Words paronyms examples with their meaning. Intolerable - impatient - intolerant

1.1. Paronyms in Russian

1.2. Paronym groups

1.3. The relationship of paronyms to homonyms, synonyms, antonyms

1.4. Using paronyms in speech

1.5. Stylistic functions of paronyms

1.6. Dictionaries of paronyms

Chapter 2. Use of paronyms in the press

2.1. Correct use of paronyms in the press

2.2. Misuse of paronyms in the press

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Paronyms as a phenomenon of the lexical system of the Russian language as an object of special targeted study began to attract the attention of linguists much later than synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, categories and word formation phenomena.

The increase in interest in paronyms of the Russian language and the relatively rapid stabilization of targeted research attention to them in modern scientific literature can be explained, on the one hand, by the clarification of the object of observation of study, on the other hand, by the noticeable role played by patronymics in the arsenal of means of expression, especially fiction and journalism.

The most common, traditional understanding of paronyms covers the comparison of words that have any sound similarity, i.e. and words with random similarity in their phonetic appearance, and words of related, same root. This understanding of paronyms comes from ancient rhetoric and ultimately comes down to paronomasia - a stylistic device consisting of a deliberate bringing together of words that have some sound similarity.

In the 60s, an interpretation of paronyms emerged as words of the same root, belonging to the same part of speech or having common grammatical features and, at the same time, due to word-formation “relatedness” - usually semantically correlated with each other.

The definition of paronyms usually includes such a structural feature as the same stress of the compared words.

A refined understanding of paronyms is offered by their study in the aspects of systemic relations of the vocabulary of a particular language.

Paranomy is a problem of the correctness of literary speech, a problem of cultural speech.

An in-depth study of the essence of paronyms, elucidation of certain systemically determined patterns of word-formation and semantic correlation of words compared in paronymic series, general and partial features of their compatibility, is intended to create a solid foundation for the scientific, theoretical justification and further analysis of the cultural speech aspect of paronymy and for the correct use of paronyms in journalism.

Based on the above, the purpose of this work is to study the use of paronyms in journalism.

In connection with the stated goal, the following tasks were set in the work:

1. consider the concept of paronymous words;

2. study the use of paronyms in the press;

3. investigate the frequency and correctness of the use of paronyms in the language of the press;

Analyzing such newspapers and magazines as “Arguments and Facts”, “Komsomolskaya Pravda”, “Moscow Journal”, “RF Today”, “Motherhood”, “Domashny Ochag”, “Financial Newspaper”, “MK-YUGRA” we were able to identify basic principles of using paronyms.

Structurally, the work consists of an introduction, two chapters and a conclusion, presented on 33 pages of typewritten text.

1.1. Paronyms in Russian

Paronyms (gr. para - near + onima - name) are words with the same root, similar in sound, but not the same in meaning: signature - painting, dress - put on, main - capital. Paronyms, as a rule, refer to one part of speech and perform similar syntactic functions in a sentence.(13)

Paronyms are words that have different meanings, are similar in pronunciation, lexico-grammatical affiliation and, as a rule, the relationship of the roots: addressee - addressee, breath - sigh, earth - earth and many others. (15)

Paronyms are similar-sounding words with the same root that belong to the same part of speech and the same semantic field, but usually have different meanings. The place of emphasis is not important. (eleven)

Paronyms represent a very significant layer of vocabulary. Being - along with synonyms, antonyms and homonyms - one of the components of the lexical system of a language, they occupy their special place in it. Unfortunately, there are serious disagreements among scientists in understanding the very essence of paronymy, which, naturally, is reflected in existing dictionaries of paronyms.

1.2. Paronym groups

Krasnykh V.V. distinguishes the following groups:

1) full paronyms (having different meanings);

2) incomplete paronyms (which are synonyms in individual meanings);

3) paronyms that are synonyms in all meanings.

Paronyms that belong to the first group form the lexical core of the category under consideration, and paronyms from the second and third groups form its periphery. The first group includes, for example, the following paronyms: fact - factor, effective - spectacular, deprive - deprive. The second group is represented, in particular, by the following paronyms: artistic - artistic, polemical - polemical, tragic - tragic. The third group (very small) includes, for example, the paronyms specific - specific, optimistic - optimistic, idiomatic - idiomatic.

Taking into account the peculiarities of word formation of paronyms, the following groups can be distinguished:

1. Paronyms, distinguished by prefixes: typos - imprints, pay - pay;

2. Paronyms distinguished by suffixes: unrequited - irresponsible, creature - essence; businessman - business traveler;

3. Paronyms that differ in the nature of the base: one has a non-derivative base, the other - a derivative. In this case, the pair may include:

a) words with a non-derivative base and prefixes: height - age;

b) words with a non-derivative base and non-prefixed words with suffixes: brake - braking;

c) words with a non-derivative base and words with a prefix and suffix: load - load.

