TROPE
Trope is a word or expression used figuratively to create artistic image and achieving greater expressiveness. Paths include techniques such as epithet, comparison, personification, metaphor, metonymy, sometimes they include hyperboles and litotes. No work of art is complete without tropes. The artistic word is ambiguous; the writer creates images, playing with meanings and combinations of words, using the environment of the word in the text and its sound - all this constitutes the artistic possibilities of the word, which is the only tool of the writer or poet.
Note!
When creating a trope, the word is always used in a figurative sense.
Let's look at different types of trails:
EPITHET(Greek Epitheton, attached) is one of the tropes, which is an artistic, figurative definition. An epithet can be:
adjectives: gentle face (S. Yesenin); these poor villages, this meager nature...(F. Tyutchev); transparent maiden (A. Blok);
participles: edge abandoned(S. Yesenin); frenzied dragon (A. Blok); takeoff illuminated(M. Tsvetaeva);
nouns, sometimes together with their surrounding context: Here he is, leader without squads(M. Tsvetaeva); My youth! My little dove is dark!(M. Tsvetaeva).
Any epithet reflects the uniqueness of the author’s perception of the world, therefore it necessarily expresses some kind of assessment and has a subjective meaning: a wooden shelf is not an epithet, so there is no artistic definition here, a wooden face is an epithet expressing the speaker’s impression of the interlocutor’s facial expression, that is, creating an image.
There are stable (permanent) folklore epithets: remote, portly, kind Well done, It's clear sun, as well as tautological, that is, repetition epithets, the same root with the defined word: Eh, bitter grief, boring boredom, mortal! (A. Blok).
In a work of art an epithet can perform various functions:
- describe the subject figuratively: shining eyes, eyes- diamonds;
- create an atmosphere, mood: gloomy morning;
- convey the attitude of the author (storyteller, lyrical hero) to the subject being characterized: “Where will our prankster?" (A. Pushkin);
- combine all previous functions in equal shares (in most cases of using the epithet).
Note! All color terms in a literary text they are epithets.
COMPARISON is an artistic technique (trope) in which an image is created by comparing one object with another. Comparison differs from other artistic comparisons, for example, likenings, in that it always has a strict formal sign: a comparative construction or a turnover with comparative conjunctions as if, as if, exactly, as if and the like. Expressions like he looked like... cannot be considered a comparison as a trope.
Examples of comparisons:
Comparison also plays certain roles in the text: sometimes authors use the so-called detailed comparison, revealing various signs of a phenomenon or conveying one’s attitude towards several phenomena. Often a work is entirely based on comparison, such as, for example, V. Bryusov’s poem “Sonnet to Form”:
PERSONALIZATION- an artistic technique (trope) in which an inanimate object, phenomenon or concept is given human properties (do not be confused, exactly human!). Personification can be used narrowly, in one line, in a small fragment, but it can be a technique on which the entire work is built (“You are my abandoned land” by S. Yesenin, “Mother and the evening killed by the Germans”, “The violin and a little nervously” by V. Mayakovsky, etc.). Personification is considered one of the types of metaphor (see below).
Impersonation task- to correlate the depicted object with a person, to make it closer to the reader, to figuratively comprehend the inner essence of the object, hidden from everyday life. Personification is one of the oldest figurative means of art.
HYPERBOLA(Greek: Hyperbole, exaggeration) is a technique in which an image is created through artistic exaggeration. Hyperbole is not always included in the set of tropes, but by the nature of the use of the word in a figurative meaning to create an image, hyperbole is very close to tropes. A technique opposite in content to hyperbole is LITOTES(Greek Litotes, simplicity) is an artistic understatement.
Hyperbole allows the author to show the reader in an exaggerated form the most characteristic features of the depicted object. Often hyperbole and litotes are used by the author in an ironic way, revealing not just characteristic, but negative, from the author’s point of view, aspects of the subject.
METAPHOR(Greek Metaphora, transfer) - a type of so-called complex trope, a speech turn in which the properties of one phenomenon (object, concept) are transferred to another. A metaphor contains a hidden comparison, a figurative likening of phenomena using the figurative meaning of words; what the object is compared to is only implied by the author. No wonder Aristotle said that “to compose good metaphors means to notice similarities.”
Examples of metaphor:
METONYMY(Greek Metonomadzo, rename) - type of trope: figurative designation of an object according to one of its characteristics.
Examples of metonymy:
When studying the topic “Means of Artistic Expression” and completing assignments, pay special attention to the definitions of the concepts given. You must not only understand their meaning, but also know the terminology by heart. This will protect you from practical mistakes: knowing firmly that the technique of comparison has strict formal characteristics (see theory on topic 1), you will not confuse this technique with a number of other artistic techniques, which are also based on the comparison of several objects, but are not a comparison .
Please note that you must begin your answer either with the suggested words (by rewriting them) or with your own version of the beginning of the complete answer. This applies to all such tasks.
Recommended reading:
- Literary criticism: Reference materials. - M., 1988.
- Polyakov M. Rhetoric and literature. Theoretical aspects. - In the book: Questions of poetics and artistic semantics. - M.: Sov. writer, 1978.
- Dictionary of literary terms. - M., 1974.
Comparison is a comparison of one object or phenomenon with another on some basis, based on their similarity. The comparison can be expressed:
By using conjunctions (as, as if, exactly, as if, as if, like, than):
I am moved, silently, tenderly, admiring you like a child! (A.C.
