The need for communication, transmission and storage of information arose and developed along with the development of human society. Today it can already be argued that the information sphere of human activity is a determining factor in the intellectual, economic and defense capabilities of the state and human society as a whole.

Since ancient times, sound and light have served as a means for people to exchange information. Sound is the basis of our speech communication. At the dawn of his development, man, calling for a hunt or warning his fellow tribesmen about danger, gave signals by shouting or knocking. But if the distance between the interlocutors was great and the strength of the voice was not enough, auxiliary means were required. Therefore, man began to use improvised means - initially fires, torches, drums, gongs and whistles, and after the invention of gunpowder - shots and rockets. In those distant times, special people appeared - messengers who carried and transmitted messages, announced the will of the rulers to the people, but this required a lot of time.

Experience gained over centuries has shown that the most effective carrier of information is light, with the help of which it was possible to transmit short messages over considerable distances. That is why the first communication “systems” were sentry light posts located around settlements on specially built towers or towers, and sometimes simply in trees.

Almost before the discovery of magnetism and electricity, humanity had been using the natural capabilities of the human ear and eye for centuries. Even today, when the developing peoples of Africa are successfully mastering modern means of communication, the drum still has not lost its significance for them. In railway transport to this day, when it is necessary to urgently stop a train, sound signals are used: three firecrackers are placed on the rails at a short distance from each other, which explode noisily under the wheels of a moving train.

The discovery of electricity made it possible to find a new means of delivering messages over long distances, first using physical (wired) and then wireless communication lines. The development of the theory of electricity and magnetism in the 19th century led to the emergence of first wired (telephone and telegraph) and then wireless communications, which created the technological basis for all media - radio broadcasting, television, the Internet, mobile communications, which were actively used at the beginning of the 20th century. entered into everyday life. The needs for transmitting large volumes of information over long distances have led to active research, both in the field of conditions for the propagation of electromagnetic waves, and in signal processing methods that provide high throughput of communication channels with the required reliability in the received information. The result of the research was the emergence of certain types of communications: wired, radio, radio relay, tropospheric, satellite, which, complementing each other, help improve the quality of life of the population in terms of information exchange.

In just a century and a half, from the invention of the telegraph to the present day, humanity has mastered telecommunications means that have allowed it to be not only informed, but also mobile. Let us list the main fundamental milestones along this path: telegraph (1753), rotary printing press (1847), telephone (1870), radio (1895), wireless telegraph (1922), television (1930) .), the Internet (1969) and finally the mobile phone (1973).

The creation of the entire set of material and political conditions in the field of communications led to an explosion in the field of information and a revolution in the way people thought and acted. Currently, people, communicating with each other, through intellectual speech activity, supply the noofield, which is an analogue of the Internet, with morphological linguistic structures that govern life on earth.

This manual makes an attempt to systematize the known material on the history of the development of communications and substantiate the emergence of a new term - information and communication technologies.

The manual is intended not only for students of radio engineering universities and specialists working in the field of information and communication technologies, but also for people interested in the development of information society technologies.

"This new development of technology brings unlimited possibilities for good and evil"

It's only begining...

Since ancient times, humanity has been looking for and improving means of information exchange. Messages were transmitted over short distances by gestures and speech, and over long distances using bonfires located within line of sight from each other. Sometimes a chain of people was built between points and news was transmitted by voice along this chain from one point to another. In central Africa, tom-tom drums were widely used for communication between tribes.

Ideas about the possibility of transmitting electrical charges over distances and implementing telegraph communication in this way have been expressed since the middle of the 18th century. Professor of the University of Leipzin Johann Winkler - it was he who improved the electrostatic machine, proposing to rub the glass disk not with hands, but with pads made of silk and leather - in 1744 wrote: “With the help of an insulated suspended conductor it is possible to transmit electricity to the ends of the world at the speed of a bullet.” . In the Scottish magazine "The Scot's Magazine" on February 1, 1753, an article appeared, signed only by C.M. (later it turned out that its author, Charles Morison, was a scientist from Renfrew), in which a possible telecommunication system was described for the first time It was proposed to hang between two points as many uninsulated wires as there are letters in the alphabet. Attach the wires at both points to glass stands so that their ends hang down and end with elderberry balls, under which the letters written on pieces of paper are placed at a distance of 3-4 mm. When touched in at the point of transmission by the conductor of the electrostatic machine of the end of the wire corresponding to the required letter, at the receiving point the electrified elderberry ball would attract a piece of paper with this letter.

In 1792, the Genevan physicist Georges Louis Lesage described his design for an electrical communication line based on laying 24 bare copper wires in a clay pipe, inside of which partitions made of glazed clay or glass with holes would be installed every 1.5...2 m for wires The latter would thus maintain a parallel arrangement without touching each other. According to one unconfirmed, but very probable version, Lesange in 1774, at home, conducted several successful experiments in telegraphy according to the Morison scheme - with the electrification of elderberry balls that attract letters. Transmitting one word took 10...15 minutes, and phrases 2...3 hours.

Professor I. Beckmann from Karlsruhe wrote in 1794: “The monstrous cost and other obstacles will never allow the use of the electric telegraph to be seriously recommended.

And just two years after this notorious “never”, according to the project of the Spanish physician Francisco Savva, military engineer Augustin Betancourt built the world’s first electric telegraph line, 42 km long, between Madrid and Aranjuez.

The situation repeated itself a quarter of a century later. Since 1794, first in Europe and then in America, the so-called semaphore telegraph, invented by the French engineer Claude Chappe and even described by Alexandre Dumas in the novel “The Count of Montecristo,” became widespread. Along the line route, high towers with poles like modern antennas with movable crossbars were built at a line of sight distance (8...10 km), the relative position of which indicated a letter, syllable or even a whole word. At the transmitting station, the message was encoded, and the crossbars were one by one installed in the required positions. Telegraph operators at subsequent stations duplicated these provisions. Two people were on duty at each tower in shifts: one received the signal from the previous station, the other transmitted it to the next station.

Although this telegraph served humanity for more than half a century, it did not satisfy society's needs for fast communication. It took an average of 30 minutes to transmit one dispatch. Inevitably there were communication interruptions due to rain, fog, and blizzards. Naturally, the “eccentrics” sought out more advanced means of communication. London physicist and astronomer Francis Ronalds began conducting experiments with the electrostatic telegraph in 1816. In his garden, in the suburbs of London, he built a 13-kilometer line of 39 bare wires, which were suspended by means of silk threads on wooden frames installed every 20 m. Part of the line was underground - in a trench 1.2 m deep and 150 m long there was a tarred wooden trench was laid, at the bottom of which there were glass tubes with copper wires passed through them.

In 1823, Ronalds published a pamphlet outlining his results. By the way, this was the world's first printed work in the field of electrical communications. But when he proposed his telegraph system to the authorities, the British Admiralty stated: “Their Lordships are quite satisfied with the existing telegraph system (the semaphore system described above) and do not intend to replace it with another.”

Literally a few months after Oersted’s discovery of the effect of electric current on a magnetic needle, the baton of further development of electromagnetism was picked up by the famous French physicist and theorist Andre Ampère, the founder of electrodynamics. In one of his communications to the Academy of Sciences in October 1820, he was the first to put forward the idea of ​​an electromagnetic telegraph. “The possibility has been confirmed,” he wrote, “of making a magnetized needle, located at a great distance from the battery, move using a very long wire.” And further: “It would be possible... to transmit messages by sending telegraph signals in turn along the corresponding wires. In this case, the number of wires and arrows should be taken equal to the number of letters in the alphabet. At the receiving end there should be an operator who would write down the transmitted letters, observing the deviating arrows. If the wires from the battery were connected to a keyboard, the keys of which were marked with letters, then telegraphing could be carried out by pressing the keys. The transmission of each letter would take only the time required to press the keys on the one hand and read the letter on the other sides."

Not accepting the innovative idea, the English physicist P. Barlow wrote in 1824: “In the very early stage of experiments with electromagnetism, Ampere proposed creating an instantaneous telegraph using wires and compasses. However, the assertion ... that it would be possible to carry out this project with wire up to four miles (6.5 km) long. My experiments have found that a noticeable weakening of the action occurs already with a wire length of 200 feet (61 meters), and this convinced me of the impracticability of such a project."

And just eight years later, corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences Pavel Lvovich Schilling embodied Ampere’s idea into a real design.

The inventor of the electromagnetic telegraph, P. L. Schilling, was the first to understand the difficulty of manufacturing reliable underground cables at the dawn of electrical engineering and proposed the ground part designed in 1835-1836. make the telegraph line overhead by hanging uninsulated bare wire on poles along the Peterhof road. This was the world's first overhead communication line project. But members of the government “Committee to Consider the Electromagnetic Telegraph” rejected Schilling’s project, which seemed fantastic to them. His proposal was met with unfriendly and mocking exclamations.

And 30 years later, in 1865, when the length of telegraph lines in European countries amounted to 150,000 km, 97% of them were overhead lines.

Telephone.

The invention of the telephone belongs to a 29-year-old Scot, Alexander Graham Bell. Attempts to transmit sound information through electricity have been made since the mid-19th century. Almost the first in 1849 - 1854. The idea of ​​telephony was developed by Parisian telegraph mechanic Charles Boursel. However, he did not translate his idea into a working device.

Since 1873, Bell has been trying to construct a harmonic telegraph, achieving the ability to simultaneously transmit seven telegrams (according to the number of notes in an octave) over one wire. He used seven pairs of flexible metal plates, similar to a tuning fork, with each pair tuned to a different frequency. During experiments on June 2, 1875, the free end of one of the plates on the transmitting side of the line was welded to the contact. Bell's assistant mechanic Thomas Watson, unsuccessfully trying to fix the problem, cursed, perhaps even using not entirely normative vocabulary. Bell, who was in another room and manipulated the receiving plates, with his sensitive, trained ear, caught the sound that came through the wire. The plate, spontaneously fixed at both ends, turned into a flexible membrane of sorts and, being above the pole of the magnet, changed its magnetic flux. As a result, the electric current entering the line changed according to the air vibrations caused by Watson's muttering. This was the birth of the telephone.