Semantically, two groups are found among paronyms.

1. Paronyms that differ in subtle shades of meaning: long - long, desired - desirable, maned - maned, life - everyday, diplomatic - diplomatic. There are a majority of such paronyms; their meanings are commented on in linguistic dictionaries (explanatory dictionaries, dictionaries of difficulties, dictionaries of single-root words, dictionaries of paronyms). Many of them are characterized by features in lexical compatibility: economic consequences - economical housekeeping, rich inheritance - difficult legacy; complete the task - perform a song.

2. Paronyms that differ sharply in meaning: nest - nesting, defective - defective. There are few such units in the language. (8)

A special group of paronyms consists of those that are distinguished by functional-style fixation or stylistic coloring: work - work, live - live.(16)

The distribution of paronyms by part of speech is very uneven. In the first place are adjectival paronyms, combining both adjectives themselves and participles that have turned into adjectives as a result of the loss of verbal features (about 2500 units in total). The second place in number is occupied by substantive paronyms (more than 1000 units). In third place are verbal paronyms (more than 400 units). (11)

Paronymic series can be either binomial (the majority of them) or polynomial, numbering in some cases up to six or seven or more components. For example: elite - elite, typo - unsubscribe, absorb - swallow, watery - watery - watery, hunger - starvation - hunger strike, bloody - bloody - bloody - bloody, pay - pay - pay - pay, gambling - playing - played - playful - sparkling - gaming.

Some authors interpret the phenomenon of paronymy in an expanded manner, classifying as paronyms any words that sound similar in sound (and not just words with the same root). In this case, such consonant forms as drill - trill, lancet - tweezers, mince - farce, escalator - excavator, turn - stained glass window, etc. should also be recognized as paronyms. However, their convergence in speech is random and is not fixed by the whole variety of systemic relationships in language. In addition, the comparison of consonant words with different roots is often subjective in nature (to one the words virazh - stained glass window seem similar, to another - virazh - mirage)

1.3. The relationship of paronyms to homonyms, synonyms, antonyms

When studying paronyms, the question naturally arises about their relationship to other lexical categories - homonyms, synonyms and antonyms. Thus, some scientists consider paronymy as a kind of homonymy, and paronyms, therefore, as “pseudo-homonyms,” indicating their formal closeness. Paronyms differ from homonyms in the following ways. Firstly, paronyms have different spellings; for example: diktat - dictation (paronyms), dacha 1 - a portion given at one time, dacha 2 - a country house, usually for summer holidays, dacha 3 - a plot of land under a forest (homonyms). Secondly, paronymous words never have a complete coincidence in pronunciation; for example: paronymous Spitz - hairpin and homonymous hairpin 1 - device for pinning hair, hairpin 2 - thin heel.

In addition, the semantic proximity of paronyms is explained etymologically: initially they had a common root. And the similarity of homonym words is purely external, accidental (except for those cases when homonymy develops as a result of the collapse of the meanings of a polysemantic word). (7)

Paronyms help develop correlation: ignoramus (ill-mannered) – ignoramus (ignorant).

Paronyms(from ancient Greek παρα- - a prefix with the meaning of contiguity, ὄνομα - “name”) - these are words that are similar in sound, but different in meaning. It is also common to mistakenly use one of them instead of the other. For example, addressee - addresses n etc. By analogy with a translator’s false friends, paronyms are sometimes called false brothers.

Paronymy is explained by unsteady knowledge of the meaning of one of the words or even both, the incompetence of the speaker (writer) in the field of activity from which the word is taken, as well as parapraxis (for example, slips of the tongue). It is especially important to pay attention to paronyms when studying foreign languages, since many paronyms may not be distinguished by students of a foreign language due to differences in the articulatory base: English. live And leave they differ only in the length of the vowel - an opposition absent in Russian. Sometimes one polysemantic word or several homonyms in one language correspond to several different paronyms in another: Russian. concert(both event and work) - English. concert(event only), concerto(work only); rus. focus(both hearth and trick) - German. Focus(hearth only), Hokuspokus(only a trick).

Some paronyms are widely distributed in the language and are reflected in dictionaries. For example, the verb " awaken"(from fr. bouder), meaning “to sulk”, “to be angry”, “to be opposed to something”, is very often used instead of the similar verb “to excite”, and this meaning is listed in dictionaries. Adjective " ephemeral"(from the Greek ἐφήμερος - one-day), meaning "short-lived", is often used instead of the word "ethereal" in the sense of "ethereal, imaginary, weightless", and this meaning is also included in dictionaries.