Pushkin);
Form of the instrumental case: And the net, lying on the sand as a thin through shadow, moves, continuously grows in new rings (A.S. Serafimovich);
Using words like similar, similar: The rich are not like you and me (E. Hemingway);
Using negation:
I’m not such a bitter drunkard that I could die without seeing you. (S.A. Yesenin);
Comparative degree of an adjective or adverb:
Neater than fashionable parquet The river shines, dressed in ice. .(A.S. Pushkin)
Metaphor is the transfer of the name (properties) of one object to another on the basis of their similarity in some respect or by contrast. This is the so-called hidden (or abbreviated) comparison, in which the conjunctions as, as if, as if... are absent. For example: the lush gold of the autumn forest (K.G. Paustovsky).
Varieties of metaphor are personification and reification.
Personification is an image of inanimate objects, in which they are endowed with properties, traits of living beings. For example: And the fire, trembling and wavering in the light, restlessly glanced with red eyes at the cliff that protruded for a second from the darkness (A.S. Serafimovich).
Reification is the assimilation of living beings to inanimate objects. For example: The front rows lingered, the back rows became thicker, and the flowing human river stopped, just as noisy waters, blocked in their channel, stop in silence (A.S. Serafimovich).
Metonymy is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on the associative contiguity of these objects. For example: The entire gymnasium is in hysterical convulsive sobs (A.S. Serafimovich).
Synecdoche (a type of metonymy) is the ability of a word to name both the whole through its part, and a part of something through the whole. For example: Black visors, boots like a bottle, jackets, black coats flashed (A.S. Serafimovich).
An epithet is an artistic definition that emphasizes any attribute (property) of an object or phenomenon, which is a definition or circumstance in a sentence. The epithet can be expressed:
Adjective:
Cabbage blue freshness. And red maples in the distance. The last gentle tenderness of the silent autumn land.
(A. Zhigulin);
Noun: Heavenly clouds, eternal wanderers (M.Yu. Lermontov);
Adverb: And the midday waves rustle sweetly (A.S. Pushkin).
Hyperbole is a means of artistic depiction based on excessive exaggeration of the properties of an object or phenomenon. For example: The sidewalk whirlwinds rushed the pursuers themselves so hard that they sometimes overtook their headdresses and came to their senses only by touching the feet of the bronze figure of Catherine’s nobleman, who stood in the middle of the square (IL. Ilf, E.P. Petrov).
Litotes is an artistic technique based on downplaying any properties of an object or phenomenon. For example: Tiny toy people sit for a long time under the white mountains near the water, and the grandfather’s eyebrows and rough mustache move angrily (A.S. Serafimovich).
Allegory is an allegorical expression of an abstract concept or phenomenon through a concrete image. For example:
You will say: windy Hebe, Feeding Zeus's eagle, spilled a loud-boiling cup from the sky, laughing, onto the ground.
(F.I. Tyutchev)
Irony is an allegory that expresses ridicule when a word or statement in the context of speech takes on a meaning that is directly opposite to the literal one or calls it into question. For example:
“Did you sing everything? this business:
So come and dance!” (I.A. Krylov)
An oxymoron is a paradoxical phrase in which contradictory (mutually exclusive) properties are attributed to an object or phenomenon. For example: Diderot was right when he said that art lies in finding the extraordinary in the ordinary and the ordinary in the extraordinary (K.G. Paustovsky).
A periphrasis is the replacement of a word with an allegorical descriptive expression. For example: Direct duty obliged us to enter this terrifying crucible of Asia (as the author called the smoking Kara-Bugaz Bay) (K.G.
Paustovsky).
Antithesis is the opposition of images, concepts, properties of objects or phenomena, which is based on the use of antonyms. For example:
I had everything, suddenly lost everything; As soon as the dream began... the dream disappeared! (E. Baratynsky)
Repetition is the repeated use of the same words and expressions. For example: My friend, \ my tender friend... I love... yours... yours!.. (A.C. Pushkin).
Varieties of repetition are anaphora and epi-phora.
Anaphora (single beginning) is the repetition of initial words in adjacent lines, stanzas, and phrases. For example 1 measure:
You are all full of an immense dream, You are all full of mysterious melancholy. (E. Baratynsky)
Epiphora is the repetition of final words in adjacent lines, stanzas, phrases. For example:
We do not value earthly happiness, We are accustomed to valuing people; Both of us will not change ourselves, But they cannot change us.
(M.Yu. Lermontov)
Gradation is a special grouping of homogeneous members of a sentence with a gradual increase (or | decrease) of semantic and emotional significance. I For example:
And for him, both deity and inspiration, and life, and tears, and love were resurrected again. (A.S. Pushkin)
Parallelism is a repetition of a type of adjacent sentences or phrases in which the order of the words coincides, at least partially. For example:
I'm bored without you - I yawn; I feel sad in front of you - I endure... (A.S. Pushkin)
Inversion is a violation of the generally accepted order of words in a sentence, a rearrangement of parts of a phrase. For example:
There was once in the mountains, full of heartfelt thoughts, Over the sea I eked out thoughtful laziness... (A.S. Pushkin)
Ellipsis is the omission of individual words (usually easily restored in context) to give the phrase additional dynamism. For example: Afinogenych transported pilgrims less and less often. For whole weeks - no one (A.S. Serafimovich).
Parcellation is an artistic technique in which a sentence is intonationally divided into separate segments, graphically highlighted as independent sentences. For example: They didn’t even look at the one brought here, one of the thousands who were here. Searched. Made measurements. We wrote down the signs (A.S. Serafimovich).