The device was called a Bell tube. It had to be applied alternately to the mouth and ear, or to use two tubes at the same time.

Radio.

On May 7 (April 25, old style), 1895, a historical event occurred, which was only appreciated several years later. At a meeting of the physics department of the Russian Physico-Chemical Society (RFCS), the teacher of the Mine Officer Class, Alexander Stepanovich Popov, spoke with a report “On the relationship of metal powders to electrical vibrations.” During the report by A.S. Popov demonstrated the operation of a device he created, designed to receive and record electromagnetic waves. It was the world's first radio receiver. He sensitively responded with an electric bell to the sending of electromagnetic oscillations that were generated by the Hertz vibrator.

Scheme of the first receiver A. S. Popov.

Here is what the newspaper "Kronstadt Bulletin" wrote on April 30 (May 12), 1895 about this: Dear teacher A.S. Popov... combined a special portable device that responds to electrical vibrations with an ordinary electric bell and is sensitive to Hertzian waves on open air at a distance of up to 30 fathoms.

The invention of radio by Popov was a natural result of his purposeful research into electromagnetic oscillations.

In 1894, in his experiments, A. S. Popov began to use the coherer of the French scientist E. Branly (a glass tube filled with metal filings), first used for these purposes by the English researcher O. Lodge, as an indicator of electromagnetic radiation. Alexander Stepanovich worked hard to increase the sensitivity of the coherer to Hertzian rays and restore its ability to register for new pulses of electromagnetic radiation after exposure to the previous electromagnetic message. As a result, Popov came to the original design of a device for receiving electromagnetic waves, thereby taking a decisive step towards creating a system for transmitting and receiving signals over a distance.

From experiments within the walls of the Mine Class, Alexander Stepanovich moved on to experiments in the open air. Here he implemented a new idea: to increase sensitivity, he attached a thin copper wire - an antenna - to the receiving device. The signaling range from the oscillation generator (Hertz vibrator) to the receiving device has already reached several tens of meters. It was a complete success.

These experiments on signaling at a distance, i.e. essentially radio communications, were carried out at the beginning of 1895. By the end of April, Popov considered it possible to make them public at a meeting of the physics department of the Russian Federal Chemical Society. So May 7, 1895 became the birthday of radio - one of the greatest inventions of the 19th century.

A television.

Modern electronic television originated in St. Petersburg in the project of a teacher at the Technological Institute, Boris Lvovich Rosing. In 1907, he filed patent applications in Russia, Germany and England for the invention of a television device with a cathode ray tube (a prototype of a kinescope), and on May 9, 1911, he demonstrated an image on a kinescope screen.

“...Professor Rosing,” V.K. Zvorykin later wrote), assisted Rosing, and in 1918 emigrated to the USA, becoming a famous scientist in the field of television and medical electronics), “discovered a fundamentally new approach to television, with the help of which he hoped to overcome the limitations of mechanical scanning systems...".

Indeed, in 1928-1930. In the USA and in a number of European countries, TV broadcasting began using not electronic, but mechanical systems that made it possible to transmit only elementary images with clarity (30-48 lines). Regular transmissions from Moscow according to the standard 30 lines, 12.5 frames were carried out on medium waves from October 1, 1931. The equipment was developed at the All-Union Electrotechnical Institute by P. V. Shmakov and V. I. Arkhangelsky.

In the early 30s, CRT televisions began to appear at foreign exhibitions and then in stores. However, image clarity remained poor because mechanical scanners were still used on the transmitting side.

An important task on the agenda is the creation of a system that accumulates light energy from the transmitted image. The first to practically solve this problem was V.K. Zvorykin, who worked at the Radio Corporation of America (RCA). He managed to create, in addition to the kinescope, a transmission tube with accumulation of charges, which he piled with an iconoscope (in Greek, “observe the image”). Zworykin made a report on the development of a completely electronic TV system with a group of employees, with a clarity of about 300 lines, on June 26, 1933 at the conference of the US Society of Radio Engineers. And a month and a half after that, he read his sensational report to scientists and engineers of Leningrad and Moscow.

In the speech of Professor G.V. Braude, it was noted that in our country A.P. Konstantinov made a transmitting tube with accumulation of charges, similar in principle to the Zvorykin tube. A.P. Konstantinov considered it necessary to clarify: “In my device, basically the same principle is used, but Dr. Zvorykin has done it immeasurably more elegantly and more practically...”

Artificial Earth satellites.

On October 4, 1957, the world's first artificial Earth satellite was launched in the USSR. The launch vehicle delivered the satellite to a given orbit, the highest point of which is at an altitude of about 1000 km. This satellite had the shape of a ball with a diameter of 58 cm and weighed 83.6 kg. It was equipped with 4 antennas and 2 radio transmitters with power supplies. Artificial Earth satellites can be used as: a relay station for television, significantly expanding the range of television broadcasts; radio navigation beacon.

Short...

Cellular systems were created to provide wireless radiotelephone communication services for the benefit of a large number of subscribers (ten thousand or more in one city), they allow very efficient use of frequency resources. This year will mark the 27th anniversary of cellular communications - this is quite a lot for advanced technology.

Paging systems are designed to provide one-way communication with subscribers by transmitting short messages in digital or alphanumeric form.

Fiber optic communication lines. The global information infrastructure has been under construction for a long time. Its basis is fiber optic cable lines, which have gained dominant positions in global communication networks over the past quarter century. Such highways have already entangled most of the Earth; they pass through both the territory of Russia and the territory of the former Soviet Union. Fiber-optic communication lines with high bandwidth provide transmission of signals of all types (analog and digital).

InterNet is a worldwide collection of networks that connects millions of computers. The embryo was the distributed network ARPAnet, which was created in the late 60s by order of the US Department of Defense to communicate between the computers of this ministry. The developed principles for organizing this network turned out to be so successful that many other organizations began to create their own networks based on the same principles. These networks began to merge with each other, forming a single network with a common address space. This network became known as InterNet.

Bibliography

1) Magazine "Radio": 1998 No. 3, 1997 No. 7, 1998 No. 11, 1998 No. 2.

2) Radio Yearbook 1985.

3) Figurnov V.E. "IBM PC for the user. A short course."

4) Great Soviet Encyclopedia.

For me personally, there is nothing more pleasant than being on a business trip in some other city and, after a busy day at work, chatting with colleagues about various abstract topics over a cup of tea, beer and fish. On one of these evenings, we tried to restore the evolution of communications and the list of technologies and names of people who, with their genius, gave impetus to the development of our frantic information world. What I managed to remember is under the cut. But I got the impression that we missed a lot. Therefore, I look forward to comments and interesting stories from you, dear Khabrovians.

We started remembering from ancient times...

The party was in full swing when we began to remember the development of communication technology. The main idea is to remember everything that was somehow aimed at transmitting information messages between people. The first thing everyone remembered (when they saw a colleague enter the room, whom we sent for another portion of foamy tea) was a messenger or messenger.

The history of information messaging began in the Stone Age. Then information was transmitted through the smoke of fires, blows on a signal drum, and the sounds of trumpets through a developed network of signal towers. Later they began to send messengers with oral news. Perhaps this is the very first and most effective way to convey an urgent message between people. Such a messenger memorized the “letter” from the words of the sender, and then retold it to the addressee. Egypt, Persia, Rome, the Inca state - had a developed, well-organized postal service. Messengers plied along the dusty roads day and night. They took turns or changed horses at specially built stations. Actually, the word “post office” comes from the Latin expression “mansio pozita...” - “station at a point...”. 2500 years ago, the relay race method of transmitting letters from messenger to messenger was already used. In the last quarter of the 9th century, almost at the very beginning of the existence of Kievan Rus, the foundations of the Russian postal service were laid - one of the oldest in Europe. In terms of time of occurrence, only the communications services of Great Britain and Spain can be placed on a par with it. The courier service stands apart, the history of which in Russia goes back more than two centuries. However, this is a special type of communication that served exclusively government officials and the military.

Ancient letters are a recognized example of the culture of human communication. Special paper was produced, perfumes for impregnating envelopes, cliches, sealing wax and seals - all this was in the order of things, and writing a letter to another person was a whole ritual.

Pigeon mail

No matter how fast the messenger is, he will not be able to keep up with the bird. Carrier pigeons have made a huge contribution to human communication. A kind of short message service - after all, the pigeon could only carry a small load, a short letter or even a note. However, pigeon mail was a very effective information channel that was used by politicians, brokers, the military and ordinary people.

Device parameters
Flight range - up to 1500 km. (the competition starts from a maximum distance of 800 km.)
Speed ​​- up to 100 km/h
Flight conditions - any (rain, snow, whatever)
Service life - up to 10-15 years (with good care)
Price - from $100 (the most expensive Danish Subian pigeon named “Dolce Vita” was recently sold for $329 thousand)

Passport of the most expensive pigeon (identification is based on the pupil of the bird)

Almost any pigeon can become a homing pigeon. These birds have an amazing ability to find their way to the nest, but only on condition that it was born there, fledged and lived for about 1 year. After this, the pigeon can find its way to the house from any point, but the maximum distance cannot be 1500 km. It is still not clear how pigeons navigate in space. There is an opinion that they are sensitive to the Earth's magnetic field and infrasound. The sun and stars also help them. However, there are also disadvantages. Pigeon mail - simplex communication. Pigeons cannot fly back and forth. They are only able to return to their parent's nest. Therefore, pigeons for information purposes were taken in special cages or cars to another place, where it was necessary to establish an “information channel.”


There are probably thousands of stories and legends about the role carrier pigeons played in human life. One of these is about the Rothschild family. The news of Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo in 1815 was received by Nathan Rothschild through a dove two days earlier than the official news, which gave him the opportunity to successfully conduct a campaign on the stock exchange with French securities and receive 40 million dollars in profit from this transaction in 1815 prices! Even in our times this is not bad. A typical example of the importance of information, especially in financial areas.

Maritime and military communications

The most important location for communications is the theater of operations. Before the advent of the telegraph and wired telephone exchanges, semaphore systems were actively used (which is still surprising). Both iconic and illuminated.


