The manual presents technological maps of biology lessons for the 8th grade, developed in accordance with the Federal State Educational Standard of LLC, the planned results of basic general education in biology and the requirements of the Model educational program, focused on working according to the textbook by N. I. Sonin, M. R. Sapin (M. : Bustard, 2014).
Training sessions are designed from the perspective of the teacher’s activities during the transition period of changes in the school teaching infrastructure, aimed at the advanced development of students and ensure their successful socialization. For each lesson, the planned results (subject skills, meta-subject UUD - regulatory, personal, cognitive), pedagogical means, forms of organizing the interaction of students with the teacher and peers are determined, tasks of different levels of complexity and intellectual developmental orientation are thought out (creative, problem-searching, research).
Intended for heads of methodological associations, biology teachers of general education organizations.
These are the fish: Lobes of the brain. L.r. No. 3
Educational: introduce students to the structural features of the cerebral hemispheres; functions of the lobes and zones of the hemispheres.
Developmental: to develop the ability to compare the structure and functions of the cerebral hemispheres of the human brain.
Educational: cultivate respect for intellectual work;
– develop the ability to conduct dialogue, debate, listen to each other;
Equipment: Demountable brain models; table “Human Brain”, “Human Spinal Cord”; portraits of domestic scientists I.P. Pavlov and I.M. Sechenov; video material on the topic; presentation; video projector; Handout.
During the classes
Organizing time.
Checking homework. (differentiation)
a) (Work in workbook No. 34)
1-medulla oblongata
3-midbrain
4-diencephalon
5-cerebellum
6 hemispheres of the cerebrum
(according to the table)
b) Individual cards with tests
The spinal cord is part of:
b) peripheral N.S.;
2. The roots of the spinal nerves depart from the spinal cord, forming:
a) 31 nerves;
b) 31 pairs of nerves;
3. Reflex is:
a) response of the body;
b) the body’s response to the influence of the external environment or a change in internal state, with the participation of the nervous system;
c) the body’s response to the influence of the external environment;
4. What does the white matter of the brain consist of:
a) from the processes of nerve cells;
b) from the bodies of nerve cells and their processes;
5. The human brain consists of:
a) brain stem and hemispheres;
b) cerebellum and cerebral hemispheres;
c) brainstem, cerebellum, cerebral hemispheres.
self-test
c) Cards with tasks from the educational complex.
Self-test
d) Frontal conversation.
1. What is the significance of the nervous system?
(Carries out coordinated work of all parts of the body; provides communication between the body and the external environment; forms the material basis of human mental activity (thinking, speech and complex forms of social behavior).
2. How can you divide n.s. by topography?
(CNS and peripheral n.s.
CNS = g.m. + s.m.
peripheral = nerves + nerve ganglia + nerve endings)
3.How to divide n.s. functionally?
(Somatic and vegetative)
4. What is the structure of a neuron?
(Body + processes – axon and dendrite)
5. What are gray and white represented in - in n.s.?
(gray = cell bodies of neurons, white = processes of neurons)
6. How are neurons classified according to the functions they perform?
(sensitive, intercalary, motor)
7. What is a reflex?
8. What types of reflexes are there?
9. Where is the brain located?
(in the cranial cavity)
10. What parts does the brain consist of?
(GM = brainstem + cerebellum + cerebral hemispheres)
11. What parts make up the brain stem?
(Trunk = medulla oblongata + pons + diencephalon)
12. What are the functions of the medulla oblongata?
(Reflex arcs pass through the nuclei: coughing, sneezing, lacrimation reflex, etc.)
13. How does the cerebellum work?
(It consists of hemispheres and the vermis connecting them, the surface has grooves and convolutions - this is the cerebellar cortex)
14. What functions does the cerebellum perform?
(takes part in coordination of movement, ensures body balance)
15. What are the functions of a bridge?
(conducts the impulse to the cortex of the g.m., to the cerebellum, oblongata, s.m.)
16. Name the functions of the midbrain.
(provides a reflex change in the size of the pupil and the curvature of the lens depending on the brightness of the light)
17.What functions does the diencephalon perform?
(Conducts impulses to the cerebral cortex from skin receptors and sensory organs, is responsible for the feeling of thirst and hunger, constancy of the internal environment, for the work of the endocrine glands and vegetative system.)
5-8min
Learning new material.
Slide show “Cerebral hemispheres”
The cerebral hemispheres are the largest, evolutionarily young, division of the brain; in humans it is better developed than in other representatives of vertebrates.
The two hemispheres of the cerebrum are connected calloused body and consist of white and gray matter. The gray matter forms the cerebral cortex, located above, and subcortical nuclei in the thickness of the white matter. The white matter is located under the cortex. (Figure pp. 66-67 in the textbook)
Bark g.m. has a thickness of 3-4 mm, an area of 220,000 mm 2, consists of 12-18 billion nerve cells, grooves (indentations) and convolutions (folds) are visible on the surface of the cortex.
Large grooves divide the hemispheres into lobes - there are 4 of them:
frontal, temporal, parietal, occipital.
Areas of the cerebral cortex perform various functions, so they are divided into zones
In 1836, Marc Dax, an unknown French doctor, read a report in which he described 40 of his patients who suffered from speech disorders. All showed signs of damage to the left hemisphere of the brain.
