In modern Russian, obsolete words include those that are known from works of classical literature. They are rarely used in speech.
Reasons for words becoming obsolete:
1) extra-linguistic; 2) intralinguistic.
Historicisms are words whose semantic changes are caused by extra-linguistic factors. These are the names of objects and phenomena of the old way of life, the old culture, social, economic and political relations that have become a thing of the past. Historicisms include the names of social institutions (corvée, quitrent, zemshchina), household items, clothing (arshin, frock coat, caftan), names of people by social status (smerd, boyar, prince, count, nobleman, hetman, centurion). the word historicism extralinguistic
Neologisms at one time included such words as budenovka, cart, committee of the poor, surplus appropriation, educational program, workers' faculty, but in a short time they became historicisms.
The intralinguistic reasons that determined the appearance of obsolete words include synonymous competition, as a result of which one of the synonymous words gives way to another. Such a process occurred at one time with the words eye and eye, brow and forehead, airplane and airplane, helicopter and helicopter, etc.
In addition, intralinguistic factors include the processes of expanding or narrowing the meaning of words as a result of the elimination of more specialized names. The following example is given in the linguistic literature: in Russian, each finger had a separate name. But the word FINGER was used only for the thumb, the word FINGER for the index finger, etc. Over time, the special names of fingers became unimportant and the word FINGER acquired a general meaning, spreading to all others, and the word FINGER began to be used as an archaic synonym for it.
Varieties of archaisms
Obsolete words that have fallen out of use as a result of intralingual processes are called archaisms. As the language develops, they are replaced by other words that are more acceptable to subsequent generations. Old nominations are becoming passive vocabulary.
In linguistics, there are several classifications of archaisms. So, N.M. Shan divides all archaisms into lexical and semantic. M.I. Fomina, A.V. Kalinin and others divide archaisms into the following groups: lexical proper, lexical-phonetic, lexical-word-formative, lexical-semantic.
Actually, the lexical archaisms are completely outdated (eye, forehead, finger, battle).
Lexical-phonetic archaisms include words whose sound form has changed in the process of historical development (bakcha - melon, busulman - Muslim, stora - curtain, klob - club number - number, calm - style).
Lexico-word-formation archaisms are words in which individual word-formation elements are outdated (friendship - friendship, nervous - nervous, rest - rest, buyer - buyer).
Lexico-semantic archaisms retained their sound form, but changed their meaning (the word druzhinnik is perceived by modern speakers as a participant in a voluntary association, and not a person who was a member of the princely squad).
Historicisms and archaisms are an important stylistic device in a literary text, by which one can determine the era in a work on a historical theme.
Neologisms and their types
Neologisms are new words or meanings that have recently appeared in a language. These are the names of new objects that appeared in the process of development of science, culture, technology, production, everyday life, names of new phenomena, actions, processes.
A neologism remains new until it has become commonly used and sufficiently frequent (programmer, computer, cybernetics). These words quickly entered the language and became an integral part of the vocabulary.
In the language there are such neologisms that name phenomena that are obviously transitory (new materials - crimplen, bologna, styles of clothes and shoes - Romanian, body shirt, hairstyles - gavrosh, babetta), etc. Such words from the category of neologisms very quickly fall into the category of outdated vocabulary.
Linguistic scientists distinguish lexical neologisms - new derivatives and borrowed words (lunokhod, nuclear-powered rover, cruise, broiler), which make up about 90%, and semantic ones, which arose as a result of the emergence of new meanings in words functioning in the language, for example: dynasty - 1) series sequentially reigning monarchs from the same family, and 2) representatives of different generations from the same family, having the same profession (working dynasty), etc.
Occasionalisms are individually authored formations. They are characterized by one-time use, created “on occasion”, and are inherent only in a given context. Everyone knows the occasionalisms in the works of V. Mayakovsky (hammer, sickle, chamberlain, etc.), K. Fedin (starry eyes), E. Yevtushenko (bezneronie, nesgubinka, teasing, etc.), etc.
Dictionaries of obsolete and new words
There are no special dictionaries of historicisms and archaisms yet. However, many outdated words were included in V.I.’s dictionary. Dalia. Their meanings are reflected in a large academic encyclopedia.