Classification of paronyms

Paronyms are divided into root, affix and etymological.

Root paronyms[edit | edit wiki text]

Root paronyms have different roots, the external similarity of which is purely coincidental: Russian. excavator - escalator; English live - leave; German fördern - fördern. Such paronyms are not united by a common motivation and a common semantic connection.

Affixal paronyms[edit | edit wiki text]

Affixal paronyms are united by a common motivation and a common semantic connection. They have a common root, but different, although similar, derivational affixes: rus. subscription - subscriber, economical - economical - economical;bloody - bloody - bloody; icy - icy - icy; English historic - historical; German original - originell. Suffixal paronymy is widespread in medical and chemical terminology, where not only roots, but also suffixes have terminological meaning. So, for example, the suffix -id in chemical terminology means a salt whose molecules do not contain oxygen atoms (chloride, sulfide, etc.), and -it, -at- salts containing oxygen atoms (sulfite, chlorate, carbonate, etc.).

Etymological paronyms[edit | edit wiki text]

Etymological paronyms are the same word, borrowed by the language in different ways several times (through the mediation of different languages) and in different meanings: Russian. project(learned directly from Latin) - project(learned through the mediation of the French language); English concert(from French) - concerto(from Italian). Borrowings from closely related languages (Russian - Polish - Church Slavonic) or from ancestral languages (French - Latin, Hindi - Sanskrit) can cause etymological paronymy if the borrowed word is similar to an existing original word in a given language: Russian. powder(original Russian word with East Slavic consonance) - dust(Church Slavic word, South Slavic in origin). Sometimes an original borrowing and a borrowing that has undergone contamination under the influence of folk etymology can be used in parallel: Russian. ordinary - single.

In the English language, due to its special history (Roman conquest, Anglo-Saxon settlement, Franco-Norman conquest), there are not only pairs, but even triplets and quadruples of etymological paronyms. Examples are regal - real - royal, legal - leal - loyal, place - plateau - plaza - piazza, captain - capo - chief - chef, hostel - hospital - hotel, fidelity - faithfulness - fealty, chariot - cart - carriage - car.

Paronomasia is the deliberate use of paronyms[edit | edit wiki text]

If mixing paronyms is a gross lexical error, then the deliberate use of two paronym words in one sentence represents a stylistic figure called “paronomasia” (from the Greek near, near + call).

Paronomasia is called a binary figure of stylistics, since both paronyms take part in it. This figure is widespread, and in short it can be called binary.

15. Archaisms. Historicisms. Neologisms.

Archaism(from the Latinized ancient Greek ἀρχαῖος - “ancient”):

1. this obsolete word, which in modern speech is replaced by a synonym.

2. in linguistics - a lexeme or grammatical form that was replaced by others in the process of language development, but continues to be used as stylistically marked, for example, in poetic speech to create a high style. It should be distinguished from historicisms - words that have completely fallen out of use.

In highly stratified developed languages, such as English, archaisms can serve as professional jargon, which is especially typical for jurisprudence.

Archaism is a lexical unit that has fallen out of use, although the corresponding object (phenomenon) remains in real life and receives other names (outdated words, supplanted or replaced by modern synonyms). The reason for the appearance of archaisms is in the development of the language, in the updating of its vocabulary: one words are replaced by others.

Words that are forced out of use do not disappear without a trace: they are preserved in the literature of the past and as part of some established expressions used in a certain context; they are necessary in historical novels and essays - to recreate the life and linguistic flavor of the era. In modern language, derivatives of words that have fallen out of active use (for example, “ this hour" and " this day" from the archaic "this" and "this").

az - I (“You’re lying, dog, I am the king!”, “Vengeance is mine, and I will repay”)

know - know (derivatives: not Vedas not Vedas washed, Vedas um)

velmi - very, very

evening - yesterday (“evening, do you remember the blizzard was angry...”)

neck - neck (“Israel did not bow his neck before the proud satrap”)

voice - voice (“the voice of one crying in the wilderness”, “the voice of the people is the voice of God”; derived words: with voice yeah, co voice ny, full voice Yep, one voice ny, transportation glash transport/carriage voice it, glash atai)

right hand - right hand (“punishing right hand”)

Historicisms- words or stable phrases that are the names of objects that once existed, but disappeared, phenomena of human life. Historicisms belong to the passive dictionary and do not have synonyms in the modern language.

The age of historicism can be calculated both in centuries (smerd, boyar, bratina) and decades (NEPman, educational program, tax in kind).

Examples: tiun, bortnichat, smerd, boyar, brother, nepman, educational program, tax in kind.

The opposite of archaisms (outdated words that are replaced by synonyms in modern speech).