The semaphore, or flag, alphabet has been used in the Navy since 1895. It was developed by Vice Admiral Stepan Makarov. The Russian flag alphabet contains 29 letters and three special characters and does not include numbers or punctuation marks. The transmission of information in this type of communication is carried out in words, letters by letter, and the transmission speed can reach 60-80 characters per minute. It’s strange, but in the Russian Navy, since 2011, the training of sailors in the semaphore alphabet has been abolished, although in most of the world’s naval powers it is a mandatory discipline.
The signaling system using special flags is also interesting. Used by sea vessels. There are only 29 pieces, which, as I understand it, everyone who goes to sea should know. Here, for example, are the first six flags. Some are quite funny.

Wired connection. Telegraph, telephone, teletype...

Let's talk about electrical systems. Of course, let's start with the telegraph. One of the first attempts to create a means of communication using electricity dates back to the second half of the 18th century, when Lesage built an electrostatic telegraph in Geneva in 1774. In 1798, Spanish inventor Francisco de Salva created his own design for an electrostatic telegraph. Later, in 1809, the German scientist Samuel Thomas Semmering built and tested an electrochemical telegraph. The first electromagnetic telegraph was created by the Russian scientist Pavel Lvovich Schilling in 1832.

Of course, at this time the wired communications infrastructure began to rapidly develop. The appearance of the Morse apparatus and the deft patenting of the telephone by Bell (the debate about who invented the principle of the telephone itself has not yet died out) led to the first wave of informatization of the planet. It was an amazing time of development of new technologies, which created tens of thousands of jobs. Telephone operators, technicians, engineers, telephone and telegraph companies.

By the way, about telephone operators. The requirements for applicants were high. The girl must be smart, have an excellent memory and be pretty. Probably, such a requirement was because in those days only men were the heads of telephone exchanges.
Of course, companies producing various telegraph equipment began to develop rapidly. Peculiar technological startups of the 19th century).

Of course, it was important for the development of communication to introduce ordinary people to them. It was not uncommon to see such promotions on city streets. Phone booth on wheels. Just like now.

And, of course, people were interested in the task of transmitting graphic information. Since the invention of the telegraph, work began on transmitting images. Mainly photographs. The first prototypes of fax machines were developed. However, it was possible to make an acceptable phototelegraph apparatus only after the Second World War. And transmitting an image over the phone is still in the sixties. One way or another, these technologies have appeared and we can no longer be surprised by them.

As I understand it, in the upper right corner is the eyepiece of a video camera, and behind the screen is equipment for image transmission. Apparently the system was cumbersome)

Invention of the radio

A real breakthrough in technology came with the invention of radio. Thanks to this, it was possible to get rid of wires and establish communications throughout almost the entire planet. Of course, first of all, this technology reached the military. Almost immediately, radio began to replace the wire telegraph. But, of course, not right away. The first radio equipment was unreliable and extremely expensive.

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LECTURE COURSE

Discipline:

History of world and domestic communications

History of communications

A.V. Ostrovsky

LECTURE TOPICS:

LECTURE 2. Mail

LECTURE 3. Telegraph

LECTURE 4. Telephone

LECTURE 5. Radio

LECTURE 6. Television

LECTURE 7. Internet

LECTURE 8. Results of the third information revolution

LECTURE 1. The simplest means of communication

1. Speech as a means of communication

2. Sound communications

3.Visual communication

Literature

A) Mandatory

Ostrovsky A.V. History of communications. St. Petersburg, 2009. P.5-20.

B) Additional

James P., Thorpe N. Ancient inventions. Minsk, 1977.

Panov E.N. Signs, symbols, languages. M., 1980.

1. Speech as a means of communication

All means of communication can be divided into two types: natural and artificial, and artificial ones into mechanical and electrical. Their emergence and development are the result of the emergence and development of human society.

Summarizing the observations of his predecessors and relying on the achievements of contemporary science, Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky (1863-1945) formulated the following theory of the functioning of life on Earth.

The main source of energy consumed by biological organisms on our planet is the Sun. Reaching the earth's surface, solar energy is processed by plants into biological energy through photosynthesis and accumulated by them in this form. Plants serve as food for herbivores, and herbivores for carnivores.

Fluctuations in solar activity result in a reduction or increase in plant biomass. Depending on this, the number of animals decreases or increases.

Initially, human reproduction was completely dependent on this pattern. From the moment when its overcoming began, we can date the origins of human society. This process was associated with the formation of modern humans and their separation from the animal world.

Our ancestor, apparently, was Dryopithecus, who lived in the tropics and subtropics several million years ago. Dryopithecus lived in trees and ate plant foods. Later (according to some sources - 5 million, according to others - 1 million years ago), a type of primitive man was formed, called Australopithecus. He differed from his predecessor in that he walked on two limbs, used meat for food and was familiar with stone tools.

The period of use of stone tools was called the “Stone Age”. The Stone Age is divided into three periods: Paleolithic (Old Stone Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) and Neolithic (New Stone Age). In turn, the Paleolithic is divided into three subperiods: early (lower), middle and late (upper).

According to experts, for most of the ecumene, the Lower Paleolithic ended approximately 100 thousand years, the Middle Paleolithic - 45-40 thousand, the Upper Paleolithic - 12-10 thousand, the Mesolithic - no earlier than 8 thousand, and the Neolithic - no earlier than 5 thousand. years ago.

Man's mastery of fire was of particular importance for anthropogenesis. This began the growth of people's energy supply and the weakening of their dependence on nature. Initially, man used the fire that arose as a result of fires, then, according to some information, around 40 thousand years BC, he learned to produce it himself.

F. Engels (1820-1895) wrote that the mastery of fire “for the first time gave man dominance over a certain force of nature and thus finally separated man from the animal kingdom.”

Indeed, the mastery of fire coincides with the completion of the process of anthropogenesis. Australopithecus had a brain with a volume of up to 600 cm3, Pithecanthropus - about 900 cm3, Neanderthal - 1400 cm3. Approximately 40-30 thousand years ago, the modern type of man was formed, called Homo sapiens, or “reasonable man.” The volume of his brain was 1500 (1820-1895) cm 3, which corresponds to the volume of the brain of a modern person.

One of the characteristics of a person is that his activity is determined not only by innate, but also acquired reflexes. Moreover, acquired reflexes play a major role in his life.

As a result, human development largely depends on the perception, storage, accumulation and transmission of information.

This means that the history of human society is, to a large extent, the history of the development of communications.

In its broadest sense, the word communication means communication or interaction.

Communication and interaction are characteristic not only of humans, but also of other animals. Natural means of communication are often referred to as “language.”

Language is a “system of signs” or “system of symbols” with the help of which information is transmitted. In this regard, there is a certain similarity between the sound signals that humans and other animals use to convey information.

“We,” writes one of the authors, “know that the beast understands the beast perfectly,” “that many animals express certain feelings with the same cry. A hen can scream in a thousand different ways: clucking anxiously, she calls the chickens when she sees a predator; the hen clucks affectionately as she gathers chickens for food; completely differently, she screams, as if bursting into tears after laying an egg”; “just by the barking of a dog or the meowing of a cat,” a person can easily find out “what she is feeling at the moment: pain or rage, whether she asks for food or to be let out into the yard.”

It's hard to disagree with this. Moreover, a large amount of material has been accumulated in the literature on what some authors call the “language of animals.” However, the question of the applicability of the concept of “language” to those sound signals that animals use as a means of communication is debatable.

“The word “language,” we read in the “Great Soviet Encyclopedia,” often denotes any means of communication, any transmission of thought through certain symbols or signs. Therefore, they talk, for example, about the “language” of flowers, about the “language” of paints, about the “language” of gestures and even about the “language” of animals, since it is known that animals are able to transmit signals to each other (warning of danger, calling, etc. .), however, this is only a figurative use of the word language, which does not correspond to its exact scientific content.”

In this regard, let's see what distinguishes human language from the “language” of other animals?

Firstly, the sounds made by animals carry information in themselves. This could be a signal of danger, a cry for help, or a message about prey. Individual sounds made by a person do not themselves carry any information. At the same time, operating, like other animals, with several dozen sounds, a person is able to combine an infinite number of words and, therefore, convey any information.

Secondly, the “language” of animals is innate, human speech is acquired, animal language operates at the level of the first, human speech - at the level of the second signaling system. In other words, the “language” of animals is programmed genetically and is inherited; human speech is acquired through the process of communication.

Therefore, a person does not begin to speak immediately. Usually he speaks his first words towards the end of the year. And if a baby is deprived of communication with other people, he will not develop speech, moreover, human mental functions will not develop. Let us recall the story of the English writer Rudyard Joseph Kipling (1865-1936) “Mowgli”, the main character of which is a child who grew up in a wolf pack and is able to utter only inarticulate sounds.

Another important feature follows from this. If animal language is stable, human speech is in development. In other words, human speech is constantly enriched and expanded, reflecting growing human experience.

Based on this, we can formulate the following definition: Language is a developing system of signs that, reflecting the process of human thinking, serves as a means of self-expression and communication.

The emergence of language represented the first information revolution, which marked the completion of the process of formation of Homo sapiens and opened up opportunities for its further development.

If initially language only allowed people to communicate, now it allowed them to accumulate and transmit knowledge about the world around them, accumulate and transmit life experience, in other words, it opened up the opportunity for the development of culture and the entire society.

One indicator of this is vocabulary. Dahl's Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language contains about 200 thousand words, and Webster's English Explanatory Dictionary contains 450 thousand.

The vocabulary a person owns testifies to his knowledge and erudition.

“William Shakespeare's dictionary,” we read in “The Twelve Chairs,” “according to researchers, is twelve thousand words. The dictionary of a black man from the cannibal tribe “Mumbo-Yumbo” is three hundred words. Elochka Shchukin easily and freely made do with thirty.”

According to information available in the literature, some tribes of West Africa, even in the 19th century. used 300-400 words to communicate. Illiterate English peasants once got by with approximately the same number of words. Nowadays, most adults are able to understand up to 35 thousand words, but in everyday life they use about 3,500.