In 1865, Paul Broca, the famous French anthropologist and pathologist, presented a description of the clinical history of a patient who had lost the ability to speak, but, nevertheless, could read and write normally, as well as understand everything that was said to him. Broca believed that the cause of the disorder was a lesion in the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere. This area of the cortex, adjacent to the motor zone and controlling the muscles of the face, tongue, jaws and pharynx, is called Broca's area. The specific difficulties that patients experience when pronouncing speech sounds, although their ability to use language remains normal, is called aphasia. During the autopsy of two patients suffering from a speech disorder, Broca discovered a lesion in the same area of the left hemisphere - the posterior frontal. After several years of reflection and observation, Brock wrote in an article published in the sixth volume. "Bulletin of the Anthropological Society" for 1865, stated: "We speak with the left hemisphere."
In 1874, Klodt (Karl) Wernicke, a French doctor, found that with hemorrhages in the temporal region of the left hemisphere, the patient ceases to understand speech, although he can speak: speech turns into meaningless noise for him. Wernicke's aphasia occurs when there is damage to the superior-posterior portion of the left temporal lobe, called Wernicke's area.
Among the students at our school there are many right-handers and left-handers.
In a family, kindergarten, or school, one should not prohibit, but, on the contrary, encourage the child’s desire to do something with his left hand. Children are allowed to write as they please, regardless of slant or calligraphy. As long as there are no mistakes, as long as they don’t lag behind their classmates. (Ministry of Health, June 23, 1985).
Right-handed
95% - speak with the left hemisphere
5% - right
Lefties
According to Russian scientists:
65% say right hemisphere, 35% say left hemisphere
According to US scientists:
70% - speak with the left hemisphere, 15% - with both hemispheres, 15% - with the right hemisphere
Presumably, the causes of left-handedness are associated with changes (not disorders!) in the genetic code caused by:
Excessive anxiety during pregnancy;
Colds;
Poisoning with poor quality food (A.P. Chuprikov).
Great Lefties:
Michelangelo, Charlie Chaplin, Vladimir Dal, Ivan Pavlov.
There are about 6 - 8 million left-handers in our country. Left-handedness is much more common in men (the reason for left-handedness: in the left hemisphere of the developing brain, the process of migration of neurons to their final locations slows down).
| Name of hemispheres | Their functions |
|
| Left hemisphere | oral and written speech; information analysis; generalization, decision making |
|
| Right hemisphere | creative thinking; musical and artistic creativity; music perception; |
Lefty: gravitates towards theory, has a large vocabulary, actively uses it, he is characterized by high motor activity, determination, and the ability to predict events.
Right-handed: gravitates towards specific types of activity, is slow and taciturn, but endowed with the ability to subtly feel and experience, prone to contemplation and memories. 8-10 min
Vision and asymmetry
Apple experiment. An apple is shown and children are asked to describe it with various adjectives.
Students name adjectives and distribute them into groups
Left hemisphere Right hemisphere
round bright
volumetric red
delicious
tasty, etc.
Hearing and asymmetry
Video – 4min
Question: What are the right and left half of the brain responsible for? What happens when the right or left hemisphere is malfunctioning?
(the right half of the brain is responsible for understanding objective noises - the sound of broken glass, gurgling water, applause, sneezing, snoring, etc. If the hemisphere is not working, these sounds will not cause any pictures, will not mean absolutely anything, there is no way to name the song and remember the words).
(the left half of the brain is responsible for recognizing music. With a blocked right hemisphere, there is no way to recognize even a very familiar melody)
Conducting a test to determine the right and left hemispheres of students
(Kiselev A.M., Bakushev A.B. Find out your character)
The test is based on four signs that appear in a person from the moment of birth and do not change throughout life.
Leading hand. Interlace your fingers. If the thumb of your left hand is on top, you are an emotional person; if your right finger is on top, you have an analytical mind.
Napoleon pose. Interlace your hands on your chest. If your left hand is at the top, you are prone to coquetry, while your right hand is prone to simplicity and innocence.
Leading eye. The right dominant eye speaks of a persistent, aggressive character, the left - of a soft and compliant character.
Applause. If it is more convenient to clap with your right hand, you can talk about a decisive character, with your left - you often hesitate before making a decision, thinking about how best to act so as not to offend others.
CONSOLIDATING KNOWLEDGE
Those wishing to prepare a message “Brain and abilities”, “Life and work of I.M. Sechenov”.
Einstein and Lomonosov - who was right-hemisphere and who was left-hemisphere?
Despite the fact that Albert Einstein was a great physicist, everyone knows his passion for the violin, and the famous physicist, chemist, and mathematician Mikhailo Lomonosov was also a poet.
Therefore, only both hemispheres in continuous communication with each other can give us a complete picture of the world.
M.M. Speransky writes in the book “Rules of Higher Eloquence” of 1795: “The connection of concepts in the mind is sometimes so subtle, so tender that the slightest attempt to discover this connection in words breaks and destroys it.”
| Attention span indicator | Indicator evaluation |
|
| High rate |
||
| Average |
||
| Low rate |
Summing up, evaluation.
4. Fastening. Question answer
“LESSON DEVELOPMENTS IN BIOLOGY FOR UMK I.N. Ponomareva and others (M.: Ventana-Graf) 5th grade MOSCOW "VAKO" 2015 UDC 372.857 BBK 71.262.8 K65 Konstantinova I.Yu. Lesson developments for...”
I. Yu. KONSTANTINOVA
LESSON DEVELOPMENTS
IN BIOLOGY
To UMK I.N. Ponomareva and others.
(M.: Ventana-Graf)
MOSCOW "VAKO" 2015
Konstantinova I.Yu.
Lesson developments in biology. 5th grade. –
M.: VAKO, 2015. – 128 p. - (To help the school teacher).
