Contemporaries of A.S. Pushkin, reading his works, perceived all the details of the text. And we, readers of the 21st century, are already missing out on a lot, not understanding, but guessing approximately. Indeed, what is a frock coat, a tavern, a tavern, a dressing gown? Who are the coachman, the yard boy, and your excellency? In each story of Pushkin's cycle there are words that are incomprehensible and unclear in their meaning. But they all designate some objects, phenomena, concepts, positions, titles of a past life. These words have fallen out of modern use. Therefore, their specific meaning remains unclear and incomprehensible to the modern reader. This explains the choice of the topic of my research, dedicated to outdated words that have passed from the modern language in Belkin’s Tales.
The life of a language is clearly manifested in constant changes in the composition of words and their meanings. And the very history of the people and the state is imprinted in the fate of individual words. The vocabulary of the Russian language contains many words that are rarely used in real speech, but are known to us from classical literary works, history textbooks and stories about the past.
Obsolete words can be divided into two groups: 1) historicisms; 2) archaisms.
Historicisms (from the Greek historia - a story about past events) are words denoting the names of such objects and phenomena that ceased to exist as a result of the development of society. Many words that name objects of a bygone way of life, old culture, things and phenomena associated with the economy of the past, old socio-political relations have become historicisms. Thus, there are many historicisms among words related to military themes: chain mail, arquebus, visor, redoubt. Many words denoting ranks, classes, positions, and professions of old Russia are historicisms: tsar, boyar, equestrian, footman, steward, zemstvo, serf, landowner, constable, ofenya, farrier, tinker, sawyer, lamplighter, barge hauler; phenomena of patriarchal life: corvée, quitrent, cuts, procurement; types of production activities: manufactory, horse-drawn carriage; types of disappeared technologies: tinning, mead making.
Archaisms (from the Greek archaios - ancient) are words that have fallen out of use due to their replacement with new ones, for example: cheeks - cheeks, loins - lower back, right hand - right hand, tuga - sadness, verses - poems, ramen - shoulders. All of them have synonyms in modern Russian.
Archaisms may differ from the modern synonymous word in different ways: a different lexical meaning (guest - merchant, belly - life), a different grammatical design (perform - perform, at the ball - at the ball), a different morphemic composition (friendship - friendship, fisherman - fisherman ), other phonetic features (Gishpansky - Spanish, mirror - mirror). Some words are completely outdated, but have modern synonyms: so that - so that, destruction - destruction, harm, hope - hope and firmly believe. Archaisms and historicisms are used in fiction to recreate the historical situation in the country and convey the national and cultural traditions of the Russian people.
DICTIONARY OF OBSOLETE WORDS
From the publisher
Corvee is free forced labor of a dependent peasant, “Ivan Petrovich was forced to abolish corvee and establish a master who works with his own equipment on the farm. moderate quitrent"
Quirk is an annual collection of money and food from serfs by landowners.
The housekeeper is a servant in the landowner's house, who was entrusted with the keys to the “he entrusted the management of the village to his old housekeeper, who acquired his storage of food supplies. trust in the art of storytelling. »
Second major - military rank of the 8th class in 1741-1797. “His late father, Second Major Pyotr Ivanovich Belkin, was married to the girl Pelageya Gavrilovna from the Trafilin family. »
"Shot"
A banker is a player holding a bank in card games. “The officer went out, saying that he was ready to answer for the offense, as Mr. Banker pleases.”
“The game continued for several more minutes; but feeling that the owner was
Vacancy - an unfilled position; job title. There was no time for the game, we fell behind one by one and scattered to our apartments, talking about the imminent vacancy. »
Galun is a gold braid or silver (ribbon) that was sewn on “Silvio stood up and took out of the cardboard a red cap with a gold tassel, like a uniform. galloon"
“Throw the bank” (special). - reception of a card game. “He refused for a long time, because he almost never played; Finally he ordered the cards to be brought, poured fifty chervonets onto the table and sat down to throw. »
Hussar - a military man from light cavalry units who wore a Hungarian uniform. “He once served in the hussars, and even happily.”
A footman is a servant for masters, as well as in a restaurant, hotel, etc. “The footman led me into the count’s office, and he himself went to report on me. »
A riding arena is a platform or special building for training horses and the life of an army officer is known. In the morning training, playpen; lunch at horse riding lessons. a regimental commander or in a Jewish tavern; in the evening punch and cards.
Punter - in gambling card games: playing against the bank, i.e. “If the punter happened to get shortchanged, then he immediately paid them extra by making large bets; one who bets in a gambling card game. enough, or wrote down too much. »
Lieutenant - an officer rank higher than a second lieutenant and lower than a non-commissioned officer - an officer - a junior command rank in the tsarist army - staff captain. Russia, in some modern foreign armies; person holding this title.
This (this, this) place. - this, this, this. “With these words he hurriedly left”
Excellency - titles of princes and counts (from places: yours, his, hers, theirs) “Oh,” I noted, “in that case, I bet that your excellency will not hit the map even at twenty paces: the pistol requires daily exercise .
Frock coat and frock coat - long men's double-breasted clothing at the waist with a turn-down "he walked forever, in a worn black frock coat"
or a stand-up collar.
Chervonets is the general name for foreign gold coins in pre-Petrine era “For a long time he refused, because he almost never played; finally ordered
Rus'. to hand over the cards, poured fifty chervonets onto the table and sat down to throw. »
Chandal - candlestick “The officer, inflamed by the wine, the game and the laughter of his comrades, considered himself severely offended and, in a rage, grabbed a copper chandelier from the table and threw it at Silvio, who barely managed to dodge the blow. »
Eterist - in the second half of the 18th and early 19th centuries: a member of the secret Greek “It is said that Silvius, during the indignation of Alexander Ypsilant, a revolutionary organization that fought for the liberation of the country from led a detachment of Eterists and was killed in battle under Turkish oppression. Skulyanami. »
"Blizzard"
Boston is a card game. “neighbors constantly went to him to eat, drink, and play Boston for five kopecks with his wife”
Versta - an ancient Russian measure “The coachman decided to travel along the river, which was supposed to shorten our route to a length of 1.06 km. " three miles. »
Red tape is delaying a case or resolving an issue. “What was holding him back? Shyness, inseparable from true love, pride or the coquetry of cunning red tape?
Maid - servant to the mistress. “Three men and a maid supported the bride and were only busy
The police captain is the chief of police in the district. “After lunch, land surveyor Shmit appeared in a mustache and spurs and the police captain’s son appeared. »
Kibitka is a covered road carriage. “I turned around, left the church without any obstacle, rushed into the wagon and shouted: “Get off!”
Cornet is the lowest officer rank. “The first person he came to, the retired forty-year-old cornet Dravin, agreed willingly.”
The porch is a covered area in front of the entrance to the church. “The church was open, several sleighs stood outside the fence; people were walking around the porch. »
Signet - homemade seal on a ring or keychain. “Having sealed both letters with a Tula signet, on which were depicted
Signet - a small seal on a ring, a keychain with initials, or two flaming hearts with a decent inscription, she (Marya Gavrilovna)
some other sign. Used to seal letters, threw herself on the bed just before dawn and dozed off. »
sealing wax or wax and served as an indication of the sender.
Ensign is the most junior officer rank. “The subject she chose was a poor army ensign who was on leave in his village.”
Ulan - in the armies of some countries, a soldier, a light cavalry officer, “a boy of about sixteen who recently joined the lancers. »
wielding a spear or saber.
Shlafor - housecoat. “The old people woke up and went into the living room. , Praskovya Petrovna in a dressing gown with cotton wool. »
Grand Patience is laying out a deck of cards according to certain rules. “The old lady was sitting alone in the living room one day, playing grand solitaire.”
A cap is a pointed-shaped headdress, which in the old days was worn by men “Gavrila Gavrilovich in a cap and flannel jacket”
worn at home and often worn at night. ; sleeping cap.