Since humans are biological organisms, their functioning depends on the consumption of energy and nutrients. And since he produces everything he needs for existence himself, the development of society is based on the production, distribution and consumption of life’s goods, i.e. economy.

Most of the population is still employed in this area. Therefore, if the history of society is the history of all people who have lived and are living on the planet, and not just outstanding personalities, it was and is, first of all, the history of economics.

Two stages can be distinguished in the development of the economy: the first of them was characterized by an appropriating economy (hunting, fishing, gathering), the second by a producing economy (agriculture and industry).

The first form of human community is the primitive herd. According to some authors, it was a kind of shuffling deck, like a flock of birds.

Then, on this basis, a clan community is formed, consisting of several dozen people and united by a common origin. Several clans made up a tribe that already numbered hundreds of people. There were no larger collectives at the production stage.

In order for primitive man to be able to obtain food without disturbing the process of reproduction in the plant and animal world, and also to be able to provide himself with food, he needed a lot of land. And although this figure was different in different regions of the planet, ethnographers found that at the stage of appropriating economy, on average, at least one to two square kilometers were required per person.

Consequently, a tribal collective numbering several dozen people should have had at its disposal several tens of square kilometers, and a tribe numbering several hundred people should have had several hundred square kilometers at its disposal.

If you imagine the territory of a clan as a circle, its diameter will be several kilometers; if you imagine the territory of a tribe as a circle, its diameter will be several tens of kilometers. Consequently, the remoteness of the ancestral villages was within a few hours' walk, the remoteness of the tribal centers within a few days' journey.

This means that individual clan groups could not only communicate daily, but also cooperate with each other. Communication and cooperation between individual tribes could not happen on a daily basis.

The two named types of economy (appropriating and producing) corresponded to two stages in the development of human society. In the first of them, people settled around the planet, in the second - an increase in population density and the formation of larger human groups than a tribe: tribal unions (thousands of people), policies (tens of thousands of people), states (hundreds of thousands and millions of people), empires (millions, tens and hundreds of millions of people).

At the first stage, there was an increase not only in the population, but also in the number of languages. An example is Papua New Guinea. In the mid-1980s, with a population of only 3.2 million people, they had up to a thousand languages.

The second stage was characterized, on the one hand, by the formation of larger human groups than the tribe, on the other, by the death of some and the assimilation of other peoples.

There are now about 5,000 languages, which fall into several language families. The largest of them are two: Indo-European (about half of the world’s population belongs to it) and Sino-Tibetan (almost a quarter of the population).

Already in the conditions of the primitive system, the need arose to transfer information from one group of people to another, for which they began to use messengers.

The increase in population density resulted in increased frequency and complexity of contacts between people. Initially, messengers were sent only in emergency cases, and any person could act in such a role. Then the transmission of information over a distance becomes regular or permanent, and the performance of this function turns into a profession.

In Ancient Greece, messengers were called hemerodromes, in Ancient Rome, first cursorii, then tabelarii.

This means of communication was characterized by the fact that information was stored in a person’s memory, moved over a distance using the legs and broadcast using the voice.

Was the speed of such information transfer high?

When in 490 B.C. The Greeks defeated the Persian army under the command of King Darius in the Marathon Valley; they sent a messenger to Athens with a message about this. He ran several tens of kilometers without stopping and, having brought good news to Athens, fell to the ground dead.

After this, a special race walking competition was introduced at the Olympic Games for a distance of 42 km 195 m, and this walking itself was called marathon.

The best modern athletes cover the marathon distance in about two hours, i.e. develop a speed of about 20 km/h. The speed of movement of the hemerodromes reached 10 km/h.

But sometimes it was necessary to convey information faster than even the most physically resilient messenger could deliver it. This leads to the emergence of mechanical means of communication, which are divided into audio and visual.

2. Audio communications

There are two types of sound communications: drums and winds.

One of the simplest sound means is whistling. According to some reports, its sound can be heard 2-3 km away.

Initially, a person used his lips and fingers for this. Then he discovered that the same sound could be made by air escaping from any narrow crack. This is how the whistle appeared, which still exists today. Let's remember a police whistle. With the help of a whistle, the referee regulates the game of football and some other sports games. The whistle is used as a signaling instrument in the navy.

Once upon a time, the pipe played the same role on ships.

Even in ancient times, a horn appeared, with the help of which primitive people gave signals during the hunt.

Over time, the hunting horn turned into a shepherd's horn. I heard a shepherd's horn as a child in a Pskov village near the city of Velikiye Luki. With its help, the shepherd gathered the village flock in the morning, and in the evening gave a sign that the herd was returning home.

When hunting for animals gave way to hunting for people, the hunting horn turned into a military bugle (trumpet). By the way, the word “horn” comes from the German “Horn - horn”. With its help, a gathering signal was given and commands were given.

The pioneer bugle played a similar role in Soviet times.

In ancient times, there was also a postal horn that announced the arrival of foot or horse mail.

Then the buzzer appeared - a mechanical device for producing long, monotonous sounds. At one time, steam locomotives and steamships were equipped with whistles. Let us remember the words of the song - “the slightly hoarse whistle of a steamship.” Now such signals are given by diesel locomotives, motor ships, and electric trains.

Everyone is well aware of the car and motorcycle horn, with which the driver warns pedestrians of his approach.

For a long time, beeps were used in factories and factories. With their help, a signal was given about the beginning and end of a work shift. In the mid-50s, by the beep at the brick factory in the city of Velikiye Luki, many in the village of Lipets, about five kilometers away from the city, where I lived then, recognized the time.

A similar signal in the form of a siren continues to be used to this day.

A siren is “a device for producing sound or ultrasonic vibrations by interrupting a stream of air or steam.” You can name car sirens on fire trucks, police cars and ambulances.

Siren is one of the sound signals in the fleet. During the Second World War, the air raid alarm was signaled and cleared in a similar way.

Along with wind instruments, percussion instruments appeared in ancient times, of which the drum was especially widespread.

The oldest type of drum was the tom-tom. The natives of Africa, America and Australia made it by burning or hollowing out the inside of a tree trunk. Such a drum could reach several meters in length and produce a sound that could travel several kilometers.

Drums and tom-toms

With the help of a drum, clan or tribal groups gave a sign of gathering for ritual celebrations, warned each other about the impending danger,

When the clan community broke up into separate families and transformed into a neighboring or territorial community, the clan village turned into a village consisting of several peasant households, each of which was surrounded by a fence. Therefore, a person had to communicate his desire to enter the courtyard by knocking on the gate or on the door of the house.

We still use this technique now, when we use knocking to announce our intention to enter a room or ask permission to do so. Later, knocking on the door was replaced by an electric bell and intercom.

When metal appeared, it was discovered that striking one metal object against another produced a sound that could be stronger and louder than drum sounds.

The first bells began to be cast in the East. The most ancient of them were discovered by archaeologists in the territory of the former Assyria and date back to the mid-9th century. BC e. Initially, metal was rare, so bells were small. The increase in their size begins in Europe around the 4th-6th centuries.

“The bell,” says the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, “was used for a wide variety of purposes: in festive processions, to greet the victors, to announce the beginning and end of work, to convene the population (veche bell), to gather troops and announce the alarm (alarm), to give signals lost and in distress, etc.”

From the 9th century The bell became firmly established in the life of the Christian Church. It is used to signal the service. By the ringing of the bells, you can determine whether it is a matins or evening service, about Christmas, Epiphany or Easter.

Even in ancient times, man had a need to measure time. First by year, then within a year by month, week and day, then within a day. This is how clocks appeared: solar, water, sand. It was the hourglass that was once used on ships. In order for the ship's crew to navigate in time, a bell rang after a certain time. And since the hourglass was made of glass, the expression appeared: breaking the glass.

Hourglass

The hourglass was replaced by mechanical watches. You can find different information about the time of their invention. However, the earliest reliable data dates back only to 1335, when a similar clock was installed in Milan on the tower of the Viscount's Palace. They did not have a dial and a bell sounded the time every hour. It is no coincidence that the English word clock is “clock”, and the French “cloche”, and the ancient German “Glocke” mean “bell”.

Later, clocks appeared that began to show time using rotating hands.

Initially, the only educated class was the clergy; education was ecclesiastical in nature, and in schools, bells were used to signal the beginning and end of classes.

Then miniature bells began to be made for schools - bells, called bells. The school bell still exists today. The bell regulates study sessions in higher education institutions.

For a long time it was used in rich homes and institutions. With its help, the owner of the house called a servant, the boss of his assistant or secretary. Some institutions still use a bell to signal the start and end of work.

We know from literature that bells were once hung under an arc. Let us remember the words of the romance: “And the bell, a gift from Valdai, rings sadly under the arc.” Thus, on the one hand, they scared away the predatory animals with which the forests then swarmed, on the other hand, they reported the approach of a carriage or sleigh.

Bells or bells were tied to the necks of cows. The bell was also supposed to scare away predators and make it easier to find the cow if she strayed from the herd.

Where there was no bell, a simple piece of metal could be used. If we open the story of A.I. Solzhenitsyn’s “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich”, we can read: “At five o’clock in the morning, as always, the rise struck - with a hammer on the rail at the headquarters barracks. An intermittent ringing faintly passed through the glass, which was frozen into two fingers, and soon died down.”

Until now, on some sports grounds (for example, in boxing), the start and end of a round are signaled by the blow of a judge’s gong, and the end of bidding at an auction by the blow of a wooden mallet.

When firearms appeared, they also began to be used to produce sound signals. Until recently, a cannon shot was one of the sound signals given in the fleet. A similar shot from the wall of the Peter and Paul Fortress now announces the approach of noon in St. Petersburg. Until now, at sports competitions, the signal to start the race is given from a special starting pistol.

The speed of sound is about 330 m/sec. But already at a distance of several hundred meters the sound fades away.

Only very strong sounds, such as the wail of a siren, the sound of thunder, the sounds of artillery shots, are heard at a relatively large distance of up to 10-20 km, and sometimes more.

3. Visual communication

Along with sound, visual means of transmitting information also emerged in ancient times.

The simplest visual means primarily include postures, facial expressions, and gestures, which were widely used by primitive man and which we use today.