A rhetorical question (address, exclamation) is a question (address, exclamation) that does not require an answer. Its function is to attract attention and enhance the impression. For example: What is in my name for you? (A.S. Pushkin)
Non-union is the deliberate omission of conjunctions to make speech dynamic. For example:
To lure with exquisite attire, play of the eyes, brilliant conversation... (E. Baratynsky)
Polyunion is the deliberate repetition of conjunctions in order to slow down speech with forced pauses. At the same time, the semantic significance of each word highlighted by the conjunction is emphasized. For example:
And every tongue that is in it will call me,
And the proud grandson of the Slavs, and the Finn, and now wild
Tungus, and friend of the steppes Kalmyk. (A.S. Pushkin)
Phraseologisms, synonyms and antonyms are also used as means to enhance the expressiveness of speech.
Phraseological unit, or phraseological unit -
this is a stable combination of words that functions: in speech as an expression indivisible in terms of meaning and composition: lie on the stove, fight like a fish on ice, [ neither day nor night.
Synonyms are words of the same part of speech; close in meaning. Types of synonyms:
General language: brave - brave;
Contextual:
You will hear the judgment of a fool and the laughter of a cold crowd: But you remain firm, calm and gloomy. (A.S. Pushkin)
Antonyms are words of the same part of speech that have opposite meanings. Types of antonyms:
General language: good - evil;
Contextual:
I give up my place to you: It’s time for me to smolder, for you to bloom. (A.S. Pushkin)
As you know, the meaning of a word is most accurately determined in the context of speech. This allows, in particular, to determine the meaning of polysemantic words, as well as to distinguish between homonyms (words of the same part of speech, identical in sound or spelling, but having different lexical meanings: a tasty fruit is a reliable raft, a defect in work - happy marriage).
TRAILS AND STYLISTIC FIGURES.
TRAILS(Greek tropos - turn, turn of speech) - words or figures of speech in a figurative, allegorical meaning. Paths are an important element of artistic thinking. Types of tropes: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litotes, etc.
STYLISTIC FIGURES- figures of speech used to enhance the expressiveness of a statement: anaphora, epiphora, ellipse, antithesis, parallelism, gradation, inversion, etc.
HYPERBOLA (Greek hyperbole - exaggeration) - a type of trope based on exaggeration (“rivers of blood”, “sea of laughter”). By means of hyperbole, the author enhances the desired impression or emphasizes what he glorifies and what he ridicules. Hyperbole is already found in ancient epics among different peoples, in particular in Russian epics.
In the Russian litera, N.V. Gogol, Saltykov-Shchedrin and especially
V. Mayakovsky (“I”, “Napoleon”, “150,000,000”). In poetic speech, hyperbole is often intertwinedwith other artistic means (metaphors, personification, comparisons, etc.). Opposite – litotes.
LITOTA (Greek litotes - simplicity) - a trope opposite to hyperbole; a figurative expression, a turn of phrase that contains an artistic understatement of the size, strength, or significance of the depicted object or phenomenon. Litotes is found in folk tales: “a boy as big as a finger,” “a hut on chicken legs,” “a little man as big as a fingernail.”
The second name for litotes is meiosis. The opposite of litotes is hyperbola.
N. Gogol often turned to litotes:
“Such a small mouth that it can’t miss more than two pieces” N. Gogol
METAPHOR(Greek metaphora - transfer) - a trope, a hidden figurative comparison, the transfer of the properties of one object or phenomenon to another based on common characteristics (“work is in full swing”, “forest of hands”, “dark personality”, “heart of stone”...). In metaphor, as opposed to
comparisons, the words “as”, “as if”, “as if” are omitted, but are implied.
Nineteenth century, iron,
Truly a cruel age!
By you into the darkness of the night, starless
Careless abandoned man!
A. Blok
Metaphors are formed according to the principle of personification (“water runs”), reification (“nerves of steel”), abstraction (“field of activity”), etc. Various parts of speech can act as a metaphor: verb, noun, adjective. Metaphor gives speech exceptional expressiveness:
In every carnation there is fragrant lilac,
A bee crawls in singing...
You ascended under the blue vault
Above the wandering crowd of clouds...
A. Fet
The metaphor is an undifferentiated comparison, in which, however, both members are easily seen:
With a sheaf of your oat hair
You stuck with me forever...
The dog's eyes rolled
Golden stars in the snow...
S. Yesenin
In addition to verbal metaphor, metaphorical images or extended metaphors are widespread in artistic creativity:
Ah, the bush of my head has withered,
I was sucked into song captivity,
I am condemned to hard labor of feelings
Turning the millstone of poems.
S. Yesenin
Sometimes the entire work represents a broad, expanded metaphorical image.
METONYMY(Greek metonymia - renaming) - trope; replacing one word or expression with another based on similar meanings; the use of expressions in a figurative sense ("foaming glass" - meaning wine in a glass; "the forest is noisy" - meaning trees; etc.).
The theater is already full, the boxes are sparkling;
The stalls and the chairs, everything is boiling...
A.S. Pushkin
In metonymy, a phenomenon or object is denoted using other words and concepts. At the same time, the signs or connections that bring these phenomena together are preserved; Thus, when V. Mayakovsky speaks of a “steel orator dozing in a holster,” the reader easily recognizes in this image a metonymic image of a revolver. This is the difference between metonymy and metaphor. The idea of a concept in metonymy is given with the help of indirect signs or secondary meanings, but this is precisely what enhances the poetic expressiveness of speech:
You led swords to a bountiful feast;
Everything fell with a noise before you;
Europe was dying; grave sleep
Hovered over her head...
A. Pushkin
When is the shore of hell
Will take me forever
When he falls asleep forever
Feather, my joy...