Neologism(ancient Greek νέος - new, λόγος - speech, word) - a word, the meaning of a word or a phrase that recently appeared in the language (newly formed, previously absent). The freshness and unusualness of such a word, phrase or figure of speech is clearly felt by native speakers of the given language.

This term is used in the history of language to characterize the enrichment of vocabulary in certain historical periods - for example, we can talk about neologisms of the time of Peter the Great, neologisms of individual cultural figures (M.V. Lomonosov, N.M. Karamzin and his school), neologisms of the period of the Patriotic War wars, etc.

Tens of thousands of neologisms appear every year in developed languages. Most of them have a short life, but some are fixed in the language for a long time, entering not only its living everyday fabric, but also becoming an integral part of literature.

The science that studies neologisms is called neology.

According to the source of the appearance of neologisms, they are divided into:

· general linguistic (both newly formed and newly borrowed);

By purpose:

1. to denote previously non-existent objects, phenomena and concepts: for example, the words “power plant” or “astronaut”, "lavsan", "programming", "nep" appeared along with the corresponding realities. The emergence of general linguistic neologisms is usually associated precisely with the designation of a new reality;

2. as proper names for newly created objects (for example, “Kodak”);

3. for a more concise or expressive designation;

4. to achieve an artistic (poetic) effect.

Ways to create neologisms:

· word-formation derivation - the formation of new words from morphemes existing in the language according to known (usually productive) models, that is, according to the model of words already existing in the language, for example: "green-haired"(N.V. Gogol), "hulk", "hammer"(V.V. Mayakovsky), etc.;

· semantic derivation - the development in an already existing word of a new, secondary meaning based on the similarity of the newly designated phenomenon with an already known phenomenon;

· borrowing words from other languages.

A neologism is a link in the chain of linguistic neoplasms: “potential word - occasionalism - neologism.” Being completely assimilated by the language, neologisms cease to be neologisms, becoming ordinary words of the main stock of the language.

In addition to general linguistic ones, speech may contain author’s (individual, individual-stylistic) neologisms (occasionalisms), which are created by authors for certain artistic purposes. They rarely go beyond the context, are not widely used and, as a rule, remain part of the individual style, so that their novelty and unusualness are preserved.

However, there are cases when certain author’s neologisms become part of the general vocabulary. An example for European languages would be:

· "Utopia" T. Mora (XVI century),

· "robot" K. Capek (XX century),

· newspeak J. Orwell (XX century).

M. V. Lomonosov [ source not specified 149 days] enriched the Russian literary language with the following words: "atmosphere", "substance", "thermometer", "refraction", "equilibrium", "diameter", "square", "minus", "horizon" And "horizontal","acid" And "alum", "incendiary"(glass), "quicklime"(lime), "fire-breathing"(mountains), "specific"(weight).

Words "industrial", "entertaining" introduced into the Russian language by N. M. Karamzin; bungler, bungling, stupidity- M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin; "to shy away", "lemon"- F. M. Dostoevsky; "airplane"(in meaning airplane), mediocrity- I. Severyanin; "pilot", "exhausted" And laugher- V. Khlebnikov, clerk- K. Chukovsky.

“Put on”, “put on” - we confuse these two words so stupidly... I would like to add: and not only them. Yes, in the Russian language, rich and complex, there are a great many twin words, or, more precisely, twin words that are similar in appearance, but completely different inside. Let's not beat around the bush, but let's say it straight: we are talking about paronyms. What are paronyms? Examples of their use, or rather “collision” in speech, oral and written.... About this and more in this article.

On practice

We read the news: “A single competent authority that will investigate economic crimes.” It seems that everything is correct. And if so: “It was created in the country the only one competent authority that will investigate economic crimes"? Does the meaning change? And how! The word “single”, which appears in this context as “common, possessing internal unity”, and the word “single” - “exclusive, only one” - are two completely different lexical units - paronymous words, the interchange of which can mean the same thing change the statement beyond recognition.

Or here's another case from life. In the kindergarten, in the locker room, there is a poster hanging on the wall: “Autumn competition is announced.” fakes" Spelling error or not, it turned out to be a kind of game of paronyms. “Craft” is the result of creative work and “fake” is a fake, a counterfeit thing. What did this lead to? To a mistake, serious and funny at the same time. It turns out that children can not only make amazing things with their own hands, but have already learned how to skillfully forge them, and even compete in this “art.” This is what the question of what paronyms are looks like in practice. But even though “it’s dry, my friend, theory is everywhere, and the tree of life is lushly green,” theory is still needed...