ISBN 978-5-408-02207-6
The manual presents lesson developments for the course
“Biology” for the 5th grade of general education institutions for the educational complex I.N. Ponomareva and others, meeting the requirements of the Federal State Educational Standard.
In the book, the teacher will find all the materials necessary to prepare for the lesson and conduct it: thematic planning, detailed lesson developments, additional materials, games, competitions, creative tasks, physical education minutes, methodological tips and recommendations. The appendix provides thematic planning for biology textbooks for grade 5, included in the Federal List.
The publication is addressed to teachers, teachers of after-school groups, students of pedagogical universities and colleges.
UDC 372.857 BBK 71.262.8 ISBN 978-5-408-02207-6 © VAKO LLC, 2015 From the author Dear teachers!
The methodological manual we bring to your attention contains lesson developments in biology for grade 5 and is focused on the use of the educational kit by I.N. Ponomareva, I.V. Nikolaeva, O.A. Kornilova (M.: Ventana-Graf).
The material and structure of the teaching aid fully comply with the requirements of the Federal State Educational Standard for Basic General Education (FSES LLC), the distinctive feature of which is its activity-based nature, which sets the main goal of developing the student’s personality.
The standard specifies the real types of activities that the student must master by the end of training, and the requirements for learning outcomes are formulated in it in the form of personal, subject and meta-subject results. In this manual, the planned results are presented in expanded form, reflecting the logic of the formation of educational actions.
An integral part of the new standard are universal learning activities (ULAs). They are given in the manual in the context of the content of the subject “Biology”. Lesson notes are focused on the development of the child’s general educational skills, such as the ability to analyze, highlight the essential, schematically record new experience, work with popular science text, creatively approach a problem situation, etc., as well as special skills - to establish connections between natural objects, record the results of observations and experiments, navigate the events of one’s life and the lives of others, understand the flow of natural and social processes, etc.
Lesson developments are built according to the plan: type of lesson, technologies used, generated by the educational system, planned results, equipment used, preliminary preparation for the lesson.
4 Thematic planning of educational material In this book, the teacher will be able to find everything he needs to prepare for lessons and conduct them: thematic planning, detailed lesson developments, methodological tips and recommendations. The teacher can use the proposed lesson scenarios in whole or in part, integrating them into his own lesson plan. We hope that this book will provide effective assistance in your teaching activities.
Thematic planning of educational material (35 hours) No. Lesson topic Biology - the science of the living world (9 hours) 1 Biology as a science. The role of biology in the practical activities of people 2 Signs of living organisms 3 Methods of studying living organisms 4 Magnifying devices. Laboratory work No. 1 “Study of the structure of magnifying devices”
5 Cellular structure of organisms. Diversity of cells 6 Living cells. Laboratory work No. 2 “Structure of skin cells of onion scales”
7 Features of the chemical composition of living organisms. Inorganic and organic substances, their role in the body 8 Properties of living organisms. The role of nutrition, respiration, transport of substances, removal of metabolic products in the life of the cell and organism. Growth and development of the body. Reproduction 9 Generalization and systematization of knowledge on the topic “Biology - the science of the living world”
Diversity of living organisms (12 hours) 10 Diversity of organisms. Principles of classification of organisms. Distinctive characteristics of representatives of different kingdoms of living nature 11 Bacteria. Diversity of bacteria 12 Bacteria. Diversity of bacteria. Bacteria are pathogens. Measures to prevent diseases caused by bacteria. The role of bacteria in nature and human life 13 Plants. Variety of plants. The importance of plants in nature and human life 14 Methods for studying living organisms. Laboratory work No. 3 “Acquaintance with the external structure of a plant”
Thematic planning of educational material
No. Lesson topic of lesson 15 Animals. The structure of animals. The diversity of animals, their role in nature and human life 16 Methods of studying living organisms. Laboratory work No. 4 “Observing the movement of animals”
17 Mushrooms. Variety of mushrooms 18 Variety of mushrooms, their role in nature and in human life.
Edible and poisonous mushrooms. Providing first aid for mushroom poisoning 19 Lichens. The role of lichens in nature and human life 20 Diversity of organisms. Relationships between organisms and the environment. Role in nature and human life 21 Generalization and systematization of knowledge on the topic “Diversity of living organisms”
Life of organisms on planet Earth (8 hours) 22 Relationships between organisms and the environment 23 Environmental factors. The influence of environmental factors on organisms 24 Relationships between organisms and the environment 25 Natural communities 26 Relationships between organisms and the environment. Natural areas of Russia 27 Life on different continents. Diversity of organisms. Relationships between organisms and the environment 28 Life in the seas and oceans 29 Generalization and systematization of knowledge on the topic “Natural zones of the Earth”
Man on planet Earth (6 hours) 30 Man’s place in the system of the organic world. Natural and social environment of man. Features of human behavior. Speech. Thinking 31 The role of man in the biosphere. Environmental problems 32 Consequences of human activities in ecosystems 33 The role of humans in the biosphere. Methods for solving environmental problems 34 Methods for studying living organisms. Observation, measurement, experiment 35 Generalization and systematization of knowledge on the topic “Man on Planet Earth”
BIOLOGY –
THE SCIENCE OF THE LIVING WORLD
Lesson 1. Biology as a science The role of biology in the practical activities of people Lesson type: lesson in the discovery of new knowledge.Formed UUD: communicative (k.) – listen and hear each other; express your thoughts with sufficient completeness and accuracy in accordance with the tasks and conditions of communication; regulatory (r.) – independently discover an educational problem, put forward versions of its solution; cognitive (n.) – highlight, analyze, compare facts; read all levels of text information; personal (l.) – to form knowledge of the basic principles of attitude towards living nature; to form cognitive interests and motives aimed at studying living nature.
