former “prisoners of conscience” who were given the opportunity to openly recall repressions. Let us quote one of the most talented Russian writers who did not have time to realize their creative potential for well-known reasons:

If you are called on duty, it means expect trouble. Either a punishment cell follows, or some other dirty trick...

...True, this time they didn’t put me in a punishment cell or even “deprive me of a stall.” “Deprive with a stall” or “deprive with a date” are bossy formulas that arose as a result of a tendency to laconicism, this is 50% of the economy of expression. “Deprive the right to use a kiosk” or “...date.” The bosses, completely tormented by the desire for the ideal, had to resort quite often to the saving tongue twister, and they naturally tried to save seconds. So, something unusual awaited me. Upon entering, I saw several guards and at their head - “Regime”. We, too, were inclined to brevity, though for other reasons: when danger was approaching, it was easier and more profitable to whisper: “Regime!” than to say: “Deputy head of the camp for the regime.”

Besides the “Regime”, the guards and me, there was someone else in the room, and I immediately stared at him.

(Julius Daniel)

From this passage one can get an idea of the very “mechanism” of the appearance of these strange jargons . I would like to hope that there will be no extralinguistic conditions for their consolidation in the Russian language and that they will quickly become part of the passive vocabulary.

This cannot be said about the language of the underworld (thieves, tramps, bandits). This slang variety of language is defined by the term argo ( fr. argot - closed, inactive). Argo - a secret, artificial language of criminals (thieves' music), known only to initiates and also existing only in oral form. Some argotisms are becoming widespread outside the argot: blatnoy, mokrushnik, pero (knife), raspberry (stash), split, nix, fraer, etc., but at the same time they practically turn into the category of colloquial vocabulary and are given in dictionaries with the corresponding stylistic marks: “ colloquial", "coarsely colloquial".

The use of slang vocabulary in literary language

The emergence and spread of jargon in speech is assessed as a negative phenomenon in the life of society and the development of the national language. However, the introduction of jargon into literary language is acceptable in exceptional cases: this vocabulary may be needed by writers to create speech characteristics of characters or by journalists describing life in the colonies. To emphasize that jargon in such cases is quoted, the author usually encloses it in quotation marks. For example: “Pakhany”, “hillocks” and others (title of a newspaper article); ...People are “released” by the verdict of thieves for various sins: snitching, non-payment of a gambling debt, disobedience to “authority”, for having “turned in” accomplices during the investigation, for having relatives in law enforcement agencies... (Trud. 1991. 27 Nov)

In journalistic texts it is possible to refer to argotisms in materials on a certain topic. For example, in the “Crime Stories” section:

In rare cases, jargon may be used in newspaper materials that have a sharp satirical focus.

Stylistically unjustified use of jargon

1. A stylistic flaw is the use of jargon in non-satirical contexts, dictated by the authors’ desire to enliven the narrative. So, the author got carried away with the play on words, calling his note like this : The artist Dali ofonarel (the note describes the artist’s unusual sculpture - in the form of a lamp, which gave the correspondent grounds for a pun: lamp - ofonarel). For a reader who does not know the jargon, such words become a mystery, but the language of a newspaper should be accessible to everyone.

2. Journalists who write about crimes, murders and robberies in a humorous tone should not get carried away with jargon. The use of argot and slang words in such cases gives the speech an inappropriate, cheerful tone. The tragic events are narrated as a fascinating incident. For modern correspondents of Moskovsky Komsomolets, this style has become familiar. Let's give just one example:

3. There is a tendency to mix styles, creating inappropriate comedy in serious publications, which leads to a decline in the style of newspaper articles. Recently, the use of jargon and argotism has become more frequent, even in serious materials, and for short notes and reports, a style “colored” with reduced vocabulary has become common. For example:

And I won’t give you the corridor

So, dialect words, colloquialisms, and even more so jargons, as a rule, are unacceptable in speech. They can be introduced into speech only for a specific purpose, for example, as means of expression that emphasize the attitude of the speaker or writer. But this must be done carefully, with an understanding of the feasibility and appropriateness of such use in each specific case.

The inclusion of professionalisms in the text is often undesirable. Thus, the use of highly specialized professionalism cannot be justified in a newspaper article. For example: At the mine, the leveling of horizons and slopes of roads are carried out very untimely- only a specialist can explain what he meant

In book styles, professional vocabulary should not be used because of its colloquial tone. For example: It is necessary to ensure that the charging of the furnaces does not exceed two hours, and the smelting sits in the furnace no longer than six hours and 30 minutes(better: It is necessary to ensure that loading of the furnaces lasts no more than two hours, and melting - six and a half).