"Undertaker"
Cupid is the god of love in ancient mythology, depicted as a winged “Above the gate there was a sign depicting a portly boy with a bow and arrows. Cupid with an overturned torch in his hand. »
Announce - to notify by ringing a church service. “No one noticed, the guests continued the thread, and were already announcing Vespers when they got up from the table.
Over the knee boots - boots with a wide top. ". the leg bones beat in the big boots, like pestles in mortars. »
Brigadier - in the Russian army of the 18th century. : military rank 5th class (according to the Table of “Tryukhina, brigadier and sergeant Kurilkin vaguely introduced themselves by rank); person who had this rank. his imagination."
The guard is a policeman who carried out guard duty in the booth. “Of the Russian officials there was one watchman”
Vespers is a Christian church service held in the afternoon. ". the guests continued to drink and were already announcing Vespers.”
Gaer is a common jester in folk games, clowning around and making faces in “Is the undertaker a gaer at Christmas time?”
Christmas time;
A ten-kopeck coin is a ten-kopeck coin. “The undertaker gave him a ten-kopeck piece for vodka, got dressed quickly, took a cab and went to Razgulay. »
Drogi - a cart for transporting the dead. “The last belongings of the undertaker Adrian Prokhorov were thrown into the funeral cart”
Kaftan - an old men's long-brimmed outerwear “I will not describe the Russian caftan of Adrian Prokhorov”
Icon, icon case, icon case (from Greek - box, ark) - a special decorated cabinet “Soon order was established; ark with images, cabinet with
(often folded) or glazed shelf for icons. dishes, a table, a sofa and a bed occupied certain corners in the back room.”
A mantle is a wide, long garment in the form of a cloak” “the kitchen and living room housed the owner’s wares: coffins of all colors and all sizes, as well as wardrobes with mourning ribbons, mantles and torches. »
To preach the gospel - to end, to stop preaching the gospel. “You feasted with the German all day, came back drunk, fell into bed, and slept until this hour, when they announced mass.”
Contractor is a person who is obligated under a contract to perform certain work. “But Tryukhina was dying on Razgulay, and Prokhorov was afraid that her heir, despite his promise, would not be too lazy to send for him so far away and would not make a deal with the nearest contractor. »
To rest - 1. To sleep, to fall asleep; “You deigned to sleep, and we didn’t want to wake you.”
2. Transfer. Rest.
Svetlitsa - a bright living room; front room in the house; small “The girls went to their little room. "
bright room at the top of the house.
The ax is an ancient bladed weapon - a large ax with a semicircular blade, and “Yurko again began to walk around her with an ax and in armor with a long homespun handle. »
Sermyaga is a coarse homespun undyed cloth: a caftan is made from this cloth. “Yurko began to walk around her again with an ax and in homespun armor. »
Chukhonets was the name given to Finns and Estonians until 1917. “Of the Russian officials there was one watchman, the Chukhonian Yurko, who knew how
To acquire the special favor of the owner."
"The Station Agent"
The altar is the main elevated eastern part of the church, fenced off “He hastily entered the church: the priest was leaving the altar. »
iconostasis.
Altar - in ancient times among many peoples: a place on which sacrifices were burned and in front of which rituals associated with sacrifice were performed. Used figuratively and in comparison.
An assignation is a paper banknote issued in Russia from 1769 to “. he took them out and unwrapped several five and ten ruble
1849 , in the official language - before the introduction of credit cards; one ruble of crumpled banknotes"
in silver was equal to 3 1/3 rubles in banknotes.
The Prodigal Son is a gospel parable about the rebellious prodigal son who “They depicted the story of the prodigal son. »
he left home, squandered his share of the inheritance, after wanderings he returned with repentance to his father’s house and was forgiven.
High Nobility - according to the Table of Ranks, the title of civil ranks with “Early in the morning he came to his anteroom and asked to report to his eighth to sixth grade, as well as officers from captain to colonel, and to High Nobility”
“Taking off his wet, shaggy hat, letting go of his shawl and pulling off his overcoat,
The visiting hussar, a soldier of the highest cavalry, appeared as a young, slender hussar with a black mustache.”
Drozhki - a light, two-seater, four-wheeled open carriage with short "Suddenly a smart droshky raced in front of him"
drogues instead of springs.
Deacon - a clergyman in the Orthodox Church; the church reader, the sexton extinguished the candles. »
acolyte; He also taught literacy.
An assessor is an elected representative in court to work in some “Yes, but there are few travelers: unless the assessor turns around, he has no time for another institution. dead. »
A tavern is a drinking establishment of one of the lowest categories for sale and “It used to be that he comes from the tavern, and we follow him. »
drinking alcoholic beverages.
A cap is a pointed or oval-shaped headdress. “An old man in a cap and dressing gown lets a young man go”
Lackey is a servant in a house, restaurant, hotel.
The front end of a cart, sleigh, cart; the coachman's seat in the front "the servant jumped onto the beam. »
The porch is a covered area in front of the entrance to the church. “Approaching the church, he saw that the people were already leaving, but Dunya was not there
Neither in the fence, nor on the porch. »
Passengers are a carriage with horses that change at post stations. "traveled on crossroads"
Podorozhnaya - a document giving the right to use post horses; “In five minutes - the bell! and the courier throws him a travel certificate. your travel table. »
To rest - 1. To sleep, to fall asleep; “The military footman, cleaning his boot on the last, announced that the master
2. Transfer. Rest. rests and that he doesn’t receive anyone before eleven o’clock. »
Postmaster - manager of a post office. “the caretaker asked the S*** postmaster to leave for two months”
Passes are the cost of travel on post horses. ". paid runs for two horses. »
Captain - senior chief officer rank in the cavalry “He soon learned that Captain Minsky was in St. Petersburg and lived in
Demutov tavern. »
Skufya, skufiya - 1. A youthful, monochromatic (black, purple, Minsky came out to you in a robe, in a red skufiya. “What do you need purple, etc.) hat for Orthodox priests, monks. 2. Do you need a round?” he asked.
cap, skullcap, skull cap, headdress.
A caretaker is the head of an institution. “The weather is unbearable, the road is bad, the driver is stubborn and the horses are not moving - and the caretaker is to blame. »
Frock coat (frock coat) - a long men's double-breasted garment with a standing "and his long green frock coat with three medals"
collar
Taurus – a young bull “the cook kills a well-fed calf”
A tavern is a hotel with a restaurant. “He soon learned that Captain Minsky was in St. Petersburg and lived in
Demutov tavern. »
Non-commissioned officer is a junior command rank in the Tsarist Army of Russia. “I stayed in the Izmailovsky regiment, in the house of a retired non-commissioned officer. »
Courier - in the old army: a military or government courier for “In five minutes - the bell!” and the courier rushes him to deliver important, mostly secret documents. your travel table. »
The kingdom of heaven is a rhetorical wish for the deceased to have a happy fate in “It happened (the kingdom of heaven to him!) comes from a tavern, and we are beyond the afterlife. him: “Grandfather, grandfather! nuts!” - and he gives us nuts. »
Rank - a rank assigned to civil servants and military personnel according to the Table “I was in a minor rank, rode on carriages and paid rank passes associated with the provision of certain class rights and for two horses. »
benefits.
Dressing gown and shlafo - dressing gown. “An old man in a cap and dressing gown lets a young man go”
SLAFROK or dressing gown m. German. robe, sleeping clothes. Most often it serves as home clothing for nobles.