For a long time there were no dictionaries of neologisms. However, back in Peter’s times, the “Lexicon of New Vocabularies” was compiled, which was essentially a short dictionary of foreign words. Some words were included in V.I.’s dictionary. Dahlem. The Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language, edited by D.N., became significant in its composition of neologisms. Ushakova. A large number of them were included in S.I.’s dictionary. Ozhegova.
In 1971, a dictionary-reference book was published, prepared based on materials from the press and literature of the 60s, “New Words and Meanings,” edited by N.Z. Kotelova and Yu.S. Sorokina. The dictionary explains about 3,500 words that are widely used.
The vocabulary of a language of a particular era is a fixed constancy remaining from the previous time with some updates. Active vocabulary of the language The central part of the vocabulary is relevant for modern speakers of the language word. Passive vocabulary includes words that are rarely used in everyday communication and are not always understandable to native speakers. It includes obsolete and new words.
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Active and passive vocabulary of the Russian language.Vocabulary is the most mobile part of the language system; it is constantly evolving. The vocabulary of a language of a particular era is a fixed constancy remaining from a previous time, with some updates. Active vocabulary of a language the central part of the vocabulary, relevant for modern speakers of a language word. This includes commonly used vocabulary. Passive vocabulary includes words that are rarely used in everyday communication and are not always understandable to native speakers. It includes obsolete and new words.
Each period of language development is characterized by a certain ratio of active and passive vocabulary. The boundaries between passive and active vocabulary are characterized by mobility, because They constantly change as the language develops. The vocabulary of the Russian language organically combines conservatism and mobility.
Outdated words.Obsolete words are words that have fallen out of active use, but are preserved in passive vocabulary. These words are used by native speakers, but are perceived by them as outdated.
According to the degree of obsolescence, the following are distinguished:
1) words understandable to most Russian speakers (king, boyar, clerk, eyes);
2) words whose meanings few people understand without consulting a special dictionary (soon skin, fat wealth, fat fat, odrina bedroom).
Obsolete words are divided into two groups: historicisms and archaisms.
Historicisms words denoting objects that have disappeared from modern life, phenomena that have become irrelevant concepts (volost, district, armyak, constable, serf, oprichnik, nepman, komsomol member). Semantic historicisms currently irrelevant meanings of polysemantic words (ram battering gun, shield part of weaponry). Historicisms do not have synonyms in modern Russian, so their meaning can only be explained by resorting to an encyclopedic description. The composition of historicisms in the Russian language is most actively replenished during periods of radical change in the socio-political structure of the country (October Revolution, collapse of the USSR). Soviet historicisms Sovietisms (tax in kind, NEP, committee of the poor, workers' faculty). Over time, historicisms can return to the modern linguistic composition (general, admiral, midshipman, minister, ladies and gentlemen).
Archaisms (Greek arrahaious ) unlike historicisms, these are outdated names of modern objects and phenomena, supplanted by synonyms from the active vocabulary (this this, enemy enemy, very very, mirror mirror, eyelids eyelids, neck neck).
Types of archaisms:
1 Phonetic archaisms words that have an outdated sound form (wardrobe wardrobe, English, number, eighteen).
2 Accentological words with old stress (epigraph, foundation, perspective).
3 Derivational ones had a different composition of the word (nervous, restaurants, fishing).
4 Grammatical obsolete forms of words that do not exist in the modern language (elder, god, friend, father, man; piano, swan (f.r.), hall, veil (m.r.)).
5 Actually lexical words that are completely obsolete (so that, right hand, shuytsa, in vain, retreat, thief, abyss).
6 Semantic archaisms outdated meanings of those words that exist in the modern Russian language, but name another phenomenon, another object (verb, shame, presence, belly).
Archaisms are used as a means of stylizing ancient speech, creating historical speech flavor, and in journalism they can give the story a solemn character.