With the help of facial expressions, a person expresses or, conversely, hides his feelings. Facial expressions are the most important means of expression in theatrical and performing arts in general.

Gestures as a means of transmitting information are used in the language of the deaf and dumb. A system of gestures exists in the army. By putting their hand to their hat, the military greets a friend (“salute”). Using the “language” of gestures, the conductor controls such complex groups as a musical orchestra or choir.

Someone calculated that with the help of hands you can make several thousand different movements.

Raising his hand while hunting, the elder gave the sign of “attention”, making a wave of his hand, gave the command to begin actions.

The barrier plays a similar role. If it is raised, it means: the path is open, if it is lowered, the path is closed.

When the construction of railways began, not only barriers appeared at crossings, but also semaphores along the railway track. With their help, commands were given to locomotive drivers.

As long as people traveled on the roads on foot, on horseback, in carts and carriages, no one regulated traffic. The only signs that were placed along the roads were poles that made it possible to determine the distance. In our country, they have long been called verstovye.

The situation on the roads changed when the automobile was invented. In this regard, traffic controllers appeared at intersections. The more cars there were, the more traffic controllers were needed. Then the traffic light was invented. Traffic lights replaced semaphores on railways.

Other means began to be used to regulate traffic: traffic signs, road markings into stripes, the so-called “zebra”, indicating the crossing point.

Wax seal

Once upon a time, in order to distinguish one messenger from another, they began to be equipped with special signs, which were called tokens or seals.

Later, seals began to be attached to documents sent by messengers or by mail. When the flow of correspondence increased, instead of hanging seals, seals appeared - impressions or stamps.

Since during the Middle Ages many European knights were clad in armor, to distinguish them from each other, special distinctive signs appeared on the armor - coats of arms. Later they appeared on seals.

The need to distinguish friend from foe on the battlefield and beyond led to the emergence of uniforms. Later it began to differ according to the types of troops. The uniform appeared on officials, students and schoolchildren. Some commercial organizations have their own uniform.

To distinguish a commander from a subordinate, insignia were introduced.

Those who have been on tourist trips know that where it is very crowded, the guide, in order not to lose the tourist group, moves with a flag in his hands.

Knightly coats of arms

It was for this purpose that flags and banners once appeared. True, they were originally intended not for tourists, but for warriors. The first mentions of military banners in Rus' date back to 1136 and 1153. Now every military unit, every warship has a banner.

Banners differ in size, shape, color, signs and inscriptions on the banner.

The appearance of flags, banners and banners led to the emergence of flag signaling. Since at sea it is impossible to quickly transmit information from one ship to another with the help of messengers or messengers, they began to use signaling using a set of flags raised on the masts of the ship, or by waving flags.

In Russia, the system of “signal production” on ships was legalized under Peter I in 1699.

With the help of facial expressions, gestures, and flags, information can only be transmitted at close range. To transmit it over long distances, other means are needed. One of them is fire, which in the dark can be seen several kilometers away.

Speed ​​of sound - 330 m/sec. The speed of light is 300,000 km/sec, i.e. a million times more. It is no coincidence that during a thunderstorm we first see lightning, then hear thunder.

The legend of the capture of the city of Troy is well known. Having failed to take it by storm, the Greeks resorted to cunning. They gave the Trojans a wooden horse in which the soldiers were hidden. At night, the soldiers emerged from their hiding place, killed the Trojan guards and lit a fire at the city gates. At this signal, their comrades entered the city and captured it.

When navigation began to develop, for a long time it had a coastal character. Therefore, fire began to be used to indicate the coastline at night. This is how lighthouses appeared.

Around 280 BC Egyptian Emperor Ptolemy II ordered the construction of a lighthouse on the island of Foros, which would show sailors the way to Alexandria harbor.

In the 50s AD The Romans built a lighthouse in the port of Ostia. By 400 there were at least 30 lighthouses in the Roman Empire. During the Middle Ages, numerous lighthouses existed in the Arab Caliphate and on the Indian Ocean coast. In Western Europe, the construction of lighthouses resumed in the 12th century. Over time, they became an indispensable attribute of navigation.

Later, to mark the fairway or dangerous places, they began to use floating signs secured with an anchor and called buoys. Initially, the buoys stood out on the water surface with a bright color, then, so that they could be seen at night, the buoys began to be equipped with lanterns.

The main difference between the lantern is that its light source is completely or partially covered by a glass case. The case protects the light source from wind, rain and snow.

Glass production began in Egypt around 3000 BC. However, transparent glass appeared only at the turn of our century. It was originally produced in Rome. In the 13th century. The center of glass production moved to Venice.

The invention of the lantern led to the appearance of ship lights. “Ship lights,” says the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, “are installed on ships in a certain combination at night to indicate its location, direction of movement, type, condition, as well as the type of work being performed.”

Over time, all types of transport began to be equipped with lanterns, which were called headlights. Car headlights not only illuminate the path at night, but also act as warning signs for pedestrians or oncoming traffic.

Rear lights on cars play a similar role. They are designed to show the dimensions of the machine. With their help, the driver communicates his intention to make a turn.

“Flashing lights” on cars let you know that this is a special vehicle: a fire truck, an ambulance, a police car or a high-ranking official.

Diesel locomotives, electric locomotives, river and sea vessels are equipped with headlights or spotlights. All planes have flashing lights on their wings at night. This can be seen from the ground with the naked eye.

Warning alarms are also widely used in aircraft navigation. It is carried out by ground daytime signs in the form of geometric shapes made of different materials, or at night by light signals. Depending on the purpose, the signs are given different shapes: ring, cross, triangle, square, etc.

A flashlight that provides directed and concentrated light emission is called a spotlight. One of its features is a mirror reflector, which allows you to increase the range of light propagation.

Until the 20th century, heliographs were used. A heliograph is a light-signaling device with a mirror reflector of sunlight.

When firearms appeared, flares were invented. With their help, the army began to issue commands.

In 1940, Military Publishing House published a special book on signaling. It named the following means used in the Red Army of that time: milestones, fires, rockets, flags, lanterns, panels, semaphores, heliograph, searchlight, Zeiss telegraph.

This indicates that some of the simplest means of communication, which arose in ancient times, continued to be used until the middle of the 20th century.

LECTURE 2. MAIL

1. Writing

2. The birth of mail

3. Post in Western Europe

4. Post in Russia.

5. Industrial revolution and its consequences

6. Postal service in the era of industrialization

Literature

A) Mandatory

Ostrovsky A.V. History of communications. Tutorial. St. Petersburg, 2009. pp. 20 -40.

B) Additional

Vigilev A.N. History of domestic mail. M., 1990.

Gogol A.A., Nikodimov I.Yu. Essays on the history of the development of communications in Russia. St. Petersburg, 1999.

1. Writing

For a long time, information was transmitted directly from one person to another and could only be stored in human memory.

Two very important consequences followed from this: firstly, society’s accumulation of knowledge about the surrounding world was limited by the capabilities of human memory, and secondly, the volume of this knowledge largely depended on the life expectancy of individual people.

It is no coincidence that in primitive society, older people enjoyed special honor and respect. They were not only the embodiment of worldly wisdom, but also the keepers of life experience and knowledge about the world around them. Therefore, it was from among them that the head of the clan was first chosen, who in many nations was called an elder.

When the “elder” died, the knowledge he had accumulated “died” with him. And if he did not have time to pass them on to those around him, after his death many things had to be started all over again.

This phenomenon received a vivid artistic expression in the film “Heart of Glass” by German director Werner Herzig. The plot of the film is as follows. Somewhere deep in the mountains there was a small town that flourished, the center of which was a glass factory. The factory produced wonderful dishes. But only one master possessed the secret of its production, who did not want to share it with anyone. And so the master died. All his knowledge perished with him. The plant fell into disrepair, and after it the entire town fell into disrepair.

Since life expectancy in primitive society was short, and people often became victims of wild animals, diseases and natural disasters, this happened more than once. And although at the stage of the appropriating economy, when humanity was fragmented into many tribes scattered across the planet and isolated from each other, the periodic loss of accumulated knowledge by individual groups did not have a catastrophic impact on all societies, it undoubtedly restrained its development.

The negative role of this factor began to increase when tribes were replaced by states that united tens and hundreds of thousands, millions of people.

The transition from an appropriating economy to a producing one and the associated emergence of the state meant the transition of human society to a new stage of development, called civilization.

Initially, the main role in the producing economy was played by agricultural production (livestock raising, farming), then industry. Based on this, two types of civilization can be distinguished: agricultural and industrial.

The transition to a producing economy was accompanied by a complication of economic and social life and led to an expansion of the volume of information circulating among people and an increase in its importance in the life of society. This gave rise to the need to consolidate, preserve and accumulate information, resulting in writing.

Writing is the recording of speech, which serves to transmit it over a distance and consolidate it in time and is carried out with the help of descriptive notations expressing certain elements of speech.

The oldest was knotted writing, which Europeans became familiar with in the 16th century. in America among the Incas. In ancient times it also existed among other peoples, for example, in Asia and Africa.

More common was pictorial writing, on the basis of which hieroglyphic writing arose. At the dawn of civilization, it was used in Africa (Egyptians), in Asia (Chinese), in Latin America (Mayans). It is now widespread in Southeast Asia.

Like drawings, hieroglyphs can mean whole words and even sentences, but unlike drawings they have only a conditional, symbolic character.

Drawing writing developed according to the piggy bank principle, i.e. The greater the volume of information became, the more drawings were required to express it. Initially, hieroglyphic writing developed in a similar way.

This was one of the reasons for the appearance of hieroglyphs, denoting individual syllables with which words can be composed. A similar syllabary writing system was used in Mycenae in the 2nd millennium BC, in the 3rd - 1st centuries. BC. became widespread in India. Almost all types of writing that now exist in India and Indochina originated from it.

In the 2nd millennium BC. the alphabet was invented

The word "alphabet" comes from the name of the first two Greek letters "alpha" and "vita" (or beta). In reference literature, the concept of “alphabet” is characterized as “a set of graphemes (letters)”, and “grapheme” as “the smallest meaningful unit of written speech, corresponding to a phoneme in oral speech.”