Planned results: understand the importance of nature in human life; know the definitions of biology, biological sciences; learn to write a comparative story about ancient and modern people; name the tasks facing biologists; name the basic principles and rules of attitude towards living nature.
Equipment: textbook (Biology. 5th grade: textbook for students of general education institutions / I.N. Ponomareva, I.V. Nikolaev, O.A. Kornilova. M.: Ventana-Graf), a strip of paper with parts of the word written in different colors “ biology", magnetic or interactive whiteboard.
Progress of the lesson I. Organizational moment (Introduction. The teacher introduces himself to the students and, to create a friendly atmosphere, can talk about his hobbies.
Lesson 1. Biology as a Science Then the teacher asks all students to introduce themselves, naming their hobbies in short sentences.
) II. Work on the topic of the lesson
1. The teacher’s word (The teacher talks about the classroom: about plants, visual aids, rules of conduct in class and recess.) Friends, look how many plants there are in the classroom. Each of them has its own story. This plant was given to the office by school graduates when they were fifth graders like you. It grew with them and became smarter. If it could talk, it would probably tell us a lot of interesting things.
And we picked up this plant on the street in late autumn. It was almost frozen. We looked after it, treated it, and now it pleases us with its flowers.
(It is necessary to mention the regime of ventilation and cleaning of the office.) It is very important for our health to regularly clean and ventilate the office. When airing, the air in the office is enriched with oxygen, the air temperature drops slightly, wet cleaning cleans and moisturizes surfaces and air, and this has a positive effect on the functioning of the human body.
(After this, the teacher lists what students should have in class: a textbook, a workbook, pencils, a diary. The notebook and textbook must be wrapped with a cover. Then a short physical education session is held, during which you can check the students’ readiness for the lesson.)
– Stand up, pick up the textbook and lift it high above your head, stretch your neck and look at the textbook. Place it on the table.
– Take the notebook in your hands, hold it at outstretched arms in front of you and squat five times. Place your notebook on your desk.
– Hug the diary tightly and jump around a little.
– Now take pens and pencils in different hands, extended in different directions, and move them, crossing them in front of you. Perform this movement five times.
– Sit at your desk, close your eyes, even out your breathing and count to seven.
2. Conversation, work from the textbook Long ago, thousands of years ago, man was completely different from modern people. Appearance, behavior, daily activities - everything distinguished him from you and me. Those people lived in harsh conditions: cold or heat, often hunger, poisonous plants, attack 8 Biology is the science of the living world of terrible animals, disease, darkness, the unknown. Nature frightened man, but at the same time fed and clothed him, tempered him and gave him new useful knowledge.
– Open the textbook on p. 5, look at Fig. 1 and compare the people depicted in the two pictures with each other and with modern man.
(Students raise their hands and speak out, and the teacher, if necessary, with leading questions, draws the children’s attention to the structure of the head and body, clothing, activities, weapons and tools. Students compose short comparative stories.)
– So, we see that ancient people are different from you and me. Can we determine who is closer to nature:
ancient or modern people? Why do you think so?
(Children's answers.)
3. Game (The teacher names signs and actions. If he talks about modern people, girls raise their hands, if about ancient people - boys.)
They dress in animal skins (ancient people).
They travel by train (modern people).
They hunt with a spear (ancient people).
Mittens are dried on warm stoves (modern people).
Collecting berries (ancient people and modern people).
They burn fires and litter (modern people).
They live in caves (ancient people).
They tamed a dog and a horse (ancient people).
They plant gardens and forests (modern people).
Fishing (ancient people and modern people).
Outwardly they look like monkeys (ancient people).
Well done! You have noticed that some signs and actions are characteristic of both ancient and modern people. This brings us closer. Ancient people are our distant ancestors. Discovering various finds and making discoveries, man always learned, adapted, and accumulated knowledge. Gradually all knowledge turned into science. Sciences help us live more comfortably and simply, but we still remain part of nature. And to be friends with nature, you need to know, understand and love it. In biology lessons you and I will study nature.
4. Drawing up a diagram
– Listen to the word “biology”. It comes from the Greek words bios - “life” and logos - “teaching”. This means that biology is... (the science of nature).
Lesson 2. Signs of living organisms
(For clarity, during a conversation, you can attach a strip of paper with parts of the word “biology” written in different colors to a magnetic board, or display this word on the interactive board.)
– Write the word “biology” in your notebooks.
But biology has a whole “family” of biological sciences. Let's get to know them a little.
(The teacher writes down the names of biological sciences, draws students’ attention to the grammar of writing and talks about what each science studies. A diagram appears on the board and in notebooks.)
BIOLOGY
Zoology Botany Mycology Microbiology Ecology
zoology - fish, botany - plant, mycology - mushroom, etc.) III. Reflective-evaluative stage (The teacher, together with the students, sums up the lesson.)
Man is part of nature.
From ancient times to the present day, man has been cognizing the world around him and nature.
Man created science.
To be friends with nature, you need to know, understand and love it.
The science of living nature is biology.
Biology has a whole family of biological sciences.
2. Based on the pictures in the paragraph, compose a story on the topic “Nature and Man.”
Lesson 2. Signs of living organisms Lesson type: lesson of general methodological orientation.
Technologies used: health conservation, problem-based learning, developmental learning.