A. Pushkin
PERIPHRASE (Greek periphrasis - roundabout turn, allegory) - one of the tropes in which the name of an object, person, phenomenon is replaced by an indication of its signs, as a rule, the most characteristic ones, enhancing the figurativeness of speech. (“king of birds” instead of “eagle”, “king of beasts” - instead of “lion”)
PERSONALIZATION(prosopopoeia, personification) - a type of metaphor; transferring the properties of animate objects to inanimate ones (the soul sings, the river plays...).
My bells
Steppe flowers!
Why are you looking at me?
Dark blue?
And what are you calling about?
On a merry day in May,
Among the uncut grass
Shaking your head?
A.K. Tolstoy
SYNECDOCHE (Greek synekdoche - correlation)- one of the tropes, a type of metonymy, consisting in the transfer of meaning from one object to another based on the quantitative relationship between them. Synecdoche is an expressive means of typification. The most common types of synecdoche:
1) A part of a phenomenon is called in the sense of the whole:
And at the door -
pea coats,
overcoats,
sheepskin coats...
V. Mayakovsky
2) The whole in the meaning of the part - Vasily Terkin in a fist fight with a fascist says:
Oh, there you are! Fight with a helmet?
Well, aren't they a vile bunch!
3) The singular number in the meaning of general and even universal:
There a man groans from slavery and chains...
M. Lermontov
And the proud grandson of the Slavs, and the Finn...
A. Pushkin
4) Replacing a number with a set:
Millions of you. We are darkness, and darkness, and darkness.
A. Blok
5) Replacing the generic concept with a specific one:
We beat ourselves with pennies. Very good!
V. Mayakovsky
6) Replacing the specific concept with a generic one:
"Well, sit down, luminary!"
V. Mayakovsky
COMPARISON – a word or expression containing the likening of one object to another, one situation to another. (“Strong as a lion”, “said as he cut”...). The storm covers the sky with darkness,
Whirling snow whirlwinds;
The way the beast will howl,
Then he will cry like a child...
A.S. Pushkin
“Like a steppe scorched by fires, Gregory’s life became black” (M. Sholokhov). The idea of the blackness and gloom of the steppe evokes in the reader that melancholy and painful feeling that corresponds to Gregory’s state. There is a transfer of one of the meanings of the concept - “scorched steppe” to another - the internal state of the character. Sometimes, in order to compare some phenomena or concepts, the artist resorts to detailed comparisons:
The view of the steppe is sad, where there are no obstacles,
Disturbing only the silver feather grass,
The flying aquilon wanders
And he freely drives dust in front of him;
And where all around, no matter how vigilantly you look,
Meets the gaze of two or three birch trees,
Which are under the bluish haze
They turn black in the empty distance in the evening.
So life is boring when there is no struggle,
Penetrating into the past, discerning
There are few things we can do in it, in the prime of life
She will not amuse the soul.
I need to act, I do every day
I would like to make him immortal, like a shadow
Great hero, and understand
I can't, what does it mean to rest.
M. Lermontov
Here, with the help of the detailed S. Lermontov conveys a whole range of lyrical experiences and reflections.
Comparisons are usually connected by conjunctions “as”, “as if”, “as if”, “exactly”, etc. Non-union comparisons are also possible:
“Do I have fine curls - combed flax” N. Nekrasov. Here the conjunction is omitted. But sometimes it is not intended:
“The execution in the morning, the usual feast for the people” A. Pushkin.
Some forms of comparison are constructed descriptively and therefore are not connected by conjunctions:
And she appears
At the door or at the window
The early star is brighter,
Morning roses are fresh.
A. Pushkin
She's cute - I'll say between us -
Storm of the court knights,
And maybe with the southern stars
Compare, especially in poetry,
Her Circassian eyes.
A. Pushkin
A special type of comparison is the so-called negative:
The red sun does not shine in the sky,
The blue clouds do not admire him:
Then at mealtimes he sits in a golden crown
The formidable Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich is sitting.
M. Lermontov
In this parallel depiction of two phenomena, the form of negation is both a method of comparison and a method of transferring meanings.
A special case is represented by the instrumental case forms used in comparison:
It's time, beauty, wake up!
Open your closed eyes,
Towards northern Aurora
Be the star of the north.
A. Pushkin
I don't soar - I sit like an eagle.
A. Pushkin
Often there are comparisons in the form of the accusative case with the preposition “under”:
“Sergei Platonovich... sat with Atepin in the dining room, covered with expensive oak wallpaper...”
M. Sholokhov.
IMAGE -a generalized artistic reflection of reality, clothed in the form of a specific individual phenomenon. Poets think in images.
It is not the wind that rages over the forest,
Streams did not run from the mountains,
Moroz - commander of the patrol
Walks around his possessions.
ON THE. Nekrasov
ALLEGORY(Greek allegoria - allegory) - a specific image of an object or phenomenon of reality, replacing an abstract concept or thought. A green branch in the hands of a person has long been an allegorical image of the world, a hammer has been an allegory of labor, etc.
The origin of many allegorical images should be sought in the cultural traditions of tribes, peoples, nations: they are found on banners, coats of arms, emblems and acquire a stable character.
Many allegorical images go back to Greek and Roman mythology. Thus, the image of a blindfolded woman with scales in her hands - the goddess Themis - is an allegory of justice, the image of a snake and a bowl is an allegory of medicine.
Allegory as a means of enhancing poetic expressiveness is widely used in fiction. It is based on the convergence of phenomena according to the correlation of their essential aspects, qualities or functions and belongs to the group of metaphorical tropes.
Unlike metaphor, in allegory the figurative meaning is expressed by a phrase, a whole thought, or even a small work (fable, parable).