The essence of this invention was that for each sound pronounced by a person, a special designation was invented - a letter, which in itself, like this sound, does not mean anything, but using letters, one can designate the words pronounced by a person. As a result, it became possible to record any information using several dozen characters.

The question of the origin of the alphabet is debatable. Most often, the Phoenicians are called its creators. The Jews and Greeks borrowed the alphabet from the Phoenicians. The Greek alphabet formed the basis of the Latin alphabet, Arabic writing and the Slavic alphabet.

If the emergence of language opened up the possibility of storing knowledge about the world around us in the volume of human memory, as well as transmitting it from generation to generation through personal, direct communication, then writing made it possible not only to save and accumulate information, but to do this in increasing volumes, exceeding human capabilities. memory. From that moment on, the amount of information accumulated by society was made dependent not on the life expectancy of individual people, but on the duration of existence of the entire society. At the same time, completely new opportunities have opened up for the transfer and therefore dissemination of knowledge.

In this regard, the creation of writing can be considered as the second information revolution, which resulted in the acceleration of the development of culture, and with it the entire society.

Writing, the state and the productive economy are the main features of that stage of development of society, which is called “civilization”.

The development of writing, and therefore the accumulation and dissemination of information, was largely associated with the use of writing material.

In Ancient Egypt, such a role was played by papyrus, an aquatic herbaceous plant suitable not only for making fabric, but also for writing material. Papyrus appeared in Egypt at the end of the 3rd millennium BC, then spread to the Mediterranean and was used here until our era.

In the Middle East, people wrote on clay tablets for a long time. But since they were fragile, they too were eventually replaced by papyrus.

In the search for a substitute, attention was paid to animal skins. This is how parchment or parchment appeared - calfskin treated in a special way. It got its name from the Asia Minor city of Pergamum, which was once famous for the production of this writing material.

Wooden tablets were also used for writing. In China they were written on with paint, in Rus' they were covered with wax and “written” with sticks. In addition, birch bark was used as a writing material in Rus'.

Writing became more widespread after the advent of paper.

Paper was invented in China at the turn of our era no later than the 2nd century. AD In the VI-VIII centuries. its production has become widespread in Central Asia, Korea and Japan. In VIII it appeared among the Arabs. In the XI-XII centuries. The Arabs introduced it to the Europeans. In the 12th century. Italians began to produce it, in the 13th century - the Germans, in the 14th century - the British. In the XIV-XV centuries. they began to use it in Rus'.

Printing played an important role in the dissemination of knowledge. It was also invented in China, back in the 7th century. In the 15th century I. Gutenberg laid the foundation for book printing in Western Europe.

The spread of knowledge led to the emergence and development of periodicals, primarily newspapers. The word "newspaper" comes from the Italian word "gazzetta" - originally a small denomination coin. The first handwritten newspaper, “Chimes,” appeared in Russia in 1621, the first printed newspaper, “Vedomosti,” in 1702.

Since writing material was expensive for a long time, and the majority of the population was illiterate, the correspondence that arose was mainly of an official nature, followed by business and, finally, personal correspondence.

As the flow of correspondence expanded, the formation and development of such a means of communication as mail took place.

2. The birth of mail

What distinguishes mail from other types of communication?

According to experts, the word “mail” comes from the Late Latin word “posita”, which once meant a stop or station. Consequently, mail was originally understood as the transfer of information from hand to hand like a relay race.

It can be taken for granted that the Greek hemerodromes moved at a speed of 10 km/h. However, if this was the case, then the speed of their movement was inversely proportional to the distance, in other words, the greater the distance they needed to overcome, the less speed they could move.

To ensure their movement at maximum speed, it was necessary to divide the distance they covered into short distances and organize the transfer of information from one messenger to another.

In this regard, it should be noted that in ancient times (for example, in India and China) one of the attributes of messengers were bells, i.e. small bells. Some authors believe that with their help the messengers signaled that they should give way. However, it is unlikely that in ancient India and in ancient China the streets were so crowded with people that there was a need for such an alarm.

More likely something else. In this way, the messengers announced their approach to the relay or postal stations, so that those who needed to convey information were ready to immediately follow when they arrived.

Later, when the foot ends were replaced by the horse ones, the bells began to be hung from the arc.

It is necessary to pay attention to one more circumstance. The word “mail” means not only a communication establishment, but also forwarded correspondence. Therefore, the formation of mail as a means of communication ends when the oral transmission of information is replaced by written information, i.e. when forwarding correspondence becomes the main function of mail.

The earliest information about the existence of mail dates back to the end of the 3rd millennium BC. By this time there are references to the existence of a royal couriers service in Ancient Egypt. “Around 2000 BC,” write P. James and N. Thorpe, “the Egyptian pharaohs established a royal courier service that delivered correspondence first by river and then by land,” and “around 1900 BC” AD relay stations were installed.”

During excavations in El Amarna, the remains of an archive from the mid-14th century were discovered. BC. Among the surviving documents, we were able to read letters to Tutankhamun.

Earlier traces of postal correspondence were preserved in the territory of the Turkish city of Kultepe. Here archaeologists unearthed about 16 thousand clay tablets dating back to the 19th century. BC..

One of these most ancient letters reads: “I received your instructions and on the same day that the tablet with your letter arrived, I gave your agents three minas of silver to buy lead. So, if you are still my brother, return my money by courier.”

No later than 1000 BC. Postal service originated in China. Apparently, initially she was also on foot. Despite this, Confucius (551-479 BC) wrote: “...Just deeds spread faster than imperial orders transmitted by relay or courier.” From this it is clear that in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. in China there were also relay or postal stations.

As already noted, when in 490 BC. The Greeks needed to report the defeat of the Persians in the Marathon Valley, they sent a messenger to Athens. From this it is clear that in the 5th century. BC. the Greeks even used foot messengers to transmit emergency information.

Only a horse could increase the speed of a messenger's movement. The wild horse lived in the Indo-European steppes and was domesticated around the 4th-3rd millennium BC. However, the earliest information about its use in harness dates back to the 16th-14th centuries. BC, it began to be used for horse riding no earlier than the 14th century. BC..

But “even at the end of the 2nd millennium BC,” writes V. A. Shnirelman, “such Indo-European peoples as the Thracians, Illyrians, Dorians and Achaeans either did not know horse riding at all, or rode horses very rarely.”

Horse riding became widespread only in the 1st millennium BC. One of the peoples who were the first to use it for postal purposes were the Persians.

Writing about the Persian ruler Darius II, the Greek historian Xenophon (430-355 BC) wrote: “After he had established what distance a horse could travel during the day before it needed to be fed, he arranged for the appropriate at distances there were special stations where horses and grooms were located. In addition, he appointed a caretaker to each of these stations, whose duties included receiving and further sending letters, sheltering tired horses and people and sending fresh ones. They say that delivery was not interrupted at night either.”

“Nothing in the world moves as fast as Persian couriers,” wrote another Greek historian, Herodotus, who lived in the 5th century. BC - nothing can slow down their speed over the distance they must travel - neither snow, nor rain, nor heat, nor darkness. The first horseman passes the message to the second, the second to the third, and then, from hand to hand, along the entire line, like fire during a Greek torch run.”

As a result of this, they covered the 1,600-mile journey from the capital of the Persian Empire, the city of Susa, to the coast of the Aegean Sea in 9 days. If we consider that the ancient Greek mile was equal to 1.4 km, it turns out that the delivery speed of Persian mail was about 250 km per day.

When in 330 B.C. Alexander the Great (356-323 BC) defeated Persia, he preserved its mail. Seven years later, Alexander the Great died, his empire collapsed, and the post office it inherited from the Persians fell into decay.

Time passed and a new major power arose in the Mediterranean - the Roman Empire. It surpassed the Persian in size, and therefore needed even more advanced means of communication.

The Apennine Peninsula has such an extensive transport system that the saying was born: “All roads lead to Rome.” According to some data, during the heyday of the Roman Empire, their total length exceeded 100 thousand km.

The postal service acquired an orderly character during the reign of Emperor Augustus (27 BC - 14 AD). Under him, postal stations appeared on the roads where one could rest and change horses. This ensured mail delivery at a speed of 10-15 km/h.

In the 7th century In Western Asia, on the ruins of the empire of the Sassanid dynasty, a new state arose in which the followers of the Prophet Muhammad gained power - the Arab Caliphate.

From the capital of the caliphate, Baghdad, roads stretched to different parts of the empire, on which more than 900 postal stations were opened.

Caliph Abu Jafar Mansur stated: “My throne rests on four pillars and my dominion on four persons, namely: an impeccable qadi (judge), an energetic governor of the police, an honest minister of finance and a faithful postmaster who informs me of everything.”

There is an opinion that the postal service continued to exist after the collapse of the Arab Caliphate in the 11th century, until it was destroyed as a result of Timur’s conquest in 1400.

By that time, another more extensive postal service had been created. In the middle of the 13th century. The Mongol Empire arose, the borders of which stretched from Central Europe to the Pacific Ocean. The Italian Marco Polo, who visited it in the second half of this century, in his notes compared the Mongolian mail with the Persian and cited figures that amaze our imagination.

According to him, about 10 thousand postal stations were created throughout the empire, which were served by 200-300 thousand horses. The average distance between postal stations was about 25 miles, 40 km. This means that the length of post roads reached 400 thousand km.

A fact that seems incredible

In the XIV century. The Mongol Empire entered a period of fragmentation. As a consequence of this, the old postal service collapsed. But not everywhere. In China it continued to exist even after the expulsion of the conquerors.

Along with foot and horse mail, another type of postal service arose in ancient times. It was noticed that pigeons always return to their nests, wherever they were taken. To this it should be added that the pigeon is capable of reaching speeds of up to 60-70, and according to some sources, more than 100 km/h, which far exceeds the speed of movement not only of a foot messenger, but also of a horseman.

People began to use these qualities of pigeons to transmit emergency correspondence with their help. The earliest records of domesticated pigeons date back to around 2000 BC. (Sumerians), and the first known fact of using carrier pigeons dates back to the 12th century. BC. (Egyptians).