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Vocabulary composition is the most mobile language level. Changing and improving vocabulary is directly related to human production activity, to the economic, social, and political life of the people. The vocabulary reflects all processes of the historical development of society. With the advent of new objects and phenomena, new concepts arise, and with them, words for naming these concepts. With the death of certain phenomena, the words that name them go out of use or change their sound appearance and meaning. Taking all this into account, the vocabulary of the national language can be divided into two large groups: active dictionary and passive dictionary.
The active vocabulary includes those everyday words whose meaning is clear to speakers of a given language. The words of this group are devoid of any shades of obsolescence.
The passive vocabulary includes those that are either outdated or, conversely, due to their novelty, have not yet become widely known and are also not used every day. Thus, passive words are divided, in turn, into obsolete and new (neologisms). Those words that have fallen out of active use are considered obsolete. For example, words that have ceased to be used due to the disappearance of the concepts that they denoted are clearly outdated: boyar, clerk, veche, streltsy, oprichnik, vowel (member of the city duma), mayor, etc. The words of this group are called historicisms, they are more or less known and understood by native speakers, but not actively used by them. In modern language, they are addressed only when it is necessary to name objects or phenomena that have fallen out of use, for example, in special scientific-historical literature, as well as in the language of works of art in order to recreate a particular historical era.
If the concept of an object, phenomenon, action, quality, etc. is preserved, and the names assigned to it are replaced in the process of language development by new ones, more acceptable for one reason or another for a new generation of native speakers, then the old names also become category of passive vocabulary, into the group of so-called archaisms (Greek archaios - ancient). For example: ponezhe - therefore, vezhdy - eyelids, guest - merchant, merchant (mostly foreign), guest - trade, etc. Some of the words of this type are practically already outside the boundaries of even the passively existing lexical reserves of modern literary language. For example: thief - thief, robber; stry - paternal uncle, stryinya - paternal uncle's wife; uy - maternal uncle; stirrup - down; sling-- 1) roof and 2) vault of heaven; vezha -- 1) tent, tent, 2) tower; fat - fat, lard and many others. Some of the archaisms are preserved in modern language as part of phraseological units: to get into a mess, where a mess is a spinning rope machine; you can’t see where zga (stga) is - road, path; hit with the forehead, where the forehead is the forehead; go crazy with fat, where fat is wealth; protect it like the apple of your eye, where the apple is the pupil, etc.
The process of transition of words from the group of active use to the passive group is long. It is caused by both extra-linguistic reasons, for example, social changes, and linguistic ones, of which a very significant role is played by the systemic connections of obsolete words: the more extensive, varied and durable they are, the slower the word passes into the passive layers of the dictionary.
Obsolete words include not only those words that have long gone out of use, but also those that arose and became obsolete quite recently, for example: educational program (liquidation of illiteracy), surplus appropriation, tax in kind, committee of the poor, etc. Obsolete words can also be primordial words (for example , shelom, khorobry, oboloko, etc.) and borrowed ones, for example, Old Slavonicisms (vezhdy - eyelids, alkati - starve, fast, robe - clothes, dlan - palm, etc.).
Depending on whether the word becomes completely obsolete, whether its individual elements are used, or whether the phonetic design of the word changes, several are distinguished; types of archaisms: proper lexical, lexical-semantic, lexical-phonetic and lexical-word-formative.
Actually, lexical ones appear when the whole word becomes obsolete and passes into passive archaic layers, for example: kdmon - horse, glumno - perhaps, glebeti - drown, knit, zane - since, because, etc.
Lexico-semantic words include some polysemantic words that have one or more meanings that are outdated. For example, the word “guest” has an obsolete meaning of “foreign trader, merchant,” while the rest have been preserved, although somewhat rethought (2): guest - 1) a person who came to visit someone; 2) a stranger (in modern language - an outsider invited or admitted to any meeting or meeting). One of the meanings of the words also applies to such archaisms: shame is a spectacle; humanity - humanity, humanity; to lie - to tell (see A.S. Pushkin: A friend of humanity sadly notes that ignorance is a destructive shame everywhere), etc.