What are “paronym words”

So, the theory... What are paronyms and what are they eaten with? Literally translated from Greek, “paronym” means “close name” (onyma - name, para - near, nearby). In other words, these are lexemes that are close, similar “in face” - in pronunciation, in sound, in common root, in lexico-grammatical affiliation, but without any “family connections” - partially or completely different in meaning. Let's look at a few examples: diplomatic (relating to the activities of implementing the foreign international policy of a particular state) - diplomatic (skillfully, flexibly, subtly acting); draw (write, indicate, outline, define) - draw (make a diagram or drawing); become dull (become less sharp or become indifferent, unresponsive) - dull (make dull: “dull the knife”). That's what paronyms are. The examples speak for themselves. Paronyms that are close in meaning or, conversely, completely different: it is quite easy to get confused in their use. Therefore, if there is the slightest doubt about which of two similar words is better to use, do not be lazy and look in the dictionary. Which? This will be discussed further.

Problems of paronymy

There are different dictionaries. There is also a dictionary of paronyms. What is a paronym dictionary? There are not so many paronyms in modern Russian. The “Dictionary of Paronyms of the Russian Language” was first published in Tbilisi in 1971 under the editorship of N.P. Kolesnikov. It contains consonant pairs of words, similar in morphological composition, but having different meanings. Later, in 1984, another “Dictionary of Paronyms of the Russian Language” was published by O. V. Vishnyakova, in which she identified about a thousand paronymic rows. Whether this is a lot or a little is a relative concept, one thing is important: we must not underestimate their role and significance, otherwise we will not be able to avoid a mass of speech errors and reducing the general meaning of what was said or written to zero.

In different years, such scientists as N.P. Kolesnikov, A.A. Evgrafova, O.V. turned to the study of the problems of paronymy in Russian linguistics. Vishnyakova, Yu. A. Belchikov and many others. But, despite the huge number of scientific works, modern linguists have still not developed a common view on many issues. This also concerns the question of what paronyms are; the definition also affects the nature of paronymic phenomena, and the development of certain criteria for the inclusion of certain words in paronymic series. In this regard, the question invariably arises about the classification of paronyms, a kind of ordering of a considerable number of lexical units.

Structural and semantic division of paronyms

Let us immediately note that this classification is adhered to by such scientists as O. V. Vishnyakova, V. I. Krasnykh and V. N. Shtybin. According to it, paronyms are of four types:

Full paronyms (earthly - earthly, spiritual - wind, undress - undress), i.e. these are words that have the same root, are similar in sound, with emphasis on the same syllable, but are not identical in meaning.
Incomplete paronyms (comic - comical, dogmatic - dogmatic, dramatic - dramatic), i.e. these are single-root words, “in which the semantic delimitation of the volume of meanings is not completely completed, which causes their convergence,” or, in other words, words in one or the other other paronymic pairs remain synonymous in meaning.
Partial paronyms (remains - remains, provide - present), i.e. words that are different in meaning, but have the same root and are similar in sound.
Conditional paronyms (excavator - escalator, drill - trill, antinomy - antimony), i.e. words formed from different roots, but similar in sound, which leads to their erroneous use.

Functional-semantic division of paronyms

O.P. Antipina proposed her classification. It is she who, in her opinion, quite fully reflects such a layer of lexical units as paronyms, because paronymy is, first of all, a speech phenomenon. Based on how these words collide in speech, two groups of paronyms can be distinguished:

Recurrent are paronymous words that are similar in sound and meaning, which leads to their erroneous confusion in speech. They, in turn, are divided into single-root and multi-root (artisan - handicraft).
Occasional words are paronymic words, similar in sound, but completely different in meaning, which “are created and enter into paronymic relationships only in context.” They can also be single-rooted (removable - filming) and multi-rooted (envy - manage).

Morphological division of paronyms

In this classification, there are three types of paronyms:

Suffixal are paronyms that are formed using suffixes such as -n/-liv, -ichesk/-ichn, -at/-ast, -esk/-n, -chat/-ochn and others (acquisitive - money-grubbing, gardening - gardening, enchanting - enchanting). By the way, most of this group of paronyms are adjectives.
Prefixal are paronyms formed by attaching prefixes that are phonetically consonant to the root of a word. by-/pro-, o-/from- (deed - misconduct, absorb - swallow).
Roots are paronyms that have different roots and meanings, but are similar in sound. This group, as a rule, includes nouns (lizard - foot-and-mouth disease, dictation - dictate, ignoramus - ignorant).

What are homonyms and paronyms

Paronyms have another name - “false homonyms”. Why false and why homonyms? Homonyms are words that have exactly the same spelling and sound, but different meanings: schedule (work plan) - schedule (artist), satin (a type of embroidery) - satin (flat surface); braid (tool) - braid (braided hair), etc. From the examples it is clear that, unlike homonyms, paronyms are similar in form, but not the same: artistic - artistic, stony - stone, mystical - mystical.