COAT - originally a “sleeping robe” (from German), and then the same as a robe. Although people did not go out and visit in dressing gowns, they could look very elegant, sewn for show
Coachman - coachman, driver of postal and pit horses. “The weather is unbearable, the road is bad, + the stubborn horses won’t carry -
and the caretaker is to blame. »
"Peasant Young Lady"
Blancmange - jelly made from milk with almonds and sugar. “Well, we left the table. and we sat for three hours, and the dinner was delicious: the blancmange cake was blue and striped. »
Burners is a Russian folk game in which the person standing in front catches others. “So we left the table and went into the garden to play burners, and the participants ran away from him one by one in pairs. the young master appeared here. »
House servants - servants at a manor's house, courtyard; courtyard people (in contrast to “Ivan Petrovich Berestov went out for a ride on horseback, for all the peasants who lived in the village and were engaged in farming). case, taking with him a pair of three greyhounds, a stirrup and several
Dvorovoy - related to the yard, belonging to the yard. yard boys with rattles. »
Drozhki - a light, two-seater, four-wheeled open carriage with short "Muromsky asked Berestov for a droshky, because he admitted that the drozhki had springs instead of springs. Because of the injury, he was able to get home in the evening. »
Jockey - a horse race rider; servant on horseback rides. “His grooms were dressed as jockeys.”
Zoil is a picky, unkind, unfair critic; evil “He was furious and called his zoil a bear and a provincial. »
detractor
Valet - the master's household servant, footman. “That’s right,” Alex answered,
I am the young master's valet. »
Chinese - thick fabric, originally silk, made in China, “(Lisa) sent to buy at the market a thick cloth, blue then cotton, produced in Russia for sundresses and men's Chinese and copper buttons"
shirts , usually blue, less often red. Used in peasant life
Kniksen and Kniks - accepted in the bourgeois-noble environment for girls and “Unfortunately, instead of Lisa, old Miss Jackson came out, whitewashed, the girls bowed with a curtsey as a sign of gratitude, greeting; drawn out, with downcast eyes and a small curtsey. »
curtsy.
Livery - uniform for footmen, doormen, coachmen, decorated with “Old Berestov walked onto the porch with the help of two livery braids and sewing. lackeys of Muromsky. »
Livery – 1. Adj. to livery, which was livery. 2. Dressed in livery.
Madame - the name of a married woman attached to the surname; “Her agility and minute-by-minute pranks delighted her father and brought him into his mistress. Usually used in relation to a French woman, and in reference to the despair of her Madame Miss Jackson. »
– and to a Russian woman from privileged strata.
Miss is an unmarried woman in England. Her agility and minute orders delighted her father and drove her Madame Miss Jackson into despair.”
Confidant - about a woman who was especially trusted and “There she changed her clothes, absentmindedly answering questions with the eager favor of someone; darling, lover. confidante, and appeared in the living room.”
To make up - to make up, to draw with antimony, that is, popular since ancient times “Liza, his dark-skinned Lisa, was whitened up to her ears, made up more than ever with a cosmetic product made on the basis of antimony, by Miss Jackson herself. »
giving it a special shine.
Okolotok - 1. Surrounding area, surrounding villages. 2. Resident of the district, “He built a house according to his own plan, established a legal neighborhood, the surrounding area. factory, established income and began to consider himself the smartest person
3. The area of the city under the jurisdiction of the local police officer. all over the area"
4. Medical center (usually attached to a military unit).
The Guardianship Council is an institution in Russia in charge of guardianship affairs, “. the first of the landowners of his province thought of mortgaging the educational institutions and some credit transactions related to the estate in the Board of Trustees.”
pledges of estates, etc.
Plis – cotton velvet. Among the nobility it was used for “On weekdays he wears a corduroy jacket, on holidays he puts on a home suit, merchants and rich peasants sew from it an elegant frock coat from homemade cloth.”
Poltina is a silver coin equal to 50 kopecks, half a ruble. Minted with “Trofim, passing in front of Nastya, gave her small colorful bast shoes
1707 and received half a ruble from her as a reward. »
Polushka - since the 15th century, a silver coin worth half money (i.e. ¼ “I’ll sell it and squander it, and I won’t leave you a half-ruble.”
kopecks); the last silver polushkas were released into circulation in
Frock coat - long men's double-breasted clothing with a stand-up collar “On weekdays he wears a corduroy jacket, on holidays he puts on a frock coat made of homemade cloth”
The head of the table is the official who manages the table. “The neighbors agreed that he would never make the right chief executive. »
Stremyanny is a groom, a servant who takes care of his riding horse “Ivan Petrovich Berestov went out for a ride on horseback, for every master, and also a servant who accompanies the master during the hunt. case, taking with him three pairs of greyhounds, a stirrup and several yard boys with rattles. »
Tartines - a thin slice of bread spread with butter; small sandwich. “The table was set, breakfast was ready, and Miss Jackson. I cut thin tartines. »
The faucets are a wide frame made of whalebone, willow twigs or wire, “the sleeves stuck out like Madame de Pompadour’s faucets.”
worn under a skirt to add fullness; skirt on such a frame.
A courtier is a nobleman at the royal court, a courtier. “The dawn shone in the east, and the golden rows of clouds seemed to be waiting for the sun, like courtiers waiting for a sovereign. »
Chekmen - men's clothing of the Caucasian type - a cloth caftan at the waist with ruching at the back. ". he saw his neighbor, proudly sitting on horseback, wearing a checkman lined with fox fur, "
IV. Conclusion
“Dictionary of Obsolete Words” contains 108 dictionary entries, both historicisms and archaisms. It contains those words that are not currently used or are used extremely rarely in the living literary language, as well as words that are used today, but have a different meaning, unlike the one we put into it.
The dictionary entry reveals the meaning of obsolete words, using examples from the stories of Pushkin’s cycle to show how they functioned in speech. The created dictionary, which includes both historicisms and archaisms, will help to overcome the barrier between the reader and the text, sometimes erected by outdated words that are incomprehensible or misunderstood by the reader, and to thoughtfully and meaningfully perceive the text of “Belkin’s Tales”. Some dictionary entries are accompanied by drawings that make it possible to realistically imagine the objects called by this or that word.
The remarkable poet, outstanding translator V. A. Zhukovsky wrote: “The word is not our arbitrary invention: every word that receives a place in the lexicon of a language is an event in the field of thought.”
This work will become an assistant in reading, studying, and understanding Pushkin’s cycle “Belkin’s Tales”, will broaden the reader’s horizons, help arouse interest in the history of words, and can be used in literature lessons.