Formed UUD: k. – obtain missing information using questions (cognitive initiative); R. – 10 Biology is the science of the living world; check your actions against the goal and, if necessary, correct mistakes; n. – analyze, classify, compare facts and phenomena; l. – develop an understanding of the value of a healthy and safe lifestyle; to develop skills that facilitate the application of biological knowledge in the modern world.
Planned results: learn to compare the manifestation of the properties of living and nonliving things; name the properties of living organisms; examine an image of a living organism and identify its organs and their functions.
Equipment: textbook, poster with cells, magnets.
Progress of the lesson I. Organizational moment (The teacher welcomes the students, checks their readiness for the lesson.) II. Checking homework (Carried out in the format of the game “Radio Broadcast”. This form will help students develop artistry and communication skills. The respondents are journalists, the rest of the students are radio listeners, the teacher is the presenter.) Hello, dear friends! Today we have wonderful guests. They traveled in a time machine thousands of years ago, into ancient times. Our first guest visited the primitive hunters. He will tell us about what they look like, what they do, and what importance nature plays in their lives.
(The story of the first student. The teacher can ask questions, comment, helping to structure the student’s answer and supporting the format of the game.) Our next guest climbed even further in the time machine and observed the life of ancient gatherers. Let's listen to his story. Maybe we will be able to find out what our friend was treated to and where he had to spend the night.
(Tale of the second student.) All the storytellers told us about the importance of nature in the life of ancient man, and now I ask you to tell us about the relationship between modern man and nature.
(Tale of the third student. The teacher asks questions if necessary. It is important that all the basic concepts are covered (biology, family of biological sciences). Then the teacher thanks for participation in the game, for good work, and gives marks for the answers.)
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“LESSON DEVELOPMENTS IN BIOLOGY for the textbooks of V.V. Pasechnika (M.: Bustard); I.N. Ponomareva and others (M.: Ventana-Graf) NEW EDITION 6th grade MOSCOW “VAKO” ... "
-- [ Page 1 ] --
A. A. KALININA
LESSON DEVELOPMENTS
IN BIOLOGY
to textbooks
V.V. Pasechnik
(M.: Bustard);
I.N. Ponomareva and others.
(M.: Ventana-Graf)
NEW EDITION
MOSCOW "VACO" 2011
BBK 74.262.85
Kalinina A.A.
Lesson developments in biology: 6th grade. –
3rd ed., revised. – M.: VAKO, 2011. – 384 p. - (To help
school teacher).
ISBN 978-5-408-00443-0 This methodological manual presents detailed lesson developments for the biology course for grade 6 for the textbooks of V.V. Pasechnik (M.: Bustard), I.N. Ponomareva and others (M.: Ventana-Graf). The book contains everything a teacher needs to prepare for a lesson: program materials, lesson developments, methodological tips and recommendations, reference materials, game and non-standard lesson options, brief encyclopedic information, procedures for laboratory and practical work, demonstration experiments.
The publication is addressed to subject teachers and students of pedagogical universities.
UDC 373.858 BBK 74.262.85 ISBN 978-5-408-00443-0 © VAKO LLC, 2011 From the author Dear colleagues!
This methodological manual represents detailed lesson developments for the course “Biology.
Plants, bacteria, fungi, lichens" for textbooks:
Pasechnik V.V. Biology. Bacteria, fungi, plants:
6th grade. M.: Bustard;
Ponomareva I.N. and others. Biology: 6th grade. M.: Ventana-Graf.
The manual is universal, since it takes into account the features and content of the material in both textbooks.
To develop the lessons, various methodological techniques and findings were used, based on experience in teaching biology at school. Each lesson contains all the necessary materials:
Test tasks;
Conversations, diagrams, tables, drawings, explanations of terms and much more to study a new topic;
Questions and assignments to reinforce the material studied;
Reference materials;
Game and non-standard lesson options;
Brief encyclopedic information;
The procedure for conducting laboratory work and demonstration experiments;
Detailed description of homework.
The book presents methodological material of different levels of complexity, which will allow the teacher to take a differentiated approach to teaching the subject. The publication contains various additional
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informative information: scientific terms are revealed, useful information, game tasks, etc. are given.
To update, test or consolidate knowledge, the teacher can use the manual “Testing and measuring materials” in lessons. Biology: 6th grade" (M.: VAKO). Regular work with CMMs will not only allow you to quickly and efficiently assess students’ mastery of the material, but also gradually prepare students for a modern test form of knowledge testing, which will be useful when completing CT and Unified State Examination tasks.
This manual will become a reliable teacher's assistant. It will save his energy and time, and will also help make biology lessons interesting, rich and varied.
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The lesson should begin with a story about the rules of behavior in the biology classroom, since failure to comply with safety precautions when working in the classroom can be associated with a risk for students and the possibility of damage to equipment and visual materials. It is also advisable to have a stand in the office with a detailed statement of safety rules, since children will have to be constantly reminded of them.
Lesson progress I. Studying new material Teacher's story with elements of conversation This year you are starting to study a new subject - biology. You have already encountered this science in the course “Natural History” (or “Natural Science”, or “The World Around You”).
– What do you think the science of biology studies? (Student answers.) Biology studies the world of living organisms, their structure, and life functions.
– What groups of living organisms can you name?
(Animals, plants, fungi, lichens, microorganisms.)
– What does the word “biology” mean? Can you find words with the same root? (Geology, ecology, philology, biography, etc.) Absolutely right, these words have common Greek roots, “bios” means life, and “logos” means teaching, biology translated from Greek. - “the doctrine of life”, or, in other words, the science of living organisms. The term itself appeared only in 1802, it was proposed by the French scientist Jean Baptiste de Lamarck.