Carrier pigeons were used by the ancient Greeks and ancient Romans, Arabs, Chinese, Turks, Chinese and Europeans.

During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871. With the help of pigeons, besieged Paris maintained contact with the outside world. During the Second World War, Great Britain had almost half a million carrier pigeons. There is evidence that in emergencies in Japan, pigeon mail was used even at the end of the 20th century.

3. Post in Western Europe

During the years of crisis of the Roman Empire III-V centuries. its post office fell into disrepair. Postal stations ceased to operate, and many roads were overgrown with grass.

The Frankish king Clovis I (465-511) tried to at least partially preserve the Roman mail, but after in the 9th century. Under Charlemagne, the empire created by his descendants disintegrated, and the single post office on its territory finally ceased to exist.

From this time on, the papal mail became the most extensive, since the Vatican maintained contacts with all dioceses in Europe. Monasteries and knightly orders had their own post office. Postal communication between universities emerges and spreads.

In the XII-XIII centuries. A wave of urban revolutions swept across Western Europe. Almost all more or less large cities gained independence from the feudal lords and established self-government. To communicate with each other, they created their own city or municipal post office.

Livestock buyers who were constantly on the move were particularly mobile in the Middle Ages. Some townspeople began to use them to send mail. This is how the “butchers’ post” arose, which existed until the 17th century.

In the 15th century The Royal Post Office was established in France. It began to provide services to private individuals and since 1598 it has become publicly accessible. In this regard, the monastic, knightly, municipal, university post and “butchers' post” lost their former meaning. And in 1719, Louis XV introduced a state monopoly on postal services.

The most extensive Western European state entity throughout the Middle Ages was the Holy Roman Empire. It included dozens of large and small states of Austria, Hungary, Germany, the Netherlands, Spain and Italy. Therefore, here the problem of postal communication was much more important than in other parts of Europe.

At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. The Thurn and Taxis postal company arose, which existed for two and a half centuries and gradually connected with each other all the states that were part of the Holy Roman Empire. The royal power in Prussia bought their postal service from the Taxis only in 1867.

In Spain, royal power took control of the postal service at the beginning of the 18th century, in Holland - in the middle of the 18th century, in Switzerland - at the end of the 18th century. In North America, before the revolution, the post office was subordinate to the General Post Office in London, after the emergence of the United States of America - to the federal government. In England, for a long time, the post office belonged to the family of R. Allan and his descendants. At the end of the 18th century. it also passed into the hands of the state

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MEANS OF COMMUNICATION:

DEVELOPMENT,

PROBLEMS,

PROSPECTS

MATERIALS

SCIENTIFIC AND PRACTICAL CONFERENCE

MUNICIPAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

"NOVOSELITSKA SECONDARY EDUCATION SCHOOL"

NOVGOROD DISTRICT, NOVGOROD REGION

The conference materials contain information from the simplest audio and visual means for transmitting signals and commands to the most modern. The historical path of development and improvement of communications, the role of scientists and practitioners, the latest achievements of physics and technology, and their practical use are shown.

The lesson-conference contributes to the growth of the teacher’s creative potential, the formation of students’ skills in independent work with various sources of information, and allows them to comprehend previously acquired knowledge in a new light, systematize and generalize it. Participation in the conference develops the ability to speak publicly, listen and analyze the messages of your classmates.

The conference materials are designed for creative use and are intended to help teachers prepare and conduct physics lessons.

FROM THE HISTORY OF COMMUNICATIONS

Communications have always played an important role in the life of society. In ancient times, communication was carried out by messengers who transmitted messages orally and then in writing. Signal lights and smoke were among the first to be used. During the day, smoke is clearly visible against the background of clouds, even if the fire itself is not visible, and at night, the flame is visible, especially if it is lit in an elevated place. At first, only pre-agreed signals were transmitted in this way, say, “the enemy is approaching.” Then, by arranging several smokes or lights in a special way, they learned to send entire messages.

Sound signals were used mainly over short distances to gather troops and population. To transmit sound signals, the following were used: a beater (a metal or wooden board), a bell, a drum, a trumpet, a whistle and covers.

The veche bell played a particularly important role in Veliky Novgorod. At his call, Novgorodians gathered at a veche to resolve military and civil matters.

For command and control of troops, banners of various shapes were of no small importance, on which large pieces of various brightly colored fabrics were attached. Military leaders wore distinctive clothing, special headdresses and signs.

In the Middle Ages, flag signaling appeared, which was used in the navy. The shape, color and design of the flags had a specific meaning. One flag could mean a sentence (“The vessel is conducting diving work” or “I require a pilot”), and it, in combination with others, was a letter in a word.

Since the 16th century, the delivery of information using the Yamskaya chase has become widespread in Rus'. Yamskaya tracts were laid to important centers of the state and border cities. In 1516, a Yamskaya hut was created in Moscow to manage the postal service, and in 1550, the Yamskaya order was established - the central institution in Russia in charge of the Yamskaya chase.

In Holland, where there were many windmills, simple messages were transmitted by stopping the wings of the mills in certain positions. This method was developed in optical telegraphy. Towers were erected between cities, which were located at a distance of direct visibility from each other. Each tower had a pair of huge articulated wings with semaphores. The telegraph operator received the message and immediately transmitted it further, moving the wings with levers.

The first optical telegraph was built in 1794 in France, between Paris and Lille. The longest line – 1200 km – operated in the middle of the 19th century. between St. Petersburg and Warsaw. The line had 149 towers. It was served by 1308 people. The signal traveled along the line from end to end in 15 minutes.

In 1832, Russian army officer, physicist and orientalist Pavel Lvovich Schilling invented the world's first electric telegraph. In 1837, Schilling's idea was developed and supplemented by S. Morse. By 1850, the Russian scientist Boris Semenovich Jacobi created a prototype of the world's first telegraph apparatus with letter printing of received messages.

In 1876 (USA) he invented the telephone, and in 1895 a Russian scientist invented the radio. Since the beginning of the twentieth century. Radio communications, radiotelegraph and radiotelephone communications began to be introduced.

Map of Yamsk tracts of the 16th century. Postal routes of Russia in the 18th century.

COMMUNICATION CLASSIFICATION

Communication can be carried out by filing signals of various physical natures:

Sound;

Visual (light);

Electrical.

According With nature of the signals, used for information exchange, means of transmission (reception) and delivery messages and documents communication can be:

Electrical (telecommunications);

Signal;

Courier-postal.

Depending on the linear means used and the signal propagation medium, communication is divided by gender on the:

Wired communication;

Radio communications;

Radio relay communication;

Tropospheric radio communication;

Ionospheric radio communications;

Meteor radio communication;

Space communications;

Optical communication;

Communication by mobile means.

According to the nature of the messages transmitted and mind communication is divided into;

Telephone;

Telegraph;

Telecode (data transmission);

Facsimile (phototelegraph);

Television;

Video telephone;

Signal;

Courier-postal service.

Communication can be done by transmitting information via communication lines:

In clear text;

Coded;

Encrypted (using codes, ciphers) or classified.

Distinguish duplex communication, when simultaneous transmission of messages in both directions is ensured and an interruption (request) of the correspondent is possible, and simplex communication, when transmission is carried out alternately in both directions.

Communication happens bilateral, in which duplex or simplex information exchange is carried out, or unilateral, if messages or signals are transmitted in one direction without a return response or acknowledgment of the received message.

SIGNAL COMMUNICATION

Signal communication carried out by transmitting messages in the form of predetermined signals using signaling means. In the Navy, signaling communications are used to transmit service information between ships, vessels and raid posts, both in plain text and in signals typed in codes.

For signal communication by means of subject signaling, one-, two- and three-flag sets of Navy signals, as well as a flag semaphore, are usually used. Telegraphic Morse code signs are used to transmit clear text and signal combinations of arches by light-signal devices.

Navy ships and vessels and roadstead posts use the International Code of Signals to negotiate with foreign ships, merchant vessels and foreign coastal posts, especially on issues of ensuring the safety of navigation and the safety of life at sea.

Signaling means, means of signaling visual and audio communication, used to transmit short commands, reports, warnings, designations and mutual identification.

Visual means of communication are divided into: a) means of subject signaling (signal flags, figures, flag semaphore); b) means of light communication and signaling (signal lights, spotlights, signal lights); c) pyrotechnic signaling devices (signal cartridges, lighting and signal cartridges, marine signal torches).

Sound signaling means - sirens, megaphones, whistles, horns, ship bells and fog horns.

Signaling means have been used since the days of the rowing fleet to control ships. They were primitive (drum, lit fire, triangular and rectangular shields). Peter I, the creator of the Russian regular fleet, installed various flags and introduced special signals. 22 ship flags, 42 galley flags and several pennants were installed. With the development of the fleet, the number of signals has also increased. In 1773, the book of signals contained 226 reports, 45 night and 21 fog signals.

In 1779, a Russian mechanic invented a “spotlight” with a candle and developed a special code for transmitting signals. In the 19th – 20th centuries. The means of light communication - lanterns and spotlights - were further developed.

Currently, the Naval Code of Signals flag table contains 32 alphabetic, 10 numeric, and 17 special flags.

PHYSICAL FUNDAMENTALS OF TELECOMMUNICATION

At the end of the twentieth century, widespread telecommunications – transmission of information through electrical signals or electromagnetic waves. Signals travel through communication channels - wires (cables) or wirelessly.

All methods of telecommunication - telephone, telegraph, telefax, Internet, radio and television are similar in structure. At the beginning of the channel there is a device that converts information (sound, image, text, commands) into electrical signals. These signals are then converted into a form suitable for transmission over long distances, amplified to the required power and “sent” to the cable network or radiated into space.

Along the way, the signals are greatly weakened, so intermediate amplifiers are provided. They are often built into cables and placed on repeaters (from the Latin re - a prefix indicating repeated action, and translator - “carrier”), transmitting signals via terrestrial communication lines or via satellite.

At the other end of the line, the signals enter a receiver with an amplifier, then they are converted into a form convenient for processing and storage, and, finally, they are again converted into sound, image, text, commands.