Explanatory dictionary of ancient Russian words A Alatyr - Center of Space. Center of Microcosmos (Human). That around which the cycle of Life takes place. Translation options: ala - motley (snow-covered), tyr<тур>- peak, staff or pillar with a pommel, sacred tree, mountain, “towering” Variations: Latyr, Altyr, Zlatyr, Zlatar Constant epithet - “bel combustible (hot, sparkling)” - (bel - “brilliant”). In Russian texts, golden, zlat, smooth, and iron stones are found. Latyr-stone is the center of coordinates of the world and man in Slavic mythology. Alpha and Omega. That from which everything begins and where it returns (locus). More precisely, the meaning and significance of the words are conveyed in epics... Alkonost - from the ancient Russian saying “alkyon is (bird)”, from the Greek alkyon - kingfisher (Greek myth about Alkyon, transformed by the gods into a kingfisher). She is depicted in popular prints as a half-woman, half-bird with large multi-colored feathers and a girl’s head, overshadowed by a crown and a halo. In his hands he holds paradise flowers and an unfolded scroll with a saying about reward in paradise for a righteous life on earth. Unlike the bird Sirin, she was always depicted with hands. Alkonost, like the Sirin bird, captivates people with its singing. The legends speak about the days of alkonost - seven days when Alkonost lays eggs in the depths of the sea and hatches them, sitting on the surface of the water and pacifying storms. Alkonost is perceived as a “manifestation of divine providence” and serves as a designation of the divine word. B Basa - beauty, decoration, panache. Batog is a stick. To babble, to babble - to speak, to say. Pregnancy is a burden, an armful, as much as you can wrap your arms around. Boyars are rich and noble people, close associates of the king. Scolding is a battle; A battlefield is a battlefield. We are brothers and sisters. Armor - clothing made of metal plates or rings; protected the warrior from the blows of a sword and spear. Britous - the Old Believers called it that way for those who were shaven and without a beard. Damask steel was a specially made steel. Weapons made from this steel were also called damask steel. To get rich - to get rich, to increase wealth. The story is a true story. Bylina is a Russian folk epic (full of greatness and heroism) song - a legend about heroes. V To get acquainted - to get to know each other, to communicate, to be friends, to make acquaintances. To know - to know. Vereya - a pillar on which the gate was hung. Nativity scene - cave, dungeon. To make a noise is to make a noise. To make noise (to make noise) "Don't goldie!" = don't make noise! Golk = noise, hum,< гулкий >echo. Frantic - having lost all sense of proportion. Knight - a brave warrior, a hero. Lightweight - easy, free, without much difficulty, safe. To endure - to withstand, endure, endure. G Garnets - an ancient measure of bulk solids, bread (~ 3 liters) Goy thou art (from the word goit - to heal, to live; goy - peace< , в его развитии, в движении и обновлении >, abundance) - magnification, a wish for health, corresponding in meaning to today: “Be healthy! Hello!” You are good = you are healthy<есть>"Goy" is a Russian wish for health, good luck and prosperity, a kind word. Options: “Goy este” - be healthy, in the meaning of greeting, wishing the interlocutor health and goodness. “Oh, you” is a greeting with many meanings, depending on the intonation of the speaker. Gorazd - knows how, skillful Gornitsa - that’s how, in the old fashioned way, they called the upper room with large windows. A threshing floor, gumentse is a place where they thresh, and also a shed for storing sheaves. D Just now (before the moment of conversation) A shower warmer is a warm short jacket or quilted jacket without sleeves, with ruching at the back. Dereza is a thorny shrub, a "scraper". In an ancient way - in the old way Dremuchy - “dense forest” - dark, dense, impenetrable; illiterate person Ye Yelan, elanka - a grassy clearing in the forest Endova - a wide vessel with a spout. Food - food, food. Zhaleika - a pipe made of willow bark. Jug - a jug with a lid. The belly is life. Belly - estate, wealth, livestock Z Zavse<гда>- constantly. To begin to fast - to begin to fast, to fast. The outpost is a fence made of logs, a control point at the entrance, and an eminent one is a rich, noble monk - in the church. “he was tonsured a monk, then ordained a deacon...” A hut is a house, a warm room. The name “izba” comes from the word “to heat” (the original version is “istoka” /from a birch bark letter, XIV century - Novgorod, Dmitrievskaya street, excavations/). House = "smoke" from a chimney. K Kalinovy (about fire) - bright, hot. Hag - crow. A tub is a cylindrical container (barrel), assembled from wooden rivets (planks) held together with metal hoops. Killer whale / killer whale - affectionate address. The original meaning is “having beautiful braids.” Kichka, kika is an ancient women's headdress that decorates the appearance and gives one a look. Klet - closet, separate room The cell in the ancient Russian house was called a cold room, and the hut was a warm one. Podklet - the lower cold floor of Klyuk's house - a stick with a curved upper end. Knysh is bread baked from wheat flour and eaten hot. Kokora, kokorina - snag, stump. Kolymaga is an ancient decorated carriage in which noble people rode. Kolyada is a Christmas song in honor of the owners of the house; for carols they gave a gift. Carol is a Christmas song sung on Christmas Eve and the first day of Christmastide by rural youth. Ancient carols are characterized by elements - openings and conclusions from the kondachka - without preparation. Origin (variant): the original word is Kondakia (kondakia, kontakia) - a stick (diminutive of “spear”) on which a scroll of parchment was wound. A parchment sheet or scroll itself, written on both sides, was also called kandak. Subsequently, the word K. began to denote a special group of church chants, in the middle of the first millennium - long ones (hymns, poems), modern ones - small ones (one or two stanzas, as part of a canon) Box, boxes - a large bast box or box in which they were stored miscellaneous goodness. Kochet, Kochet - rooster. To bow - to be baptized, to make the sign of the cross. "Wake up!" - come to your senses! A mound is a high earthen mound that the ancient Slavs built over a grave. Kut, kutnichek - a corner in a hut, a counter, a stall in which chickens were kept in winter. Kutya - a steep, sweet barley, wheat or rice porridge with raisins. The circle-amulet - developed from a circular walk around the area where they were going to spend the night or settle for a long time; such a walk was necessary to ensure that there were no dens of predators or snakes. The idea of a circle served as an image<своего> peace. L Lada! - expression of consent, approval. Fine! other Russian Okay - the word has many meanings depending on intonation. Plate is iron or steel armor worn by warriors. M Poppy - top of the head. Matitsa - middle ceiling beam. The world is a peasant community. N Nadezha-warrior is an experienced, reliable, strong, skillful fighter. Nadys - recently, the other day. Invoice - interest. “It won’t be expensive” - inexpensive, profitable Instead - instead. I called myself - I called myself; name - give a name, name. A week is a day when “they don’t do it” – a day of rest. In the pre-Christian period in Rus', Saturday and Sunday were called pre-weekend and week (or week), respectively. Arrears - taxes not paid on time or quitrent Nikola - never. O Frill - a tie at the bast shoe. Abundance - a lot of something. This is how the bread Obrok was called in Novgorod - a tribute to get well - to come to consciousness, to recover. Besides, besides - except. Yell - plow. Ostatniy - the last Osmushka - eighth (eighth) part = 1/8 - “octam of tea” (~ 40 or 50 grams) Oprich - except (“besides”) P Club - a club with a bound knob. Parun - a hot day after rain. Sailboat - sailor's clothing. Brocade is silk fabric woven with gold or silver. More - "more", "all the more so... = all the more so..." Veil - something that covers on all sides (fabric, fog, etc.) Blame - reproach, reproach. Finger - finger. Polati is a plank platform for sleeping, located under the ceiling. Spelled is a special variety of wheat. To please is to be overzealous; eat a lot. Posad is a village where traders and artisans lived. Throne - a throne, a special chair on a dais on which the king sat on special occasions. Prisno is an old, high-style word that means always, forever and ever. Printed gingerbread is a gingerbread with an imprinted (printed) pattern or letters. Pudovka is a pood measure of weight. Pushcha is a protected, impenetrable forest. You need to think about it - think, figure out, think about this matter, discuss something with someone; to understand - to understand, to think, to reason about something. Sexual (color) - light yellow Midday - southern R. Military - military. Rat is an army. Thrifty - diligent, diligent Rushnik - embroidered towel. To agree - to come to an agreement, to come to an agreement. Unbelt - walk without a belt, lose all shame Rivers (verb) - say Repishche - vegetable garden Rubishche - torn, worn-out clothes S Svetlitsa (Push.) - bright, clean room. Scythian = monastery (initial) - from the words “to wander”, “wandering”, therefore, “Scythians-monasteries” - “wanderers” (“nomads”? ). New meaning - monastic hermitage "Good