GROTESQUE (French grotesque - whimsical, comical) - an image of people and phenomena in a fantastic, ugly-comic form, based on sharp contrasts and exaggerations.
Enraged, I rush into the meeting like an avalanche,
Spewing wild curses on the way.
And I see: half the people are sitting.
Oh devilishness! Where is the other half?
V. Mayakovsky
IRONY (Greek eironeia - pretense) - expression of ridicule or deceit through allegory. A word or statement acquires a meaning in the context of speech that is opposite to the literal meaning or denies it, casting doubt on it.
Servant of powerful masters,
With what noble courage
Thunder with your free speech
All those who have their mouths covered.
F.I. Tyutchev
SARCASM (Greek sarkazo, lit. - tearing meat) - contemptuous, caustic ridicule; the highest degree of irony.
ASSONANCE (French assonance - consonance or response) - repetition of homogeneous vowel sounds in a line, stanza or phrase.
Oh spring without end and without edge -
An endless and endless dream!
A. Blok
ALLITERATION (SOUNDS)(Latin ad - to, with and littera - letter) - repetition of homogeneous consonants, giving the verse a special intonational expressiveness.
Evening. Seaside. Sighs of the wind.
The majestic cry of the waves.
A storm is coming. It hits the shore
A black boat alien to enchantment...
K. Balmont
ALLUSION (from Latin allusio - joke, hint) - a stylistic figure, a hint through a similar-sounding word or mention of a well-known real fact, historical event, literary work (“the glory of Herostratus”).
ANAPHORA(Greek anaphora - carrying out) - repetition of the initial words, line, stanza or phrase.
You're miserable too
You are also abundant
You're downtrodden
You are omnipotent
Mother Rus'!…
ON THE. Nekrasov
ANTITHESIS (Greek antithesis - contradiction, opposition) - a sharply expressed opposition of concepts or phenomena.
You are rich, I am very poor;
You are a prose writer, I am a poet;
You are blushing like poppies,
I am like death, skinny and pale.
A.S. Pushkin
You're miserable too
You are also abundant
You are mighty
You are also powerless...
N. Nekrasov
So few roads have been traveled, so many mistakes have been made...
S. Yesenin.
Antithesis enhances the emotional coloring of speech and emphasizes the thought expressed with its help. Sometimes the entire work is built on the principle of antithesis
APOCOPE(Greek apokope - cutting off) - artificially shortening a word without losing its meaning.
...When suddenly he came out of the forest
The bear opened its mouth at them...
A.N. Krylov
Barking, laughing, singing, whistling and clapping,
Human rumor and horse top!
A.S. Pushkin
ASYNDETON (asyndeton) - a sentence with the absence of conjunctions between homogeneous words or parts of a whole. A figure that gives speech dynamism and richness.
Night, street, lantern, pharmacy,
Pointless and dim light.
Live for at least another quarter of a century -
Everything will be like this. There is no outcome.
A. Blok
MULTI-UNION(polysyndeton) - excessive repetition of conjunctions, creating additional intonation coloring. The opposite figure isnon-union
Slowing down speech with forced pauses, polyunion emphasizes individual words and enhances its expressiveness:
And the waves crowd and rush back,
And they come again and hit the shore...
M. Lermontov
And it’s boring and sad, and there’s no one to give a hand to...
M.Yu. Lermontov
GRADATION- from lat. gradatio - gradualism) is a stylistic figure in which definitions are grouped in a certain order - increasing or decreasing their emotional and semantic significance. Gradation enhances the emotional sound of the verse:
I do not regret, do not call, do not cry,
Everything will pass like smoke from white apple trees.
S. Yesenin
INVERSION(Latin inversio - rearrangement) - a stylistic figure consisting of a violation of the generally accepted grammatical sequence of speech; rearrangement of parts of a phrase gives it a unique expressive tone.
Legends of deep antiquity
A.S. Pushkin
He passes the doorman with an arrow
Flew up the marble steps
A. Pushkin
OXYMORON(Greek oxymoron - witty-stupid) - a combination of contrasting words with opposite meanings (living corpse, giant dwarf, heat of cold numbers).
PARALLELISM(from the Greek parallelos - walking next to) - identical or similar arrangement of speech elements in adjacent parts of the text, creating a single poetic image.
The waves splash in the blue sea.
The stars shine in the blue sky.
A. S. Pushkin
Your mind is as deep as the sea.
Your spirit is as high as the mountains.
V. Bryusov
Parallelism is especially characteristic of works of oral folk art (epics, songs, ditties, proverbs) and literary works close to them in their artistic features (“Song about the merchant Kalashnikov” by M. Yu. Lermontov, “Who Lives Well in Rus'” by N. A Nekrasov, “Vasily Terkin” by A. T, Tvardovsky).
Parallelism can have a broader thematic nature in content, for example, in the poem by M. Yu. Lermontov “Heavenly clouds are eternal wanderers.”
Parallelism can be either verbal or figurative, or rhythmic or compositional.
PARCELLATION- an expressive syntactic technique of intonation division of a sentence into independent segments, graphically highlighted as independent sentences. (“And again. Gulliver. Standing. Slouching.” P. G. Antokolsky. “How courteous! Kind! Sweet! Simple!” Griboedov. “Mitrofanov grinned, stirred the coffee. He narrowed his eyes.”
N. Ilyina. “He soon quarreled with the girl. And that’s why.” G. Uspensky.)
TRANSFER (French enjambement - stepping over) - a discrepancy between the syntactic division of speech and the division into poetry. When transferring, the syntactic pause inside a verse or hemistich is stronger than at the end.
Peter comes out. His eyes
They shine. His face is terrible.