Translator's false friends

And in conclusion of the topic “What are paronyms,” I would like to mention another interesting phenomenon called interlingual paronymy. In other words, a paronymic pair may contain lexical units from more than just one language. Words from different languages sometimes coincidentally have the same pronunciation, but have different meanings. Such cases are not uncommon, and they are especially often observed between related languages: misto (Ukrainian) - a city, not a place; vrodlivy (Ukrainian) - beautiful, not ugly; sklep (Polish) - a store, not a crypt; nalog (Polish) - a bad habit, not a tax; mist (English) - fog, mist (German) - manure.

And another striking example. The Ukrainian poet V. Sosyura has a line “On the rose of trams.” So, once the Russian poet Mikhail Svetlov, when translating it into Russian, translated it as “The tram rang through the roses.” Well, it sounds beautiful, but meaningless, and, as K. Chukovsky noted, “the creative physiognomy of Sosyura” appeared to readers in a very unattractive way form. What failed the translator? There is only one answer - interlingual paronyms, or, as they are also called, “false friends of the translator.” The combination “on rose” is a prepositional case from the Ukrainian word “rig” - angle, but not the word “rose”.

We hope that the article on the topic “What are paronyms” helped to understand such an ambiguous issue, and you will continue to keep your eyes open for paronyms...

Paronyms is a Greek term that literally translates as "near, near" and "name".

Paronyms are words that sound similar.

Paronym definitions

In linguistics, there are 2 main approaches to defining paronyms:

1. Paronyms are words that are close, but not identical in sound, have the same word, and belong to the same grammatical category.

2. Paronyms are words that, due to similarity in sound and partial coincidence of morphemic composition, can either be used erroneously or punningly in speech.

Examples of paronyms: tragic - tragic; dramatic - dramatic; lyrical - lyrical; successful - lucky; advisor - ; health resort - health resort; fishy - fishy.

Reasons for the emergence of paronyms in Russian

The reasons for the appearance of paronyms are varied and numerous. There are 2 groups of reasons: internal and external.

Internal ones include:

1) the existence of words with the same root with minimal phonetic differences. Examples: subscriber - subscription; addressee - addressee.

2) the existence of polysemantic words, some meanings of which can be synonymous, while others cannot. Examples: distant - distant; herbaceous - herbaceous.

Similar ones have different lexical combinability: distant (greater distance) road, but distant (relating to a common ancestor) relative; grass cover - grassy meadow.

3) the presence of different words with minimal phonetic differences. Examples: cathedral - fence; remains - remains; warrant - order; - ; diplomat - diplomat.

External reasons include:

1) insufficient knowledge of language and speech culture;

2) slips of the tongue, reservations.

Paronyms are similar-sounding words with the same root that belong to the same part of speech and the same semantic field, but usually have different meanings. The place of emphasis is not important.

Krasnykh V.V. distinguishes the following groups:

Full paronyms (having different meanings);

Incomplete paronyms (which are synonyms in individual meanings);

Paronyms that are synonyms in all meanings.

Paronyms that belong to the first group form the lexical core of the category under consideration, and paronyms from the second and third groups form its periphery. The first group includes, for example, the following paronyms: fact - factor, effective - effective, deprive - deprive. The second group is represented, in particular, by the following paronyms: artistic - artistic, polemical - polemical, tragic - tragic. The third group (very small) includes, for example, the paronyms specific - specific, optimistic - optimistic, idiomatic - idiomatic.

Taking into account the peculiarities of word formation of paronyms, the following groups can be distinguished:

1. Paronyms, distinguished by prefixes: typos - imprints, pay - pay;

2. Paronyms distinguished by suffixes: unrequited - irresponsible, creature - essence; seconded - business trip; 3. Paronyms that differ in the nature of the base: one has a non-derivative base, the other - a derivative. In this case, the pair may include:

a) words with a non-derivative base and prefixes: height - age;

b) words with a non-derivative base and non-prefixed words with suffixes: brake - braking;

c) words with a non-derivative base and words with a prefix and suffix: load - load.

Semantically, two groups are found among paronyms.

2. Paronyms that differ sharply in meaning: nest - nesting, defective - defective. There are few such units in the language.

A special group of paronyms consists of those that are distinguished by their functional-style fixation or stylistic coloring: to work - to work, to live - to live.