Riddance" - original meaning... Yablochny Spas Sloboda is a village near the city, a suburb. Nightingales are yellowish-white horses. Sorokovka is a barrel for forty buckets. Sorochin, Sarachin - Saracen, Arabian rider. The clothes are decent - that is, not bad. An oxbow is an old (or dried up) river bed. A pillar noblewoman is a noblewoman of an old and noble family. Adversary - adversary, enemy. with a flourish - at times, inadequately. Antimony - painted black. Leaf - covered with a thin film of gold, silver, copper or tin. Gilded Sousek, bin<а>- a place where flour and grain are stored. To be full - food, food. Week - week T Terem - tall houses with a turret at the top. Tims - shoes made of goatskin. They were highly valued and sold in yuftas, that is, in pairs. Later they began to be called “morocco” (Persian word) Either here<тута>, and there... - words from a modern song about the difficulty of learning the Russian language. Gait of three crosses - super-fast execution of any order: one cross on packages with reports - the usual speed of horse delivery is 8-10 km/h, two - up to 12 km/h, three - the maximum possible. Oatmeal is crushed (unground) oatmeal. To skinny - to spend U Udel - possession, principality, fate Uval... - Ural (?) - Khural (belt, Turkic) ... Russia, belted by the Urals, stands by Siberia... F Enamel - enamel in painting metal products and the products themselves Fita - a letter of the old Russian alphabet (in the words “Fedot”, “incense”) Foot - an ancient measure of length equal to 30.48 cm X Chiton - underwear made of linen or woolen fabric in the form of a shirt, usually without sleeves. It is fastened on the shoulders with special fasteners or ties, and tied with a belt at the waist. Chiton was worn by both men and women. Khmara - cloud Pyarun - thunder T Tsatra (chatra, chator) - fabric made of goat down (undercoat) or wool. Tselkovy is the colloquial name for the metal ruble. Ch Chelo - forehead, in modern terms. In the old days, the forehead is the top of the head. Child is a son or daughter under 12 years old. To expect - to expect, to hope. Chapyzhnik - thickets<колючего> bush. Chebotar - shoemaker, shoemaker. Chobots - high closed shoes, men's and women's, boots or shoes with sharp, turned-up toes; roan horse - motley, with white splashes on gray (and other, main) wool or a different color mane and tail. Servants - servants in the house. Scarlet - red Brow - a person's forehead, a vaulted hole in a Russian stove, the entrance hole of a den. Chetami - in pairs, in pairs. Cheta - a pair, two objects or persons Quarter - a fourth part of something Black (clothing) - rough, everyday, working. Chick - hit Cast iron - railway. Sh Shelom - a helmet, a pointed iron cap for protection from sword strikes. Shlyk - jester's hat, cap, bonnet. Shtof - glass bottle 1.23 liters (1/10 of a bucket) Shtof generosity - generosity. A man with a big heart, showing a noble breadth of soul E Yu Yushka - fish soup or thin soup. St. George's Day (November 26) is a period determined by law when in Muscovite Rus' a peasant who settled on the master's land and entered into a "decent agreement" with the owner had the right to leave the owner, having first fulfilled all his obligations towards him. This was the only time of the year, after the end of autumn work (the week before and after November 26), when dependent peasants could pass from one owner to another. I am the Paradise Egg - the lucky egg, the magic egg. Dishes - food, food, food. Yarilo - the ancient name of the Sun Yasen stump - meaning: "Naturally! Well, of course!" In this form, the expression appeared relatively recently, Yakhont - Old Russian. name certain precious stones, most often ruby (dark red corundum), less often sapphire (blue), etc. Old Slavic names of peoples Svei - Swedes Poles - Poles Ugric group - Ostyaks, Voguls, Volga-Bulgarian Magyars - Cheremis, Permian Mordovians - Permyaks, Zyryans, Votyaks midday - southern Fryazhsky - Italian. "Fryazhsky" writing is a type of painting, as a result of the transition from icon painting to natural painting, at the end of the 17th century. Germans are those who speak incomprehensibly (mute). Dutch - from the territory where the Kingdom of the Netherlands is now located. sorochinin - Arabic languages - peoples (common name) Man Brow - forehead Right hand - on the right hand or side Oshuyu - on the left hand or side. Shuiy is the left one. Shuitsa - left hand. Right hand and Shuytsa - right and left hand, right and left side (“standing at the right and left at the entrance...”) Colors “red sun”, “red maiden” - beautiful, bright “red corner” - main red color - amulet The connection of weaving with cosmological motifs Wicker and weaving in weaving appears as a form of modeling the world. If the thread is fate, the path of life; that canvas, constantly produced and reproduced, is the whole World. Ritual towels (towels, the length of which is 10-15 times greater than the width) and square scarves with an ornament in the form of a model (mandala) of the Universe. Ancient Slavic writing (“Russian writing”, before the beginning of the second millennium AD) - Slavic Runes and “Knot writing” In folk tales, a knotted ball of guide is often found, indicating the Path. Unwinding and reading it, the person learned the clues - where to go and what to do, read words, images and numbers. Nodular (nodular-linear) Elm was wound, for storage, into book-balls (or on a special wooden stick - Ust; hence the teachings from the elders - “Wind it around your mustache”) and put away in a box-box (from where the concept “Speak to three” came from box"). Attaching the thread to the mouth (the center of the ball) was considered the beginning of recording. Many letters-symbols of the ancient Glagolitic alphabet are a stylized display of a two-dimensional projection onto Knotty Elm paper. Initial letters (capital letters of ancient texts in Cyrillic) - usually depicted in the form of a Knitting pattern. Looping techniques were also used to transmit and store information and to create protective amulets and amulets (including braiding hair). Examples of words and phrases that mention sciences: “to tie a knot as a keepsake”, “ties of friendship/marriage”, “the intricacy of the plot”, “to tie” (stop), union (from souz<ы>), "runs like a red thread (Alya) through the entire narrative." “Characters and Cuts” is a “birch bark letter” (a simplified version of Slavic runes), widely used for everyday records and short messages between people. Slavic Runes are sacred symbols, each of which conveys a phonetic meaning (the sound of a sign of the runic alphabet), a meaning-image (for example, the letter “D” meant “good”, “well-being”< дары Богов, "хлеб насущный" >, Tree< в узелковом письме может соответствовать перевёрнутой петле "коровья" (схватывающий узел) / Дерево >and belt buckle) and numerical correspondence. To encrypt or shorten the recording, knitted runes were used (combined, intertwined, built into a pictorial ornament). Monogram, letter monogram - a combination of the initial letters of a name and/or surname into one image, usually intertwined and forming a patterned script. Dwelling The main pillar in the house is the central one, supporting the hut. Community Ordinary objects are common (that is, no one's; belonging to everyone and no one in particular) things that are important to everyone to the same extent, with common rituals. Belief in the purity (whole, healthy) and holiness of common ritual meals, brotherhoods, joint prayers, and donations. An ordinary object is clean, new, it has the enormous power of a whole, untouched thing. The main elements of Slavic mythology are Latyr-stone, Alatyr is the center of coordinates of the world and man in Slavic mythology. Alpha and Omega (the original singular Point of growth and the final volumetric World< всё наше Мироздание, есть и другие, но очень далеко, со всех сторон >in the form of an almost endless ball). That from which everything begins and where it returns (point, locus). Miraculous stone (in Russian folk beliefs). in epics... Alatyr - Centers of the Cosmos (Universe) and Microcosmos (Human). Fractal Growth Point, three-dimensional< / многомерная >line of singularity ("Staircase" connecting the worlds), a fabulous "magic wand" / wand / staff with a pommel or a stationary Magic Altar. That from which Existence begins and returns, around which the cycle of Life occurs (the axis point). Russian letter A, Greek - “Alpha”. The symbol of the Ladder is prayer beads (“ladder” = ladder connecting the top and bottom of the Universe) / “ladder”). In the temple there is a lectern (a high table, in the center, for icons and liturgical books). Translation options: ala - motley, tyr<тур>- a peak, a pillar or a staff with a triple pommel, a fabulous “magic wand”, a scepter, a sacred tree or mountain, the trunk of the World Tree, “towering” Options - Latyr, Altyr, Zlatyr, Zlatar, Alva Constant epithet - “white flammable (burning = glowing, hot, sparkling)" - (white - dazzlingly brilliant). In Russian texts there is gold, zlat (amber?), smooth (polished by the hands of those praying), iron (if a meteorite or fossil magnetic ore) stone. Merkaba is a star tetrahedron, a closed volume of an energy-informational crystal-chariot for the ascension of the Spirit, Soul and body of Man. "First Stone"< Краеугольный, Замковый >- the initial, axial point of any creation. “The navel of the Earth” is the energy center of the planet, in which, according