Lexical-phonetic archaisms include words in which, in the process of the historical development of the language, their sound form has changed (while maintaining the content): prospekt - prospectus, aglitsky - English, sveysky - Swedish, state - state, voksal - station, piit - poet and many others. Lexico-word-formative archaisms are those that have been preserved in the modern language in the form of separate elements, cf.: burr and usnie - skin, radio broadcasting and broadcast - talk, p. The gum and the right hand are the right hand, to arouse and sparkle is anxiety, it is impossible to lie - freedom (hence the benefit, benefit) and many others.
The stylistic functions of obsolete vocabulary (historicisms and archaisms) are very diverse. Both are used to reproduce the flavor of the era, to recreate some historical events. For this purpose, they were widely used by A.S. Pushkin in “Boris Godunov”, A.N. Tolstoy in “Peter I”, A. Chapygin in the novel “Stepan Razin”, V. Kostylev in “Ivan the Terrible”, L. Nikulin in the novel “Loyal Sons of Russia” and many others.
Both types of obsolete words, especially archaisms, are often introduced into the text by writers, poets, and publicists to impart special solemnity, sublimity, and pathos to the speech.
Outdated vocabulary can sometimes be used as a means of humor, irony, and satire. In this case, archaizing elephants are often used in an environment that is semantically alien to them.
New words, or neologisms (Greek pe-os - new logos - concept), are, first of all, words that appear in the language to designate new concepts, for example: cybernetics, lavsan, letilan (antimicrobial fiber), interferon (medicine), okeonaut, eveemovets (from the computer - electronic computer), lapovets (from the power line - power line), etc. Especially many neologisms arise in the field of scientific and technical terminology. Neologisms also arose during Pushkin’s time, but at the moment they are not relevant for us. Such words form a group of proper lexical neologisms.
The emergence of new names for those concepts that already had a name in the language is also one of the ways in which neologisms appear. In this case, there is a loss of some words due to the activation of others, synonymous with the first, then the transition of the repressed words into passive layers of vocabulary, i.e. their archaization. This is the path that the words difference took at one time (instead of difference and difference; cf. A.S. Pushkin in Eugene Onegin: At first, mutually different, They were boring to each other..., and also: I am always glad to notice the difference between Onegin and me), disaster (instead of disaster), steamship (instead of a pyroscaffe, steamboat and steam ship), a steam locomotive (instead of a steamboat, cf. in the poem by the 19th century poet Kukolnik: A steamboat is rushing quickly in an open field), a helicopter (instead of a helicopter and a gyroplane ) and etc.
Neologisms are also words newly formed according to certain normative models from words that have existed for a long time. For example: asset - activist, activist, activist, activism, activation; atom - nuclear-powered ship, nuclear scientist, atomic specialist; moon - lunar, lunar, lunar rover; rocket - rocket launcher, rocket carrier, launch vehicle, rocket launch site; space - cosmodrome, cosmonaut, space helmet, space vision and many other simple and complex words that make up a group of so-called lexical and word-forming neologisms.
Neologisms also include words and phrases previously known in the Russian language, which have developed a new meaning, cf., for example: pioneer - discoverer and pioneer - member of a children's communist organization; brigadier - a military rank in the tsarist army and brigadier - the leader of a team of people at an enterprise, factory1; noble - famous and noble - belonging to the top of the privileged class (noble milkmaid, noble nobleman); dynasty - a series of successively reigning monarchs from the same family and dynasty - representatives of different generations from the same family, having the same profession (working dynasty2, mining dynasty), etc. Words that arose as a result of rethinking earlier nominations known to the language, some researchers call lexical-semantic neologisms. Semantic updating of words is one of the most active processes that replenish the lexical system of the modern Russian language. Around a word that begins to live anew, completely new lexemes are grouped, new synonyms and new oppositions arise.
A neologism that has arisen together with a new object, thing, or concept is not immediately included in the active composition of the dictionary. After a new word becomes commonly used and accessible to the public, it ceases to be a neologism. Such a path has been followed, for example, by the words Soviet, collectivization, link, tractor driver, Komsomol member, Leninist, pioneer, Michurinets, metro builder, virgin land worker, satellite, cosmonaut and many others.
Due to the continuous historical development of the vocabulary of the language, many words, back in the 19th century. perceived as neologisms (freedom, equality, citizen, public, humanity, realism, fiction, freedom, reality, spontaneity, idea and the like1), in the modern Russian language are the property of an active vocabulary stock.