When studying paronyms, the question naturally arises about their relationship to other lexical categories - homonyms, synonyms and antonyms. Thus, some scientists consider paronymy as a kind of homonymy, and paronyms, therefore, as “pseudo-homonyms,” indicating their formal closeness. Paronyms differ from homonyms in the following ways. Firstly, paronyms have different spellings; for example: diktat - dictation (paronyms), dacha - a portion given at one time, dacha - a country house, usually for summer holidays, dacha3 - a plot of land under a forest (homonyms). Secondly, paronymous words never have a complete coincidence in pronunciation; for example: paronymous spitz - hairpin and homonymous hairpin - a device for pinning hair, hairpin - thin heel.

The mixing of different words that are similar in pronunciation is observed, as a rule, in speech, since in the language system most of these words are quite clearly distinguished from each other, although in some cases similar-sounding words with the same root turn out to be very close to each other and the difficulties of distinguishing them do not arise. always easy to overcome. For example, modern researchers call lyrical - lyrical, comic - comic, raspberry - crimson incomplete paronyms. Words of this type are similar to synonyms of the same root, although they also have obvious distinctive features:

a) paronymic ones refer either only to original Russian words (vagrant - vagrant, remains - remains, pay - pay, marks - marks), or only to borrowed ones (subscriber-subscriber, creature - essence, fact - factor). And in a synonymous series both of them can be combined; for example: yoke - yoke, slavery, bondage, where the first two are original Russian, the third is an Old Slavic borrowing, the fourth is Turkic;

b) synonyms, denoting the same or similar concept, are often semantically extremely close, while paronyms always denote completely different concepts and differ from each other by clear semantic differentiation.

When distinguishing between paronyms and synonyms, it should be borne in mind that the discrepancy in the meanings of paronyms is usually so significant that replacing one of them with another is impossible. Mixing paronyms leads to gross lexical errors: “The mother put (should put) a coat on the child”; “There were business travelers sitting in the hotel lobby” (must be business travelers). Synonyms are very often interchangeable. With all the originality of semantic structures, they provide the author with the right to a wide choice of the most appropriate word in meaning, not excluding options for synonymous replacement. At the same time, there are known cases of paronyms turning into synonyms. Thus, relatively recently, the word reconcile had the meaning of “become meek, submissive, submissive”; its use in the meaning of “reconcile” was considered unacceptable. However, in colloquial speech this word has increasingly begun to mean “having become accustomed, to come to terms with something”: to come to terms with poverty, to come to terms with shortcomings. Modern explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language mark this meaning as the main one. Thus, former paronyms, as a result of their mixing in speech, can become closer and ultimately turn into synonyms. However, it should be borne in mind that the interchangeability of recent paronyms is permissible only if the new meaning that they have developed is fixed in the language.

The semantic difference between paronyms does not, as a rule, extend to the extreme opposite, i.e. paronyms do not enter into antonymic relationships. They can be contrasted only in the context: “Duty, not position”; “Service, not service” (newspaper article headlines). However, such a contrast between paronyms is not reflected in their systemic connections in the vocabulary and is of an occasional nature.

Paronyms require special attention, since mixing them in speech is unacceptable. The inaccuracy of using paronyms is a consequence of various reasons. In one case, their confusion arises as a result of the convergence of realities denoted by these words such as: bottom-bottom, needle-needle-needle, chara-charka, bowl-cup. It is characteristic that in almost all such words the sound similarity is insignificant, and their erroneous confusion is possible.

In another case, the reason for the incorrect use of similar-sounding words is the commonality of the scope of application of the concepts, objects, processes, actions, qualities they call, or the similarity of the associative connections that arise: gross - net, lancet - tweezers, pilot - boatswain, cooking - jam, molded - molded, baroque - Rococo.

Sometimes the inaccuracy in the use of paronyms is a consequence of the possibility of their synonymous connection and the proximity or identity of the boundaries of lexical compatibility: anecdotal (anecdotal) approach, apathetic (apathetic) state. Whereas in a number of other cases such a rapprochement is impossible and leads to an error: This was a completely anecdotal (instead of anecdotal) story; He always seemed somehow apathetic (instead of apathetic).

The occurrence of speech errors also occurs as a result of failure to distinguish between the stylistic affiliation of words. Often there is a convergence of bookish, specialized words with colloquial ones: antinomy is confused with the word antimony; interstyle words, stylistically neutral - with colloquial or colloquial words: meaninglessness with colloquial nonsense; foulbrood - with the colloquial foulbrood; rusty - with colloquial rusty and colloquial obsolete rusty; toothy - with colloquial toothy.

The mixing of paronymic words is also facilitated by the close semantic connections of word-forming suffixes: -n- and -sk-; -ovit-, -ov- and -n-; -stvo- and -ost- and others (inventive - inventive, businesslike - businesslike - efficient, improvement - livability).

The reason for the confusion may be the failure to distinguish paronymic words that are little familiar to a native speaker. This is precisely what can explain the confusion in speech of the words empire - vampire, distance - authority, excavator - escalator.