to legend, there is always a crystal (“unearthly Jewel”), the magical Alatyr< подземный Китеж-Град, Ковчег, неземной Храм >. Folk tales place it in various points on Earth, usually in real energy centers / nodes (places of Power), such as in the vicinity of the village of Okunevo, on the Tara River, in Western Siberia. The stories about these lands, at first glance, are unrealistically fabulous, but modern scientists still cannot really explain all the anomalies and miracles that occur in such areas, on the lakes there. There is information in the open press that Helen and Nicholas Roerich, in the twenties of the last century, traveling through Russia, took with them an ancient box with an unusual stone inside (? -<Ш>Chintamani, Lapis Exilis, "wandering in the world", part of the Holy Grail/Wisdom Stone, in the ark-casket), sent to him by the Mahatma. It is no coincidence that this box is shown in the famous painting “Portrait of N.K. Roerich”, painted by his son, Svyatoslav Roerich. The main part of this Stone (called the “Treasure of the World” - Norbu Rimpoche, a cosmic magnet from the center of our Universe, with the energetic rhythm of its Life) is located in the legendary Shambhala (Tibet, in the Himalaya mountains). The story is amazing, almost incredible. More information is available on other Internet sites. Holy Grail (Buddha Bowl) - symbol of the source< волшебного >elixir. Where it is now is not known for certain, except for the almost fabulous, fantastic UFO legends from the middle of the last century, now published by modern researchers on the Internet and in books, about the German base (numbered 211) in Antarctica (located somewhere- then near the current South Geographic Pole, on the coast of Dronning Maud Land, on the side of the Atlantic Ocean, in warm karst caves with underground rivers and lakes, where for a long time, after the Second World War, hundreds, and maybe thousands of German soldiers lived and hid, specialists and civilians who sailed there on submarines). With a high probability, in those grottoes and catacombs-laboratories (artificially created with the help of mining equipment delivered there on ships several years earlier) - the Nazis hid some especially valuable artifacts and sources of Ancient Knowledge, obtained by them all over the world and found, discovered on the spot. And almost certainly, all this is securely and carefully hidden there, with numerous traps, which people will disarm and pass, perhaps in the not very distant future.< или, опередившие их - пришельцы, инопланетяне >can with the help of robots. Philosopher's Stone of Wisdom< эликсир жизни >- to obtain gold (enlightenment of a person, immortality (eternal youth) of him<тела>-souls-<духа>in their synthesis). The spine (spinal cord) is “Mount Meru”, with its apex in the head (epiphysis (m) and pituitary gland (g) - on the physical plane, halos and radiances - on the next, higher planes). The ancient name of the Baltic Sea is “Alatyr” Rus - an indigenous inhabitant of the Russian land Alatyr-stone is found in fairy tales and epics in the form of the phrase: “On the sea on the ocean, on an island on Buyan lies the Alatyr-stone.” Spaces of microcosm in Slavic mythology The first, outer circle of the concentrically arranged “world” (history, events) most often turns out to be a sea or a river. The pure field is a transitional area between worlds. The second area, following the sea, is an island (or immediately a stone) or a mountain (or mountains). The central locus of the mythological world is represented by many different objects, of which stones or trees may have proper names. All of them are usually located on an island or mountain, i.e. one way or another included in the previous locus as a central and maximally sacred point. The sea (sometimes a river) in Slavic mythology represents that body of water (in the southern regions, also vast sandy and rocky deserts, for example, the Mongolian Gobi), which, according to traditional ideas, lies on the way to the kingdom of the dead and to the next world . Old Slavonic “ocean”, as well as - Okiyan, Okian, Ocean, Okeyan. Kiyan-Sea Sea-Okiyan - the absolute periphery of the world (antilocus); It's impossible to get around it. Blue Sea - locus Black Sea - antilocus Khvalynsk Sea - Caspian or Black Sea. Antilocus Khorezm - Aral Sea. Antilocus Currant River is the mythical prototype of all rivers. Acts as the water boundary of the “other world”. There is a viburnum bridge on it. Buyan Island - In folklore, Buyan is associated with the other world, the path to which, as you know, lies through the water. The island can serve as an arena for fabulous action.
Introduction
Chapter 1. Types of obsolete words in modern Russian language
§ 1. Obsolete words
§ 2. Archaisms
§ 3. Historicisms
§ 4. The use of obsolete words in works of art
Chapter 2. Outdated words in the work of A.S. Pushkin "The Bronze Horseman"
§ 1. The use of archaisms in the story “The Bronze Horseman”
§ 2. The use of historicisms in the story “The Bronze Horseman”
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
Object our research are obsolete words (archaisms and historicisms).
The purpose of this work– consider the functioning of obsolete words in a literary text.
To achieve this goal it was necessary to complete a number of tasks:
study theoretical literature on this topic and define basic concepts;
highlight historicisms and archaisms in a literary text;
determine what types of obsolete words the author uses in his work.
Identify the functions of obsolete words in the analyzed work
Material for research served as a story by A.S. Pushkin "The Bronze Horseman".
Chapter 1. Types of obsolete words in modern Russian § 1. Obsolete words
The disappearance of words and their individual meanings from a language is a complex phenomenon that occurs slowly and does not immediately (and not always) lead to the loss of a word from the vocabulary of the language in general. The loss of a word or one or another of its meanings is the result of a straightforward process: in a number of cases, outdated words subsequently return again over a long process of archaization of the corresponding linguistic fact, when it, from a phenomenon of the active vocabulary, initially becomes the property of a passive dictionary and only then is gradually forgotten and completely disappears from the language .
Words fall out of use for various reasons. Many of them are forgotten as soon as some phenomenon or object disappears from life. Naturally, in this case, as a rule, there is a sharp change in their meaning (cf. the fate, for example, of such words as decree, soldier, ministry, etc.).
For example, a new life for some of the words denoting military ranks began when new military ranks were introduced in the Red Army. Outdated words soldier, corporal, lieutenant, captain, major, colonel, general, admiral and others acquired a new meaning and became commonly used words. In 1946, previously outdated words found new life minister, ministry in connection with the change in the name of the government of the USSR (the Council of People's Commissars was transformed into the Council of Ministers of the USSR).
Outdated words, the most common in works of art, are placed in explanatory dictionaries with the mark "outdated."(obsolete). From words found in written monuments of the past, scientists compile historical dictionaries, for example, the “Dictionary of the Russian Language of the 11th-17th Centuries” edited by S.G. Barkhudarov has now begun to be published.
Obsolete words, which together form the obsolete vocabulary of the Russian language, represent a complex and multi-layered system. The reason for this is their heterogeneity and diversity in terms of: 1) the degree of their obsolescence, 2) the reasons for their archaization and 3) the possibility and nature of their use.
According to the degree of obsolescence, we primarily distinguish a group of words that are currently completely unknown to ordinary speakers of the modern Russian literary language and are therefore incomprehensible without appropriate references. These include:
a) words that have completely disappeared from the language, not currently found in it even as part of derivative words ( locks- puddle, which- argument, prosinets- February, strict- paternal uncle, netiy- sister's nephew cancer– grave, tomb, etc.);
b) words that are not used in the language as separate words, but are found as root parts of derived words: rope - rope, rug - ridicule (scold), lie – boil, (cook, ravine), beef - livestock (beef, beef), sleeping - skin (hangnails), bully - bone (booze), mzhura – darkness, haze (to squint), khudog – skilled (artist) soon– skin (weed), treacherous- blacksmith (cunning), publican– tax collector (ordeal), beg- give (alms), etc.
c) words that have disappeared from the language as separate meaningful units, but are still used as part of phraseological units: falcon - an old battering ram, a large ram (a head like a falcon); zga - road (cf. path; not visible); stake – a small plot of land (no stake, no yard), etc.
All these words have fallen out of the vocabulary of the language and are now firmly forgotten. All of them have nothing to do with the lexical system of the modern Russian literary language and are not even included in its passive vocabulary. All of them, finally, are facts of previous, generally distant eras in the development of the Russian language. Unlike obsolete words, they are best called ancient.