But, as we have already said, life on Earth exists in various forms. Therefore, biology is divided into several independent sciences. One of them is botany, a science that we will study this year. The founder of botany is considered to be the ancient Greek scientist Theophrastus. He lived from 370 to 286. BC e. and was a student of the famous Aristotle.
Theofastus collected and united disparate knowledge about plants into a single whole.
– Who knows what the word “botany” means? (Students' answers.) This word also comes from the Greek. “botane”, which means grass, greenery, plant.
– What other branches does biology divide into?
Let's fill out the table together.
10 Lesson 1. Introduction
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So, the science of biology studies living organisms.
– Let us remember how living organisms differ from nonliving ones.
(Student answers.) All living organisms have such properties as respiration (absorption and release of gases), nutrition, reproduction (reproduction of their own kind), growth (increase in mass and size of the body) and development (qualitative changes in the body), irritability (reaction to environmental change), death.
Non-living organisms can have each of these properties or several at once. For example, an icicle grows: water flows down it and freezes, you have observed all this many times. You have all also heard about the proliferation of a computer virus. Avalanches, rockfalls, and rivers also move.
Even the smallest living organisms on Earth have all of these characteristics. But there is one more common feature that we have not named, but nevertheless it is very important. All living organisms are composed of cells or their derivatives. We will talk about this in the next lessons.
We have understood the properties of living organisms.
– How do plants differ from animals, fungi, microorganisms? (Students’ answers.) (The teacher draws a conclusion, supplements the students’ answers by filling out a table drawn in advance on the board. Students draw the same table in a notebook.) 12 Lesson 1. Introduction
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Mushrooms occupy a kind of intermediate place between plants and animals. Although previously they were classified as plants. This is not surprising, because they do not move, do not grab food, but grow in one place all their lives. But it must be said that, in addition to the mushrooms that we are used to seeing in the forest, there are others.
For example, mold that grows on old bread is also a fungus, or yeast that is put into the dough. If we consider this kingdom in detail, we can identify several features that unite it with both plants and animals.
Let's list them.
Signs of fungi that bring them closer to the plant kingdom
Attached lifestyle.
Unlimited growth throughout life.
The presence of cellulose in the cell walls of some fungi (only in aquatic fungi).
Signs of mushrooms that bring them closer to the animal kingdom
Presence of chitin in cell walls.
The presence of urea as an intermediate product of metabolism.
We will study mushrooms in the next lessons, but now we will return to plants.
Lesson 1. Introduction 13
– How many plant species do you think exist on Earth? (Students make their guesses.) The total number of living plant species is approximately 400,000–500,000! (According to various sources.) The ancient Greek scientist Theophrastus knew about 600 species of plants.
And indeed, wherever we look, we are surrounded by plants. Some live on land, while others live in water. Some are microscopic, while others reach gigantic sizes. They can be found everywhere, even in arid deserts, in the Arctic and Antarctic.
As you know, most of the globe is occupied by oceans and seas, in which mainly various types of algae (aquatic plants) grow. Some of them reach colossal sizes - up to 100 m in length.
– What do you think is the role of plants in nature? (Student answers.) Most plants are green, which means they are capable of photosynthesis, that is, they are able to convert the energy of the sun into the energy of organic substances. In other words, they are a food source for all other organisms on Earth. In addition, during the process of photosynthesis, plants absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen, which is necessary for the respiration of other living organisms.
It is almost impossible to accurately determine the amount of work performed by plants. According to very rough estimates, plants annually produce about 400 billion tons of organic matter through the process of photosynthesis, while absorbing about 175 billion tons of carbon. At the same time, they release oxygen into the atmosphere, which we need for breathing.
Imagine that one mature tree releases as much oxygen per day as is needed for breathing by 3 people. And one hectare of green space absorbs 8 kg of carbon dioxide within an hour. About as much as 200 people allocate in the same time!
In addition to this planetary role, green plants are also habitat and shelter for many animals. In addition, animals use plants not only as food, but also as medicine for diseases.
The role of plants in human life is enormous.
– Try, using the text of the textbook, to answer in writing the question “What is the importance of green plants in human life?” (Students work with the textbook, after 5 minutes 14 Lesson 1. Introduction The teacher checks the notebooks of several students, and 2-3 students answer orally.) The main areas of use of plants by humans
Food.
Animal food.
Clothing made from plant fabrics (cotton, linen).
Source of raw materials for industry and economic activities.
Medicines and raw materials for medicines.
Decorative role.
Protection and improvement of the environment.
But still, biology alone cannot answer many of the questions that interest us, so physics, chemistry, geography and many other sciences come to its aid. For example, botany has a number of special branches, many of which are closely related to various disciplines.
Structure of the science of botany Science Subject of study Plant anatomy Internal structure of plants Morphology of plants External structure of plants Physiology of plants Processes occurring in a plant Taxonomy of plants Classification of plants Geobotany Structure and significance of plant communities Selection Plant varieties and their properties Cytology Cell (for us - plant) Biochemistry of plants Chemical composition of plants Paleobotany Fossil plants Plant ecology Relationship of plants with the environment Currently, quite a lot is known about the life of plants, but this does not mean that all questions are answered and all secrets have already been revealed. After all, the more secrets of nature we learn, the more incomprehensible, unknown and fascinating things are revealed to us.
II. Consolidation of knowledge and skills
- Answer the questions.