Despite the fact that the confusion of paronymic words is often observed, the phenomenon of paronymy itself is quite natural.

New paronyms appear in the Russian language constantly. This is facilitated by the active law of analogy in language. As well as the specifics of the author’s use of similar-sounding words.

The correct use of paronyms is a necessary condition for competent, cultural speech, and, on the contrary, mixing them is a sign of low speech culture.

Paronymy as one of the linguistic phenomena has long been used by speakers, writers, poets, and publicists. It underlies the creation of a special kind of stylistic figure - the so-called paronomasia, the essence of which consists in the deliberate confusion or deliberate collision of paronyms: not stupid, but oak; and deaf and stupid.

Paronyms can perform various stylistic functions. Thus, the deliberate combination of similar-sounding words is a means of creating an unusual image in order to enhance its persuasiveness. For example, the paronyms crown - wreath in the poem by M. Yu. Lermontov “The Death of the Poet”: And having taken off the previous wreath, they put a crown of thorns, entwined with laurels on it...

Paronyms are also used to highlight relevant concepts: The young Turgenevs personify honor and honesty; From the door of the barn... a hunched old woman came out, bent by life and experiences. Paronyms are often compared in the text: I would be glad to serve, but being served is sickening; Their opposition is also possible: I thirsted for deeds, not deeds.

The role of a bright, memorable hyperbole is played by the words mor - sea in V. Mayakovsky’s poem “Left March”:

beyond the mountains of grief

The sunny land is endless.

For hunger

for mora sea

print the millionth step!

The technique of contrasting paronyms and their comparison was often used by M. Tsvetaeva both in poetry and in prose.

Often the use of similar-sounding words is the basis of a pun and gives the speech a humorous tone; thanks to a completely unexpected play on words in familiar and stable expressions, which at the same time acquire new imagery and expressiveness; for example, the aphorism of E. Korotkov: The classics should not only be revered, but also revere.

Paronomasia as one of the means of actualization is often used in the headlines of newspaper publications: “Trumpets and Troubadours”, “Waste and Income”, as well as in the titles of works of art.

Paronyms, along with other lexical units, have considerable potential stylistic possibilities, the skillful implementation of which allows you to create a memorable image, give speech special emotional and expressive shades, and serve as a means of humor, irony, and satire. However, the correct use of such words, both original and borrowed, is often fraught with difficulties. For example, the difference in meaning is not always taken into account, as well as the stylistic functions of the original paronyms: infertility - sterility, courtyard - courtier, income - parishes.

Erroneous use is more likely when using paronymic borrowings such as: antithesis - antithesis, isolation - isolation - isolation, toxic - toxic.

Special dictionaries of Russian paronyms appeared in the late 60s. Until this time, the phenomenon of paronymy was partially reflected in dictionaries of irregularities in the Russian language.

As a first attempt at a dictionary of paronyms, one can name the dictionary-reference book by Yu.A. Belchikova and M.S. Panyusheva “Difficult cases of using cognate words of the Russian language”, 1968 edition. The work contains 180 groups of single-root words that differ in their inherent meanings and uses. Paronyms are arranged in alphabetical order. The dictionary entry provides an interpretation of paronyms, then their verbal connections and use in the modern Russian literary language; The dictionary entry concludes with a section “Erroneously,” which presents examples of erroneous or inaccurate use of cognate words.

In 1971, the first special “Dictionary of Russian Language Paronyms” was published by N.P. Kolesnikova. It explains 1432 “nests” of paronyms. N.P. Kolesnikov understands the term “paronymy” broadly. The dictionary also includes single-root similar-sounding words such as base - basis, businesslike - business - efficient and multi-root words such as athlete - departure, pagoda - weather. The dictionary entry provides an explanation of the meaning of each of the paronymic words. Examples of illustration, as well as stylistic recommendations, are not included in the dictionary, since this was not the task of its compiler.

In 1976, the “Dictionary of Difficulties of the Russian Language” was published (authors D.E. Rosenthal, M.A. Telenkova). It reflects difficult cases of using paronyms that occur at all levels of language: spelling, lexico-grammatical, as well as spelling, punctuation and stylistic. The dictionary includes about 30 thousand words, of which almost 10 thousand sound similar, most of which are provided with stylistic notes and examples of contextually different usage. By 1985, four editions of the dictionary had been published.

In 1984, the “Dictionary of Paronyms of the Russian Language” was published by O.V. Vishnyakova. It reveals the basic concepts: paronyms; paronymic nests; complete and incomplete, as well as partial paronyms. An interpretation of the meanings of more than a thousand paronymous pairs is given. Each of the interpretations is illustrated by examples of use in phrases and texts.