The question arises whether it makes sense to consider such facts when analyzing the vocabulary of the modern Russian literary language, in which they really do not exist. It turns out there is. And this is explained by the fact that ancient words (or obsolete words of the second degree) are still occasionally used in necessary cases even now, naturally, in the form of special verbal inlays, external to the words surrounding them, and usually with the necessary explanations. Thus, such facts can still be found in individual speech works, and this is precisely what does not allow them to be excluded from consideration when analyzing modern vocabulary, despite the fact that they have nothing to do with the latter. Ancient words (for specific cases of their use, see below) are opposed in terms of the degree of obsolescence by a group of obsolete words, consisting of such lexical units that speakers of modern Russian literary language are known, but are part of its passive vocabulary and are used only for certain stylistic purposes.
These are already real units of language, although they have a limited scope of use and specific properties.
These types of outdated words include: verst, horse-drawn horse, vershok, student, policeman, bursa, ony (that), in vain (seeing), iroystvo, barber, just (only), verb (to speak), in order (to), cold (cold), etc.
Naturally, the time when it goes out of active use is of great importance in the degree of obsolescence of a particular word and its individual meaning. To a large extent, however, it is also determined by: 1) the place of a given word with the corresponding meaning in the nominative system of the national language, 2) the initial prevalence of the word and the duration of use in the active vocabulary, 3) the presence or absence of a clear and direct connection with related words and etc. Often a word that has long fallen out of active use is still not forgotten by speakers, although it appears sporadically in their speech, and vice versa, there are cases when a word that has moved into the passive vocabulary of the language relatively recently is forgotten and falls out of the language.
For example, words hunger, corvid, disaster came out of the active vocabulary of written speech (they did not exist in the spoken language before) more than 100 years ago, but they are still understandable in their basic meanings to speakers of modern Russian. On the contrary, the words ukom(county committee), uninterrupted, those that were in active use compared to those previously noted hunger, corvid, disaster recently.
Since toponymy (names of rivers, lakes, settlements, etc.) and anthroponymy (personal and family names) are the most stable facts in the dictionary material, much of what has already left the language as common nouns is preserved in toponymy and anthroponymy as proper names: river Shuya(shuya-left), station Bologoe(bologoe-good, kind, beautiful), Academician L.V.Shcherba(chap-crack, notch), city Gorodets(gorodets-gorodok, with the suffix – ets), city Mytishchi(Mytishche - place where they collected myto), village Chervlenaya(scarlet-red), cook Smury(gloomy-gloomy, cf. cloudy), etc.
Since the lexical system develops in each language according to its own internal laws, unique to it, obsolete or even ancient words that have completely left the Russian language can be preserved in other closely related Slavic languages as lexical units of the active vocabulary. Wed. words Velmi– in Belarusian, fuska – in Polish (Russian luska lives as part of the production luska), krak – in Bulgarian (cf. Russian production ham), ul – in Czech (in Russian it comes out as a root in the word hive, street, etc.), bз – in Bulgarian (cf. Russian production elderberry), etc.
In addition to the fact that obsolete words differ in the degree of their archaism, they also differ from each other in what led them to become part of the obsolete vocabulary (in the broad sense of the word). This difference is the most serious and fundamental.
Most of the words used in modern texts appeared in the Russian language in different eras - from ancient to modern, but they seem to us to be equally modern, necessary, and mastered by the language: eight, time, talk, collective farm, combine, our, new, revolution, plane, Soviet, telephone etc. For example, at the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th century, before the advent of the tram, there was a city railway with horse traction. This road, as well as the carriage, was called such a road horse-drawn. With the advent of the tram, and then other types of transport, the need for horse traction disappeared, and the word horse-drawn outdated and therefore out of use. Other words are forgotten if new words appear to name that object, attribute, or action. For example: in the Old Russian language there was a word here- “fat”. Over time, the word began to be used in this meaning fat, originally meaning “feed, food”, and the word here ceased to be used, the subject remained, but the word became obsolete.
In addition to words, individual meanings of polysemantic words became obsolete. Yes, word map has five meanings and two of them are outdated: 1) “a sheet with a list of foods and drinks in a restaurant” (now this sheet is called "menu"; 2) “postcard”.
So, words can go out of active use and pass into a passive dictionary (and then disappear altogether) both because the phenomena, objects, things, etc. they call disappear, and due to the fact that they, as designations of some phenomena, objects, things, etc. in the process of use in the language they can be replaced by other words. In one case, words become unnecessary in the active vocabulary of speakers because they are designations of disappeared phenomena of reality; in another case, words go out of active use for the reason that they are replaced by other words (with the same meanings), which turn out to be more acceptable for expression relevant concepts. In the first case we are dealing with historicisms, in the second - with archaisms.
- Wolf ticket (wolf passport)
In the 19th century, the name of a document that blocked access to the civil service, educational institution, etc. Today, the phraseological unit is used to mean a sharply negative characteristic of someone’s work.
The origin of this turnover is usually explained by the fact that the person who received such a document was not allowed to live in one place for more than 2-3 days and had to wander like a wolf.
In addition, in many combinations, wolf means “abnormal, inhuman, bestial,” which strengthens the contrast between the holder of the wolf card and other “normal” people. - Lies like a gray gelding
There are several options for the origin of phraseological units.
1. The word gelding comes from the Mongolian morin "horse". In historical monuments, the horse siv and gelding siv are very typical; the adjective sivy “light gray, gray-haired” shows the old age of the animal. The verb to lie had a different meaning in the past - “to talk nonsense, talk idle talk; chatter.” The gray gelding here is a stallion that has turned gray from long work, and figuratively - a man who is already talking from old age and talking annoying nonsense.
2. Gelding is a stallion, gray is old. The expression is explained by the usual boasting of old people about their strength, as if still preserved, like that of the young.
3. The turnover is associated with the attitude towards the gray horse as a stupid creature. Russian peasants avoided, for example, laying the first furrow on a gray gelding, because he was “lying” - he was wrong, laying it incorrectly. - Give oak- die
The phrase is associated with the verb zudubet - “to cool down, lose sensitivity, become hard.” An oak coffin has always been a sign of special honor for the deceased. Peter I introduced a tax on oak coffins as a luxury item. - Alive, smoking room!
The origin of the expression is associated with the game "Smoking Room", popular in the 18th century in Russia at gatherings on winter evenings. The players sat in a circle and passed a burning torch to each other, saying “Alive, alive, Smoking Room, not dead, thin legs, short soul...”. The loser was the one whose torch went out and began to smoke or smoke. Later this game was replaced by "Burn, burn clearly so that it does not go out." - Nick down
In the old days, almost the entire population in Russian villages was illiterate. To record the bread handed over to the landowner, the work performed, etc., so-called tags were used - wooden sticks up to a fathom long (2 meters), on which notches were made with a knife. The tags were split into two parts so that the marks were on both: one remained with the employer, the other with the performer. The calculation was made based on the number of notches. Hence the expression “notch on the nose,” meaning: remember well, take into account for the future. - Play spillikins
In the old days, the game of “spillikins” was common in Rus'. It consisted of using a small hook to pull out, without touching the others, one of the other piles of all the spillikins - all kinds of small toy things: hatchets, glasses, baskets, barrels. This is how not only children, but also adults spent time on long winter evenings.
Over time, the expression “playing spillikins” began to mean an empty pastime. - Latem cabbage soup to slurp
Lapti - wicker shoes made of bast (the subcortical layer of linden trees), covering only the feet - in Rus' were the only affordable footwear for poor peasants, and shchi - a type of cabbage soup - was their simplest and favorite food. Depending on the wealth of the family and the time of year, cabbage soup could be either green, that is, with sorrel, or sour - made from sauerkraut, with meat, or lean - without meat, which was eaten during fasting or in cases of extreme poverty.