WIRED COMMUNICATION

Before the advent and development of radio communications, wired communications were considered the main one. By purpose, wired communications are divided into:

Long-distance – for interregional and interdistrict communications;

Internal – for communication in a populated area, in production and office premises;

Service - to manage the operational service on lines and communication centers.

Wired communication lines are often interfaced with radio relay, tropospheric and satellite lines. Wired communication, due to its great vulnerability (natural influences: strong winds, accumulation of snow and ice, lightning strikes or criminal human activity) has disadvantages in application.

TELEGRAPH COMMUNICATION

Telegraph communication is used to transmit alphanumeric information. Auditory telegraph radio communication is the simplest type of communication, which is economical and noise-resistant, but its speed is low. Telegraph direct-printing communication has a higher transmission speed and the ability to document received information.

In 1837, Schilling's idea was developed and supplemented by S. Morse. He proposed a telegraph alphabet and a simpler telegraph apparatus. In 1884, the American inventor Morse commissioned the first writing telegraph line in the United States between Washington and Baltimore, 63 km long. Supported by other scientists and entrepreneurs, Morse achieved significant distribution of his devices not only in America, but also in most European countries.

By 1850, Russian scientist Boris Semenovich Jacobi

(1801 - 1874) created a prototype of the world's first telegraph apparatus with letter printing of received messages.

The operating principle of a writing electromagnetic telegraph apparatus is as follows. Under the influence of current pulses coming from the line, the armature of the receiving electromagnet was attracted, and in the absence of current, it was repelled. A pencil was attached to the end of the anchor. In front of him, a matte porcelain or earthenware plate moved along guides using a clock mechanism.

When the electromagnet was operating, a wavy line was recorded on the plate, the zigzags of which corresponded to certain signs. A simple key was used as a transmitter, closing and opening an electrical circuit.

In 1841, Jacobi built the first electric telegraph line in Russia between the Winter Palace and the General Headquarters in St. Petersburg, and two years later a new line to the palace in Tsarskoe Selo. Telegraph lines consisted of insulated copper wires buried in the ground.

During the construction of the St. Petersburg-Moscow railway, the government insisted on laying an underground telegraph line along it. Jacobi proposed building an overhead line on wooden poles, arguing that the reliability of communications over such a long distance could not be guaranteed. As one would expect, this line, built in 1852, did not last even two years due to imperfect insulation and was replaced by an overhead line.

The academician carried out important work on electrical machines, electrical telegraphs, mine electrical engineering, electrochemistry and electrical measurements. He discovered a new method of electroplating.

The essence of telegraph communication is the representation of a finite number of symbols of an alphanumeric message in the transmitter of a telegraph apparatus by a corresponding number of different combinations of elementary signals. Each such combination, called a code combination, corresponds to a letter or number.

Transmission of code combinations is usually carried out by binary alternating current signals, most often modulated by frequency. Upon reception, the electrical signals are converted back into characters and these characters are registered on paper in accordance with the accepted code combinations.

Telegraph communication is characterized by reliability, speed of telegraphy (transmission), reliability and secrecy of transmitted information. Telegraph communications are developing in the direction of further improving equipment, automating the processes of transmitting and receiving information.

TELEPHONE COMMUNICATIONS

Telephone communication is intended for conducting oral conversations between people (personal or business). When managing complex air defense systems, railway transport, oil and gas pipelines, operational telephone communication is used, which ensures the exchange of information between the central control point and controlled objects located at a distance of up to several thousand km. It is possible to record messages on audio recording devices.

The telephone was invented by an American on February 14, 1876. Structurally, Bell's telephone was a tube with a magnet inside. On its pole pieces there is a coil with a large number of turns of insulated wire. A metal membrane is located opposite the pole pieces.

Bell's telephone receiver was used to transmit and receive speech sounds. The call to the subscriber was made through the same handset using a whistle. The range of the phone did not exceed 500 m.

A miniature color television camera equipped with a micro-bulb turns into a medical probe. By inserting it into the stomach or esophagus, the doctor examines what previously could only be seen during surgery.

Modern television equipment allows you to control complex and hazardous production. The operator-dispatcher monitors several technological processes simultaneously on the monitor screen. The operator-dispatcher of the road safety service solves a similar problem, monitoring traffic flows on roads and intersections on the monitor screen.

Television is widely used for surveillance, reconnaissance, control, communications, command and control, in weapon guidance systems, navigation, astro-orientation and astro-correction, for monitoring underwater and space objects.

In the missile forces, television makes it possible to monitor preparations for launch and launch of missiles, monitoring the condition of units and components in flight.

In the navy, television provides control and surveillance of the surface situation, overview of premises, equipment and personnel actions, search and detection of sunken objects, bottom mines, and rescue operations.

Small-sized television cameras can be delivered to the reconnaissance area using artillery shells, unmanned aircraft controlled by radio.

Television has found wide application in simulators.

Television systems, working in conjunction with radar and direction-finding equipment, are used to provide air traffic control services at airports, flights in adverse weather conditions and blind landings of aircraft.

The use of television is limited by insufficient range, dependence on weather and lighting conditions, and low noise immunity.

Television development trends include expanding the range of spectral sensitivity, introducing color and volumetric television, reducing the weight and dimensions of equipment.

VIDEO PHONE COMMUNICATION

Videotelephony - a combination of telephone communication and slow-motion television (with a small number of scan lines) - can be carried out over telephone channels. It allows you to see your interlocutor and show simple still images.

FELDJEGERSKO – POSTAL SERVICES

Delivery of documents, periodicals, parcels and personal correspondence is carried out using couriers and mobile communications equipment: airplanes, helicopters, cars, armored personnel carriers, motorcycles, boats, etc.

CONNECTION QUALITY

The quality of communication is determined by the totality of its interconnected basic properties (characteristics).

Timeliness communications– its ability to ensure the transmission and delivery of messages or negotiations at a given time is determined by the deployment time of nodes and communication lines, the speed of establishing communication with the correspondent, and the speed of information transfer.

Communication reliability– its ability to operate reliably (stablely) for a certain period of time with the reliability, secrecy and speed specified for given operating conditions. A significant impact on the reliability of communication is exerted by the noise immunity of the communication system, lines, channels, which characterizes their ability to function under conditions of exposure to all types of interference.

Reliability of communication– its ability to ensure the reception of transmitted messages with a given accuracy, which is estimated by the loss of reliability, that is, the ratio of the number of characters received with error to the total number of transmitted ones.

In conventional communication lines, the loss of reliability is at best 10-3 - 10-4, so they use additional technical devices to detect and correct errors. In automated control systems in developed countries, the reliability standard is 10-7 – 10-9.

Communication secrecy characterized by the secrecy of the fact of communication, the degree to which distinctive features of communication are revealed, and the secrecy of the content of the transmitted information. The secrecy of the content of transmitted information is ensured through the use of classification, encryption, and encoding equipment for transmitted messages.

PROSPECTS FOR COMMUNICATION DEVELOPMENT

Currently, all types and types of communications and the corresponding technical means are being improved. In radio relay communications, new sections of the ultra-high frequency range are used. In tropospheric communications, measures are taken against communication disruptions due to changes in the state of the troposphere. Space communications are being improved on the basis of “stationary” relay satellites with multiple access equipment. Optical (laser) communications are being developed and put into practical use, primarily for transmitting large amounts of information in real time between satellites and spacecraft.

Much attention is paid to standardization and unification of blocks, components and elements of equipment for various purposes in order to create unified communication systems.

One of the main directions for improving communication systems in developed countries is to ensure the transmission of all types of information (telephone, telegraph, facsimile, computer data, etc.) in converted discrete-pulse (digital) form. Digital communication systems have great advantages in creating global communication systems.

LITERATURE

1. Computer science. Encyclopedia for children. Volume 22. M., “Avanta+”. 2003.

2. At the origins of television. Newspaper "Physics", No. 16, 2000.

3. Craig A., Rosni K. Science. Encyclopedia. M., "Rosman". 1994.

4. Kyandskaya-, On the issue of the world’s first radiogram. Newspaper "Physics", No. 12, 2001.

5. Morozov invented, and for which G. Marconi received a patent. Newspaper "Physics", No. 16, 2002.

6. MS - DOS - no question! Editorial and Publishing Center "Tok". Smolensk 1993.

7. Reid S., Farah P. History of discoveries. M., "Rosman". 1995.

8. Soviet military encyclopedia. M., Military Publishing House of the Ministry of Defense. 1980.

9. Technique. Encyclopedia for children. Volume 14. M., “Avanta+”. 1999.

10. Turov military communications. Volume 1,2,3. M., Military Publishing House. 1991.

11. Wilkinson F., Pollard M. Scientists who changed the world. M., “The Word”. 1994.

12. Urvalov of television equipment. (ABOUT). Newspaper "Physics", No. 26, 2000.

13. Urvalov electronic television. Newspaper "Physics", No. 4, 2002.

14. Fedotov schemes by O. Lodge, G. Marconi. Newspaper "Physics", No. 4, 2001.

15. Physics. Encyclopedia for children. Volume 16. M., “Avanta+”. 2000.

16. Hafkemeyer H. Internet. Journey through the worldwide computer network. M., “The Word”. 1998.

17. At the origins of radar in the USSR. M., “Soviet Radio”. 1977.

18. Schmenk A., Wetjen A., Käthe R. Multimedia and virtual worlds. M., “The Word”. 1997.

Preface…2

From the history of communications... 3

Communication classification ... 5

Signal communication... 6

Physical foundations of telecommunications ... 7

Wired communication... 7

Telegraph communication ... 8

Telephone connection ... 10

Telecode communication... 12

Internet… 12

Optical (laser) communication ... 14

Fax communication… 14

Radio communication ... 15

Radio relay communication... 17

Tropospheric communication ... 17

Ionospheric radio communication ... 17

Meteor radio communication ... 17

Space communications ... 18

Radar… 18

Television communication ... 21

Videotelephony…24

Courier-postal service… 24

Communication quality ... 25

Prospects for the development of communications ... 25

Literature ... 26

Responsible for release:

Computer layout: Press Boris