1. What sciences is biology divided into?
2. What does botany study?
3. What does zoology study?
4. What does microbiology study?
Lessons 2, 3. Plant diversity. Higher and lower plants 15
5. What does mycology study?
6. What organisms are classified as prenuclear?
7. Name the characteristics of living organisms.
8. What are the main differences between animals and plants?
9. Name the characteristics of mushrooms that bring them closer to the animal kingdom.
10. Name the characteristics of fungi that bring them closer to the plant kingdom.
11. What is the role of plants in human life?
12. What is the role of plants in nature?
13. What is the total number of living plant species?
14. What do you think is evidenced by the similarity in the structure of plant and animal cells?
2. Select examples from inanimate nature that have certain properties of living things, and write them down in your notebooks.
3. Think about where and how else a person uses plants.
Creative task. Write a fairy tale in which plants are the main characters. Come up with a story on the topic “What would happen if all the plants on Earth disappeared?” Write a fairy tale or story on a separate piece of paper, format it beautifully and hand it in to the teacher.
An activity for students interested in biology. Find information about plants that played an important role in the history of countries or in the destinies of people. Prepare a report on this topic, format it and submit it to the teacher.
Section 1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION
WITH PLANTS
Lessons 2, 3. Plant diversity.Higher and lower plants Objectives: to give an idea of higher plants and their differences from lower ones; introduce the diversity and external structure of flowering plants; give an idea of the vegetative and generative organs of plants.
16 Section 1. General acquaintance with plants Equipment and materials: living plants, herbariums, tables: “Organs of a flowering plant”, “Gymnosperms”, “Ferns”, “Algae”, “Mosses”.
Key words and concepts: higher plants, lower plants, flowering plants, organ, vegetative organs, generative organs, root, shoot, stem, leaf, flower, fruit, seed, bud;
life forms of plants, annual, perennial and biennial plants; aquatic and land plants; moisture-loving and drought-resistant plants; heat-loving and frost-resistant plants; light-loving, shade-loving and shade-tolerant plants.
Course of lessons I. Updating knowledge
– Give definitions of the terms “kingdom”, “mycology”, “microbiology”, “botany”, “zoology”, “pre-nuclear organisms”, “nuclear organisms”.
- Answer the questions.
1. What does biology study?
2. What does the word “biology” mean?
3. What does the word “botany” mean?
4. Who first introduced the term “biology”?
5. Who is considered the founder of botany?
6. What sciences are distinguished within the science of botany?
II. Learning new material
1. Teacher’s story with elements of conversation The flora of our planet is very diverse.
– When you say “plants,” what do you imagine? (Flowers, bushes, trees, algae, mosses, etc.) You see how much is included in the concept of “plant”! Some of them live in the depths of the ocean, others grow near the house or on the school grounds. Some give us food, from others we make clothes, others are used for medical purposes, etc. Some delight us with their bright beautiful flowers, while others never bloom. Some of them are huge, others are so small that they can only be seen with a microscope.
Some have a powerful root system, adapted for obtaining water from great depths, while others have no roots at all.
Some live for many hundreds of years, while others last less than a year. How to understand all this diversity?
– Remember, when you and I divided the organic world into kingdoms, we talked about systematics. What it is? (Students’ answers.) Lessons 2, 3. Diversity of plants. Higher and lower plants 17 Systematics is the science of classification, that is, we need to divide the entire variety of plants that exist on Earth into separate groups according to some characteristic. About the same thing happened to you when you came to school. First of all, you were divided into classes. The main feature of the distribution was your age. Then many sixth-graders were divided into separate classes: 6 “A”, 6 “B”, 6 “C”, etc. You were united based on the foreign language you were studying: English, German, French (or by specialization: mathematics class, humanities, natural science, etc.). Plants are also systematized.
– What is the largest unit of taxonomy? (Students' assumptions.) The largest unit of taxonomy is the kingdom. The plant kingdom is divided into two subkingdoms: higher plants and lower ones.
Lower plants are more ancient, and their structure is, accordingly, simpler. They have no roots, no stems, no leaves. Lower plants include algae. Algae live in water and in moist soils because they need water to reproduce. They reproduce by spores. Among algae there are both unicellular and multicellular. It was the lower plants that were the first to begin to develop land (higher plants did not yet exist).
Higher plants are multicellular. Most of them live on land, but there are also aquatic plants, for example, pondweed and elodea.
Higher plants have differentiated organs: the root, which provides water and mineral nutrition to the plant, and the shoot (stem, which ensures the movement of substances, and leaves, where photosynthesis takes place). In higher plants there is an alternation of two generations: sexual and asexual. Higher plants include mosses, mosses, horsetails, ferns, gymnosperms and flowering plants. Flowering plants include plants that bloom at least once in their life. There are plants that may not form flowers or bear fruit for many decades, and then bloom. Some of them die after flowering, such as agave or bamboo.
But in addition to this classification of plants, they can be distributed according to other characteristics.
– What do you see when you come to the forest? (Trees, shrubs, grasses, etc.) First of all, we notice not differences in the structure of the leaves, not color, not the structural features of the root system. We see general differences in the appearance of plants. Some of them are tall and have a woody trunk, others are lower, others are even lower, etc. Based on these external differences, the life forms of plants can be distinguished. There are usually four of them: trees, shrubs, shrubs and herbs.
– Using the text of the textbook (textbook by I.N. Ponomareva § 1; textbook by V.V. Pasechnik § 16, 17), define each of the life forms of plants and give examples. The answer can be presented in the form of a table.
Life Form Description Examples
3. Continuation of the teacher’s story with elements of conversation Plants can also be classified according to their life span.