About a person who could not earn enough to buy boots and more refined food, they said that he “slurps on cabbage soup,” that is, he lives in terrible poverty and ignorance. - Fawn
The word “fawn” comes from the German phrase “Ich liebe sie” (I love you). Seeing the insincerity in the frequent repetition of this “fawn”, Russian people wittily formed from these German words the Russian word “fawn” - it means to curry favor, to flatter someone, to achieve someone’s favor or favor with flattery. - Fishing in troubled waters
Stunning has long been one of the prohibited methods of catching fish, especially during spawning. There is a well-known fable by the ancient Greek poet Aesop about a fisherman who muddied the water around his nets, driving blinded fish into them. Then the expression went beyond fishing and acquired a broader meaning - to take advantage of an unclear situation.
There is also a well-known proverb: “Before you catch a fish, you [need] to muddy the waters,” that is, “deliberately create confusion for profit.” - Small fry
The expression came from peasant everyday life. In the Russian northern lands, a plow is a peasant community of 3 to 60 households. And small fry called a very poor community, and then its poor inhabitants. Later, officials occupying a low position in the government structure also began to be called small fry. - The thief's hat is on fire
The expression goes back to an old joke about how a thief was found in the market.
After futile attempts to find the thief, people turned to the sorcerer for help; he shouted loudly: “Look! The thief’s hat is on fire!” And suddenly everyone saw how a man grabbed his hat. So the thief was discovered and convicted. - Lather your head
In the old days, a tsarist soldier served indefinitely - until death or complete disability. Since 1793, a 25-year period of military service was introduced. The landowner had the right to give his serfs as soldiers for misconduct. Since recruits (recruits) had their hair shaved off and were referred to as “shaved”, “shaved their forehead”, “soaped their head”, the expression “I’ll soap my head” became synonymous with threat in the mouths of the rulers. In a figurative sense, “soap your head” means: to give a severe reprimand, to strongly scold. - Neither fish nor fowl
In Western and Central Europe of the 16th century, a new movement appeared in Christianity - Protestantism (lat. “to protest, object”). Protestants, unlike Catholics, opposed the Pope, denied holy angels and monasticism, arguing that each person himself can turn to God. Their rituals were simple and inexpensive. There was a bitter struggle between Catholics and Protestants. Some of them, in accordance with Christian commandments, ate modest meat, others preferred lean fish. If a person did not join any movement, then he was contemptuously called “neither fish nor fowl.” Over time, they began to talk about a person who does not have a clearly defined position in life, who is not capable of active, independent actions. - There is no place to put samples- disapprovingly about a depraved woman.
An expression based on a comparison with a golden thing passing from one owner to another. Each new owner demanded that the product be checked by a jeweler and tested. When the product had been in many hands, there was no longer any room left for testing. - If we don't wash, we'll ride
Before the invention of electricity, a heavy cast iron iron was heated over a fire and, until it cooled down, they ironed clothes with it. But this process was difficult and required a certain skill, so the linen was often “rolled”. To do this, washed and almost dried laundry was fixed on a special rolling pin - a round piece of wood similar to the one used to roll out dough nowadays. Then, using a ruble - a curved corrugated board with a handle - the rolling pin, along with the laundry wound onto it, was rolled along a wide flat board. At the same time, the fabric was stretched and straightened. Professional laundresses knew that well-rolled linen has a fresher appearance, even if the washing was not entirely successful.
This is how the expression “by washing, by rolling” appeared, that is, to achieve results in more than one way. - Break a leg- wishing good luck in something.
The expression was originally used as a “spell” designed to deceive evil spirits (this expression was used to admonish those going on a hunt; it was believed that with a direct wish for good luck one could “jinx” the prey).
Answer "To hell!" should have further protected the hunter. To hell - this is not an expletive like “Go to hell!”, but a request to go to hell and tell him about it (so that the hunter does not get any fluff or feather). Then the unclean one will do the opposite, and what is needed will happen: the hunter will return “with down and feathers,” that is, with prey. - Let's beat swords into ploughshares
The expression goes back to the Old Testament, where it is said that “the time will come when the nations will beat swords into plowshares and spears into pruning hooks; nation will not lift up sword against nation, and they will no longer learn to fight.”
In the Old Church Slavonic language, “ploughshare” is a tool for cultivating land, something like a plow. The dream of establishing universal peace is figuratively expressed in the sculpture of the Soviet sculptor E.V. Vuchetich, depicting a blacksmith forging a sword into a plow, which is installed in front of the UN building in New York. - Goof
Prosak is a drum with teeth in a machine, with the help of which wool was carded. Getting into trouble meant being maimed and losing an arm. To get into trouble is to get into trouble, into an awkward position. - Knock you down
Confuse, confuse.
Pantalik is a distorted version of Pantelik, a mountain in Attica (Greece) with a stalactite cave and grottoes in which it was easy to get lost. - Straw Widow
Among the Russians, Germans and a number of other peoples, a bundle of straw served as a symbol of a concluded agreement: marriage or purchase and sale. To break the straw meant to break the contract, to separate. There was also a custom of making the newlyweds’ bed on sheaves of rye. Wedding wreaths were also woven from straw flowers. A wreath (from the Sanskrit word “vene” - “bundle”, meaning a bundle of hair) was a symbol of marriage.
If the husband left somewhere for a long time, they said that the woman was left with nothing but straw, which is how the expression “straw widow” appeared. - Dance from the stove
The expression became popular thanks to the novel by the 19th century Russian writer V.A. Sleptsov "A Good Man". The main character of the novel, "non-employee nobleman" Sergei Terebenev, returns to Russia after long wanderings around Europe. He remembers how he was taught to dance as a child. Seryozha started all his movements from the stove, and if he made a mistake, the teacher told him: “Well, go to the stove, start over.” Terebenev realized that his life circle had closed: he started from the village, then Moscow, Europe, and, having reached the edge, he again returned to the village, to the stove. - Grated kalach
In Rus', kalach is wheat bread in the shape of a castle with a bow. Grated kalach was baked from hard kalach dough, which was kneaded and grated for a long time. This is where the proverb “Don’t grate, don’t crush, don’t make kalach” came from, which in a figurative sense means: “troubles teach a person.” And the words “grated kalach” have become popular - this is what they say about an experienced person who has seen a lot, who has “rubbed between people” a lot. - Pull the gimp
Gimp is a very thin, flattened, twisted gold or silver wire used for embroidery. Making gimp consists of pulling it out. This work, done manually, is tedious, monotonous and time-consuming. Therefore, the expression “pull the gimp” (or “spread the gimp”) in a figurative sense began to mean: to do something monotonous, tedious, causing an annoying loss of time. - In the middle of nowhere
In ancient times, clearings in dense forests were called kuligs. The pagans considered them bewitched. Later, people settled deep into the forest, looked for swarms, and settled there with their whole family. This is where the expression comes from: in the middle of nowhere, that is, very far away. - Too
In Slavic mythology, Chur or Shchur is the ancestor, ancestor, god of the hearth - the brownie.
Initially, “chur” meant: limit, border.
Hence the exclamation: “chur,” meaning a prohibition to touch something, to cross some line, beyond some limit (in spells against “evil spirits,” in games, etc.), a requirement to comply with some condition , agreement
From the word “too much” the word “too much” was born, meaning: to go beyond “too much”, to go beyond the limit. “Too much” means too much, too much, too much. - Sherochka with a masherochka
Until the 18th century, women were educated at home. In 1764, the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens was opened in St. Petersburg at the Resurrection Smolny Convent. The daughters of nobles studied there from the ages of 6 to 18. The subjects of study were the law of God, the French language, arithmetic, drawing, history, geography, literature, dancing, music, various types of home economics, as well as subjects of “secular manners”. The usual address of college girls to each other was the French ma chere. From these French words came the Russian words “sherochka” and “masherochka”, which are currently used to name a couple consisting of two women. - Walk trump
In ancient Rus', boyars, unlike commoners, sewed a collar embroidered with silver, gold and pearls, which was called a trump card, to the collar of their ceremonial caftan. The trump card stuck out impressively, giving the boyars a proud posture. Walking as a trump card means walking is important, but trumping means showing off something.