Consequently, the specific linguistic repertoire that characterizes and reveals this concept is changeable and depends on the historical process of development of society and language.
In addition to neologisms, which are the property of the national language, new words are distinguished, formed by one or another writer with a specific stylistic purpose. Neologisms of this group are called occasional (or individual-stylistic) and some of them subsequently enriched the vocabulary of the general literary language. Others remain among occasional formations; they perform a figurative and expressive role only in a certain context.
If you can get the necessary information about outdated vocabulary (historicisms and archaisms) in explanatory dictionaries, as well as in special historical dictionaries of the Russian language, then until recently there was no special dictionary of new words, although interest in neologisms arose a very long time ago. Thus, in the times of Peter the Great, the “New Vocabulary Lexicon” was compiled, which was essentially a short dictionary of foreign words.
In addition to the recently published explanatory dictionaries (Ozhegov's dictionary, BAS, MAC), in 1971 the dictionary sector of the Institute of the Russian Language of the Academy of Sciences published a dictionary-reference book on materials from the press and literature of the 60s, “New Words and Meanings” (ed. N. .3. Kotelova and Yu.S. Sorokin). This is the first attempt to publish such a dictionary. In the future, it is planned to publish such reference books once every 6-8 years.
The dictionary, as the compilers and publishers note, is not normative. It explains and illustrates that part of the new words and meanings (about 3500) that have become more or less widespread (this should not be confused with the concept of an active vocabulary).
Thus, the meanings of words form a system within one word (polysemy), within the vocabulary as a whole (synonymy, antonymy), within the entire language system (connections of vocabulary with other levels of language). The specificity of the lexical level of language is the orientation of vocabulary to reality (sociality), the permeability of the system formed by words, its mobility, and the associated impossibility of accurately calculating lexical units.
Based on frequency of use, vocabulary is divided into 2 groups: active and passive.
Active vocabulary consists of words that are understandable to speakers and are in constant use.
2 types of active vocabulary:
a) words of common nationality (commonly used, colloquial, colloquial, bookish, lofty, official business).
b) words limited in their use to a certain dialect or social environment (dialectal, professional, terminological, slang).
All words are devoid of any connotation of novelty or obsolescence. They define the lexical system of the SRL.
Active vocabulary is part of the vocabulary of a modern language, which is freely used in live everyday communication in all spheres of life of human society.
Passive vocabulary refers primarily to book language. Passive vocabulary consists of words that are understandable, but not used in everyday speech communication. These words have a connotation of novelty or a connotation of obsolescence and therefore are not included in the lexical system of the s.r.ya. Passive vocabulary includes historicisms, archaisms, neologisms, and occasionalisms.
Outdated and new vocabulary. Historicisms and archaisms. Types of archaisms.
Types of archaisms: lexical and semantic.
The archaization of words, their departure from the vocabulary, is a gradual and lengthy process. Vocabulary undergoing the process of archaization belongs to the peripheral sections of the vocabulary of the language. The main factor determining this situation is low usage, tending to zero.
Historicisms These are words that have fallen out of everyday use due to the fact that the objects and concepts they denote have disappeared from modern life.
Examples of historicisms include words that call:
- old socio-political relations (veche, subdivision);
- objects of bygone everyday life (truck, dvornitskaya);
- ranks, positions, status (boyar, landowner);
- ancient clothes (Armyak, caftan);
- - any weapons (crossbow, cone);
Such words have no synonyms and are the only names of disappeared objects and concepts. I. is used in historical and fiction to recreate the flavor of the era.
Archaisms (Greek.archaios-ancient)- words that are outdated and out of general use. Unlike historicisms, they have synonyms that are in the active vocabulary. For example: voyage - travel.
Archaisms differ:
A. lexical
b. semantic
Among lexical archaisms stand out:
- actually lexical- words that are outdated in general and have been replaced in the passive dictionary by words with a different root. For example: father (father).
- lexical-word-formative- words with obsolete suffixes or prefixes. For example: warrior (warrior).