The movements are fast. He is beautiful,
He's like God's thunderstorm.
A. S. Pushkin
RHYME(Greek “rhythmos” - harmony, proportionality) - a variety epiphora ; the consonance of the ends of poetic lines, creating a feeling of their unity and kinship. Rhyme emphasizes the boundary between verses and links verses into stanzas.
ELLIPSIS (Greek elleipsis - deletion, omission) - a figure of poetic syntax based on the omission of one of the members of a sentence, easily restored in meaning (most often the predicate). This achieves dynamism and conciseness of speech and conveys a tense change of action. Ellipsis is one of the types of default. In artistic speech, it conveys the speaker’s excitement or the tension of the action:
We sat down in ashes, cities in dust,
Swords include sickles and plows.
Russian language is one of the richest, most beautiful and complex. Not least of all, what makes it so is the presence of a large number of means of verbal expression.
In this article we will look at what a linguistic device is and what types it comes in. Let's look at examples of use from fiction and everyday speech.
Linguistic means in the Russian language - what is it?
The description of the most ordinary object can be made beautiful and unusual by using linguistic
Words and expressions that give expressiveness to the text are conventionally divided into three groups: phonetic, lexical (aka tropes) and stylistic figures.
To answer the question of what a linguistic device is, let’s take a closer look at them.
Lexical means of expression
Tropes are linguistic means in the Russian language that are used by the author in a figurative, allegorical meaning. Widely used in works of art.
Paths serve to create visual, auditory, and olfactory images. They help create a certain atmosphere and produce the desired effect on the reader.
The basis of lexical means of expressiveness is hidden or explicit comparison. It may be based on external similarity, personal associations of the author, or the desire to describe the object in a certain way.
Basic language means: tropes
We have been exposed to trails since we were in school. Let's remember the most common of them:
- The epithet is the most famous and common trope. Often found in poetic works. An epithet is a colorful, expressive definition that is based on a hidden comparison. Emphasizes the features of the described object, its most expressive features. Examples: “ruddy dawn”, “easy character”, “golden hands”, “silver voice”.
- Simile is a word or expression based on the comparison of one object with another. Most often it is formalized in the form of a comparative turnover. You can recognize it by the use of conjunctions characteristic of this technique: as if, as if, as if, as, exactly, that. Let's look at examples: “transparent like dew,” “white like snow,” “straight like a reed.”
- Metaphor is a means of expression based on hidden comparison. But, unlike it, it is not formalized by unions. A metaphor is built by relying on the similarity of two objects of speech. For example: “church onions”, “whisper of grass”, “tears of heaven”.
- Synonyms are words that are similar in meaning, but differ in spelling. In addition to classical synonyms, there are contextual ones. They take on a specific meaning within a particular text. Let's get acquainted with the examples: “jump - jump”, “look - see”.
- Antonyms are words that have directly opposite meanings to each other. Like synonyms, they can be contextual. Example: “white - black”, “shout - whisper”, “calm - excitement”.
- Personification is the transfer of signs and characteristic features of an animate object to an inanimate object. For example: “the willow shook its branches,” “the sun smiled brightly,” “the rain was knocking on the roofs,” “the radio was chirping in the kitchen.”
Are there other paths?
There are a lot of means of lexical expressiveness in the Russian language. In addition to the group that everyone is familiar with, there are also those that are unknown to many, but are also widely used:
- Metonymy is the replacement of one word with another that has a similar or the same meaning. Let's look at the examples: “hey, blue jacket (addressing a person in a blue jacket)”, “the whole class opposed (meaning all the students in the class).”
- Synecdoche is a transfer of comparison from a part to a whole, and vice versa. Example: “one could hear the Frenchman rejoicing (the author is talking about the French army)”, “an insect flew in”, “there were a hundred heads in the herd.”
- Allegory is an expressive comparison of ideas or concepts using an artistic image. Most often found in fairy tales, fables and parables. For example, a fox symbolizes cunning, a hare - cowardice, and a wolf - anger.
- Hyperbole is deliberate exaggeration. Serves to make the text more expressive. Places emphasis on a certain quality of an object, person or phenomenon. Let's look at the examples: “words destroy hope,” “his act is the highest evil,” “he has become forty times more beautiful.”
- Litota is a special understatement of real facts. For example: “he was thinner than a reed,” “he was no taller than a thimble.”
- Periphrasis is the replacement of a word or expression with a synonymous combination. Used to avoid lexical repetitions in one or adjacent sentences. Example: “the fox is a cunning cheat”, “the text is the brainchild of the author.”
Stylistic figures
Stylistic figures are linguistic means in the Russian language that give speech a certain imagery and expressiveness. They change the emotional coloring of its meanings.
Widely used in poetry and prose since the times of ancient poets. However, modern and older interpretations of the term differ.
In ancient Greece, it was believed that stylistic figures are linguistic means of language, which in their form differ significantly from everyday speech. Now it is believed that figures of speech are an integral part of spoken language.
What are the stylistic figures?
Stylistics offers a lot of its own resources:
- Lexical repetitions (anaphora, epiphora, compositional junction) are expressive linguistic means that include repetition of any part of a sentence at the beginning, end, or at the junction with the next one. For example: “It was a beautiful sound. It was the best voice I've heard in years."
- Antithesis - one or more sentences built on the basis of opposition. For example, consider the phrase: “I drag myself in the dust and soar in the skies.”
- Gradation is the use in a sentence of synonyms arranged according to the degree of increase or decrease of a characteristic. Example: “The sparkles on the New Year’s tree shone, burned, shone.”