It is also unacceptable to use jargon-professional words in book styles, which are used in oral speech as informal versions of scientific terms and usually have a reduced expressive connotation. Such professionalisms are sometimes mistakenly mistaken for scientific terms and included in works of a scientific style (they write: dozer instead of dispenser, tweeter instead of tweeter, reciprocity instead of reciprocity method, organics instead of organic fertilizers). The introduction of professional slang words into written speech reduces style and often becomes the cause of inappropriate comedy [ Sandblasting makes it possible to thoroughly paint cars(better: Using a sandblaster, the surface of the car is well cleaned, which ensures high quality paintwork.)]. In the 90s, the Russian literary language was actively replenished with colloquial vocabulary, and therefore professional and professional slang words appeared on the pages of newspapers and magazines. Many professionalisms have become widely known, although until recently lexicologists did not include them in explanatory dictionaries. For example, the name has ceased to be narrowly professional black box, meaning “secure on-board flight information storage device.” When describing plane crashes, journalists freely use this professionalism, and comments on it appear only if the author of the article wants to depict the picture of the tragedy clearly:

These devices, enclosed in the strongest orange metal cases, can withstand 1000-degree temperatures and a hundredfold overload upon impact without damage.

25.Slang vocabulary

Jargon vocabulary, unlike professional vocabulary, denotes concepts that already have names in the common language. Jargon- a type of colloquial speech used by a certain circle of native speakers, united by common interests, occupations, and position in society. In modern Russian language there is youth slang, or slang(from the English slang - words and expressions used by people of certain professions or age groups). Many words and expressions have come from slang into colloquial speech: crib, cram, tail(academic debt), swim(perform poorly on an exam) fishing rod(satisfactory assessment), etc. The emergence of many jargons is associated with the desire of young people to express their attitude to a subject or phenomenon more clearly and emotionally. Hence these evaluative words: amazing, awesome, cool, laugh, go crazy, get high, play around, plow, sunbathe and so on. All of them are common only in oral speech and are often absent from dictionaries.

However, slang contains many words and expressions that are understandable only to the initiated. Let us take as an example a humoresque from the newspaper “University Life” (09.12.1991).

Notes of one cool student at one killer lecture.

For the uninitiated, such a set of slang words turns out to be an insurmountable obstacle to understanding the text, so let’s translate this passage into literary language.

The expressiveness of slang vocabulary contributes to the fact that words from slangs move into national colloquial and everyday speech, not bound by strict literary norms. Most words that have become widespread outside of jargons can be considered jargons only from a genetic point of view, and at the time of their consideration they already belong to the vernacular. This explains the inconsistency of labels for jargon in explanatory dictionaries. So, in the “Dictionary of the Russian Language” S.I. Ozhegova fall asleep in the meaning of “to fail” (colloquial), in the meaning of “to get caught, to be caught in something” (simple), and in the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language”, ed. D.N. Ushakova, it has marks (colloquially, from the thieves' argot). Ozhegov's cram(colloquial), and Ushakov gives a mark for this word (school slang). Many jargons in the newest dictionaries are given with a stylistic mark (simple) [for example, in Ozhegov: ancestors- “parents” (simple, joking); tail- “remainder, unfulfilled part of something, for example exams” (simple); new guy- “newcomer, recruit, junior in relation to seniors” (simple), etc.].

Slang vocabulary is inferior to literary vocabulary in accuracy, which determines its inferiority as a means of communication. The meaning of jargon tends to vary depending on the context. For example, verb camp Can mean doze, sleep, rest; verb run over - threaten, extort, pursue, take revenge; adjective cool matter good, attractive, interesting, reliable etc.; This is the same meaning of the word lethal and a number of others. All this convinces us of the inappropriateness of replacing the rich, vibrant Russian language with slang.

A special socially limited group of words in modern Russian is camp jargon, which is used by people placed in special living conditions. He reflected the terrible life in places of detention: convict(a prisoner), veneer or trouble(search), gruel(soup), tower(execution), informer(informer), knock(convey) and under. Such jargon finds application in realistic descriptions of camp life by former “prisoners of conscience” who were given the opportunity to openly recall repressions. Let us quote one of the most talented Russian writers who did not have time to realize their creative potential for well-known reasons:

If you are called on duty, it means expect trouble. Either a punishment cell follows, or some other dirty trick...

Besides the “Regime”, the guards and me, there was someone else in the room, and I immediately stared at him.

(Julius Daniel)

This cannot be said about the language of the underworld (thieves, tramps, bandits). This slang variety of language is defined by the term argo (French argot - closed, inactive). Argo- secret, artificial language of criminals ( thug music), known only to initiates and existing only in oral form. Some argotisms are becoming widespread outside the argot: thieves, mokrushnik, feather(knife), raspberries(den) split up, nix, fraer etc., but at the same time they practically turn into the category of colloquial vocabulary and are given in dictionaries with the corresponding stylistic marks: “colloquial”, “coarsely colloquial”.