- lexical-phonetic archaisms- presented are words that have an outdated sound appearance. For example: gate (gate).
Semantic Archaisms are words with outdated meanings. For example, the word madness is outdated. meaning "madness". In decree meaning the given words are archaisms, but in other meanings. they are included in the active dictionary of s.r.ya.
Archaisms are used by writers and publicists to give speech a sublime stylistic coloring. Archaisms are not used outside of stylistic purposes.
Outdated words vary in their degree of obsolescence. Some of them are currently completely unknown to native Russian speakers.
Some disappeared without a trace. For example: a drop - four pounds.
Others have retained their traces in derived words and phraseological units. For example, in the words hut, slob.
Other old words are familiar to native speakers and are not in the passive vocabulary. For example: verst, young.
Both native Russian and borrowed words fall into the category of outdated vocabulary. Eg. archaisms vorog, eyes, this - originally r.s.l.
Outdated words can be revived, that is, returned to the active dictionary.
Neologisms and occasionalisms.
New words or figures of speech that have arisen to designate new objects and concepts or replace old names of already existing phenomena, called neologisms (Greekneos- new +logos- word, concept). Eg. word: lunokhod, lunarnitsya appeared along with new objects, signs and processes. The words airplane, parking lot replaced the old ones: airplane, parking lot. Kn. include not only completely new, but also previously known words that have acquired new meanings. For example: script - meaning. "plan, scheme for holding any event, exhibition."
Distinguish lexical And semantic neologisms.
Lexical- Words that did not previously exist in r.ya. They are created on the basis of existing words or borrowed from other languages. For example: Tselinograd resident.
Semantic- neologisms presented. are words that already exist in the language and have received a new meaning. For example: signal - warning.
There are neologisms nominative (general language) And individual-stylistic (occasionalisms).
Nominative presented are direct names of objects and concepts. For example words: monorail, oceanaut.
Stylistic neologisms not only denote phenomena and give words expressive and emotional shades. For example: dude, show-off, bungler.
Newly entered words into the lexical system will be perceived as neologisms as long as freshness and novelty are felt. As soon as a new phenomenon becomes a common fact of life, its name ceases to be a neologism. Over time, individual (author’s) neologisms can become part of the asset. dictionary.zapas. This is how the neologisms of Lomonosov - constellation, and Dostoevsky - fade into oblivion - became active.
Occasionalisms (from the Latin occasionalis - random) are individual-stylistic speech phenomena that arise under the influence of the context, the situation of verbal communication to denote a new object or the expression of a new concept. O. are created specifically, deliberately. This distinguishes them from spontaneously committed violations of the norm - speech errors. They are always “tied” to a specific context, situation, understandable against the background of a given context, situation and the model or single sample that served as the basis for their creation, for example, a newspaper headline. Ubusiness arose in connection with a series of contract killings with a series of contract killings of businessmen based on the noun business stem of the verb kill.
Occasional formations are, in principle, possible when using units of each language level embedded in texts:
A. Pushkin (rhyme model)
N. Gogol (green-haired)
F. Tyutchev (loudly boiling cup)
Especially a lot about. created by children: I drank myself, etc.
Most of all Fr. in the field of vocabulary and word formation, which is due to the role of nomination in the structure of speech communication. Here a special layer of words stands out - occasional words. They are called chimerical formations and “one-day words”, because they serve the immediate needs of communication: an orator is one who yells.
Several ways:
1. by analogy with a specific word: first printer (Ilf and Petrov) by analogy with “first printer”.
2. based on a specific combination of words: remove foam - remove foam (Saltykov-Shchedrin).
O. can be borrowed from other languages, becoming international, for example, “Lilliputian” (Swift).
2 categories of occasionalisms:
- Potential words are created according to existing word-formation models, not only modified ones. As a result, the possibilities for implementing such models and their use in speech, for example, are expanded. gentlemanly.
- Actually occasional words are formed under the influence of context by analogy or example of a specific word. For example: Kuchelbeckerno (Pushkin) - from the name of the Decembrist V.K. Kuchelbecker + adverb model like sad, melancholy.
O. words are always derivative and, as a rule, do not have the entire paradigm of forms.