- An oxymoron is the inclusion in a phrase of words that contradict each other in meaning and cannot be used in the same composition. The most striking and famous example of this stylistic figure is “Dead Souls”.
- Inversion is a change in the classical order of words in a sentence. For example, not “he ran,” but “he ran.”
- Parcellation is the division of a sentence with a single meaning into several parts. For example: “Opposite Nikolai. He looks without blinking."
- Polyconjunction is the use of conjunctions to connect homogeneous members of a sentence. Used for greater speech expressiveness. Example: “It was a strange and wonderful and wonderful and mysterious day.”
- Non-union - connections of homogeneous members in a sentence are carried out without unions. For example: “He was thrashing about, screaming, crying, moaning.”
Phonetic means of expression
Phonetic means of expression are the smallest group. They involve repeating certain sounds to create picturesque artistic images.
This technique is most often used in poetry. Authors use repetition of sounds when they want to convey the sound of thunder, rustling leaves or other natural phenomena.
Phonetics also help to give poetry a certain character. By using certain combinations of sounds, the text can be made harder, or vice versa, softer.
What phonetic means exist?
- Alliteration is the repetition of the same consonants in the text, creating the image necessary for the author. For example: “With my dreams I caught the passing shadows, the passing shadows of the faded day.”
- Assonance is the repetition of certain vowel sounds in order to create a vivid artistic image. For example: “Do I wander along noisy streets, or enter a crowded temple.”
- Onomatopoeia is the use of phonetic combinations that convey a certain clatter of hooves, the sound of waves, or the rustling of leaves.
Use of verbal means of expressiveness
Linguistic means in the Russian language have been widely used and continue to be used in literary works, be it prose or poetry.
Writers of the Golden Age demonstrate excellent mastery of stylistic figures. Due to the masterful use of expressive means, their works are colorful, imaginative, and pleasing to the ear. It’s not for nothing that they are considered a national treasure of Russia.
We encounter linguistic means not only in fiction, but also in everyday life. Almost every person uses comparisons, metaphors, and epithets in his speech. Without realizing it, we make our language beautiful and rich.
As you know, the word is the basic unit of any language, as well as the most important component of its artistic means. The correct use of vocabulary largely determines the expressiveness of speech.
In context, a word is a special world, a mirror of the author’s perception and attitude to reality. It has its own metaphorical precision, its own special truths, called artistic revelations; the functions of vocabulary depend on the context.
Individual perception of the world around us is reflected in such a text with the help of metaphorical statements. After all, art is, first of all, the self-expression of an individual. The literary fabric is woven from metaphors that create an exciting and emotionally affecting image of a particular work of art. Additional meanings appear in words, a special stylistic coloring, creating a unique world that we discover for ourselves while reading the text.
Not only in literary, but also in oral, we use, without thinking, various techniques of artistic expression to give it emotionality, persuasiveness, and imagery. Let's figure out what artistic techniques there are in the Russian language.
The use of metaphors especially contributes to the creation of expressiveness, so let's start with them.
Metaphor
It is impossible to imagine artistic techniques in literature without mentioning the most important of them - the way of creating a linguistic picture of the world based on meanings already existing in the language itself.
The types of metaphors can be distinguished as follows:
- Fossilized, worn out, dry or historical (bow of a boat, eye of a needle).
- Phraseologisms are stable figurative combinations of words that are emotional, metaphorical, reproducible in the memory of many native speakers, expressive (death grip, vicious circle, etc.).
- Single metaphor (eg homeless heart).
- Unfolded (heart - “porcelain bell in yellow China” - Nikolay Gumilyov).
- Traditionally poetic (morning of life, fire of love).
- Individually-authored (sidewalk hump).
In addition, a metaphor can simultaneously be an allegory, personification, hyperbole, periphrasis, meiosis, litotes and other tropes.
The word “metaphor” itself means “transfer” in translation from Greek. In this case, we are dealing with the transfer of a name from one item to another. For it to become possible, they must certainly have some similarity, they must be adjacent in some way. A metaphor is a word or expression used in a figurative meaning due to the similarity of two phenomena or objects in some way.
As a result of this transfer, an image is created. Therefore, metaphor is one of the most striking means of expressiveness of artistic, poetic speech. However, the absence of this trope does not mean the lack of expressiveness of the work.
A metaphor can be either simple or extensive. In the twentieth century, the use of expanded ones in poetry is revived, and the nature of simple ones changes significantly.
Metonymy
Metonymy is a type of metaphor. Translated from Greek, this word means “renaming,” that is, it is the transfer of the name of one object to another. Metonymy is the replacement of a certain word with another based on the existing contiguity of two concepts, objects, etc. This is the imposition of a figurative word on the direct meaning. For example: “I ate two plates.” Mixing of meanings and their transfer are possible because objects are adjacent, and the contiguity can be in time, space, etc.
Synecdoche
Synecdoche is a type of metonymy. Translated from Greek, this word means “correlation.” This transfer of meaning occurs when the smaller is called instead of the larger, or vice versa; instead of a part - a whole, and vice versa. For example: “According to Moscow reports.”
Epithet
It is impossible to imagine the artistic techniques in literature, the list of which we are now compiling, without an epithet. This is a figure, trope, figurative definition, phrase or word denoting a person, phenomenon, object or action with a subjective
Translated from Greek, this term means “attached, application,” that is, in our case, one word is attached to some other.
The epithet differs from a simple definition in its artistic expressiveness.
Constant epithets are used in folklore as a means of typification, and also as one of the most important means of artistic expression. In the strict sense of the term, only those whose function is words in a figurative meaning, in contrast to the so-called exact epithets, which are expressed in words in a literal meaning (red berries, beautiful flowers), belong to tropes. Figurative ones are created when words are used in a figurative sense. Such epithets are usually called metaphorical. Metonymic transfer of name may also underlie this trope.
An oxymoron is a type of epithet, the so-called contrasting epithets, forming combinations with defined nouns of words that are opposite in meaning (hateful love, joyful sadness).
Comparison
Simile is a trope in which one object is characterized through comparison with another. That is, this is a comparison of different objects by similarity, which can be both obvious and unexpected, distant. It is usually expressed using certain words: “exactly”, “as if”, “similar”, “as if”. Comparisons can also take the form of the instrumental case.
Personification
When describing artistic techniques in literature, it is necessary to mention personification. This is a type of metaphor that represents the assignment of properties of living beings to objects of inanimate nature. It is often created by referring to such natural phenomena as conscious living beings. Personification is also the transference of human properties to animals.
Hyperbole and litotes
Let us note such techniques of artistic expression in literature as hyperbole and litotes.
Hyperbole (translated as “exaggeration”) is one of the expressive means of speech, which is a figure with the meaning of exaggerating what is being discussed.
Litota (translated as “simplicity”) is the opposite of hyperbole - an excessive understatement of what is being discussed (a boy the size of a finger, a man the size of a fingernail).
Sarcasm, irony and humor
We continue to describe artistic techniques in literature. Our list will be complemented by sarcasm, irony and humor.
- Sarcasm means "tearing meat" in Greek. This is evil irony, caustic mockery, caustic remark. When using sarcasm, a comic effect is created, but at the same time there is a clear ideological and emotional assessment.
- Irony in translation means “pretense”, “mockery”. It occurs when one thing is said in words, but something completely different, the opposite, is meant.
- Humor is one of the lexical means of expressiveness, translated meaning “mood”, “disposition”. Sometimes entire works can be written in a comic, allegorical vein, in which one can sense a mocking, good-natured attitude towards something. For example, the story “Chameleon” by A.P. Chekhov, as well as many fables by I.A. Krylov.
The types of artistic techniques in literature do not end there. We present to your attention the following.
Grotesque
The most important artistic techniques in literature include the grotesque. The word "grotesque" means "intricate", "bizarre". This artistic technique represents a violation of the proportions of phenomena, objects, events depicted in the work. It is widely used in the works of, for example, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (“The Golovlevs,” “The History of a City,” fairy tales). This is an artistic technique based on exaggeration. However, its degree is much greater than that of a hyperbole.
Sarcasm, irony, humor and grotesque are popular artistic techniques in literature. Examples of the first three are the stories of A.P. Chekhov and N.N. Gogol. The work of J. Swift is grotesque (for example, Gulliver's Travels).
What artistic technique does the author (Saltykov-Shchedrin) use to create the image of Judas in the novel “Lord Golovlevs”? Of course it's grotesque. Irony and sarcasm are present in the poems of V. Mayakovsky. The works of Zoshchenko, Shukshin, and Kozma Prutkov are filled with humor. These artistic techniques in literature, examples of which we have just given, as you can see, are very often used by Russian writers.
Pun
A pun is a figure of speech that represents an involuntary or deliberate ambiguity that arises when used in the context of two or more meanings of a word or when their sound is similar. Its varieties are paronomasia, false etymologization, zeugma and concretization.
In puns, the play on words is based on homonymy and polysemy. Anecdotes arise from them. These artistic techniques in literature can be found in the works of V. Mayakovsky, Omar Khayyam, Kozma Prutkov, A. P. Chekhov.
Figure of speech - what is it?
The word “figure” itself is translated from Latin as “appearance, outline, image.” This word has many meanings. What does this term mean in relation to artistic speech? Syntactic means of expression related to figures: questions, appeals.
What is a "trope"?
“What is the name of an artistic technique that uses a word in a figurative sense?” - you ask. The term “trope” combines various techniques: epithet, metaphor, metonymy, comparison, synecdoche, litotes, hyperbole, personification and others. Translated, the word "trope" means "turnover". Literary speech differs from ordinary speech in that it uses special turns of phrase that embellish the speech and make it more expressive. Different styles use different means of expression. The most important thing in the concept of “expressiveness” for artistic speech is the ability of a text or a work of art to have an aesthetic, emotional impact on the reader, to create poetic pictures and vivid images.
We all live in a world of sounds. Some of them evoke positive emotions in us, others, on the contrary, excite, alarm, cause anxiety, calm or induce sleep. Different sounds evoke different images. Using their combination, you can emotionally influence a person. Reading works of literature and Russian folk art, we perceive their sound especially keenly.
Basic techniques for creating sound expressiveness
- Alliteration is the repetition of similar or identical consonants.
- Assonance is the deliberate harmonious repetition of vowels.
Alliteration and assonance are often used simultaneously in works. These techniques are aimed at evoking various associations in the reader.
Technique of sound recording in fiction
Sound painting is an artistic technique that is the use of certain sounds in a specific order to create a certain image, that is, a selection of words that imitate the sounds of the real world. This technique in fiction is used both in poetry and prose.
Types of sound recording:
- Assonance means “consonance” in French. Assonance is the repetition of the same or similar vowel sounds in a text to create a specific sound image. It promotes the expressiveness of speech, it is used by poets in the rhythm and rhyme of poems.
- Alliteration - from This technique is the repetition of consonants in a literary text to create some sound image, in order to make poetic speech more expressive.
- Onomatopoeia is the transmission of auditory impressions in special words reminiscent of the sounds of phenomena in the surrounding world.
These artistic techniques in poetry are very common; without them, poetic speech would not be so melodic.