– What groups can you divide plants into based on lifespan? (According to their lifespan, plants are divided into three groups:
annual, perennial and biennial.)
– Give examples of plants from each group. (Students give examples, the teacher summarizes.) Perennial plants live for several years. In herbaceous perennial plants, shoots die in winter, and in spring new shoots grow from buds located underground.
Perennials include all trees, all shrubs, and some herbs, such as cereals.
Annual plants die off every winter, and in the spring new ones grow from seeds in the ground. Most herbs are annuals: nettle, quinoa, wormwood, tobacco, aster, tomato, radish, corn, peas, etc.
Biennial plants do not bloom or produce seeds in the first year, but accumulate nutrients in the roots and stems. In winter, the above-ground part partially or almost completely dies off; in the second year, a fruiting shoot grows from the remaining buds, and in the fall the plant dies. Some herbs are considered biennials, such as cabbage, carrots, beets, turnips, burdock, caraway seeds, and chicory.
There is also an ecological classification of plants by habitat, which divides plants into aquatic and terrestrial.
– Give examples of aquatic and terrestrial-aerial plants. (Student answers.) Most algae and some higher plants live in water, for example, elodea and pondweed, white water lily (water liLessons 2, 3. Diversity of plants. Higher and lower plants 19 lily), water capsule and many others. Most higher plants grow on land and some algae live in moist soil.
There are also moisture-loving plants, such as sedges, cattails, reeds, and drought-resistant plants that live in deserts and semi-deserts.
Plants can also be divided into heat-loving and frost-resistant. In the middle zone you will never find grapes, figs, tangerines - these are heat-loving plants. And in the south you are unlikely to encounter heather, dwarf willow, or dwarf birch. These plants are cold-resistant.
Plants that live on land can be divided into light-loving, shade-loving and shade-tolerant.
– Try to explain on your own what this means.
(Student answers.) Light-loving plants prefer to settle in places where there is a lot of light; they will not grow in heavily shaded areas.
For example, it is unlikely that you will find meadow grasses in a coniferous forest; they love open spaces with a lot of sun. Shade-loving plants, on the contrary, love diffused light. It is useless to look for them in sunny meadows. These plants can be found in dense spruce forests. Shade-tolerant plants grow in lightly shaded areas, but do well in areas with denser shade. For example, these are plants that grow in pine forests, where the shade is not very strong.
Algae in the seas and oceans are also distributed in depth, depending on the need for light. Closer to the surface, where there is more light, green and brown algae live.
At greater depths, mainly red algae are found.
As we have already said, higher plants have differentiated organs.
– What is an organ? (An organ is a part of an organism that has a certain structure and performs certain functions.) There are vegetative and generative (reproductive) organs of plants. Vegetative organs (from the Latin “vegetativus” - plant) perform the function of nutrition and metabolism with the environment. These are roots and shoots, consisting of stems, leaves and buds.
The root provides water and salt nutrition to the plant. With its help, the plant receives water from the soil with minerals dissolved in it. In addition, with the help of the root, the plant strengthens itself in the soil.
20 Section 1. General introduction to plants A shoot consists of a stem with leaves and buds located on it. The main task of the shoot is to create organic substances from carbon dioxide and water through the process of photosynthesis. The leaves play the main role here.
The stem delivers nutrients to the leaves and lifts them above the ground. In addition to nutrition, all vegetative organs perform the function of respiration.
A bud is an embryonic shoot. Under favorable conditions (for example, in spring), a young shoot appears from it. You can notice this if you pick a willow twig in winter and put it in a glass of water at home. After some time, young shoots will begin to appear from the buds. With the help of vegetative organs, a plant can reproduce, but this is their secondary role.
– Think about which plants can reproduce using vegetative organs. (For example, indoor violet and begonia can reproduce with the help of leaves. Wheatgrass and lily of the valley - with the help of rhizomes. Potatoes - with tubers.) Generative (from the Latin “genera” - give birth, reproduce) organs are represented by flowers, fruits and seeds. They appear on the plant only at a certain period and naturally replace each other. The main function of the generative organs is reproduction. Some plants bloom every year, others once every few years, and others once in a lifetime. After the flowers fade, they form fruits, inside which seeds ripen, from which new young plants grow.
- Answer the questions.
1. What is taxonomy?
2. What subkingdoms are the plant kingdom divided into?
3. Which plants are considered higher?
4. Which plants are classified as lower?
5. What is an organ?
6. What life forms of plants do you know? Give examples of plants for each life form.
7. What plants are classified as annuals?
8. What plants are classified as biennial?
9. What plants are classified as perennial?
10. List the vegetative organs of the plant. What are their main functions?
11. List the generative organs of the plant. What are their main functions?
IV. Summing up the lesson Lesson 4. Seed and spore plants 21 Homework
2. Bring a thin notebook in a box for practical work.
Creative task. Come up with an independent classification of indoor plants located in the biology classroom (at school, at home).
An activity for students interested in biology. Find in additional literature information about the scientist who first introduced the biological taxonomy of plants. What else is this man's merit?
Lesson 4. Seed and spore plants Objectives: to continue acquaintance with the diversity and external structure of flowering plants, to deepen knowledge about the external structure of flowering plants; give an idea of the difference between flowering and spore plants, introduce the external structure of the leaf of a spore plant and its spores.
Equipment and materials: tables: “Organs of a flowering plant”, “Ferns”, living indoor plants, herbariums of ferns and flowering plants in bloom, spore-bearing fern leaves, a magnifying glass and a dissecting needle (for each student or one per desk).
Key words and concepts: root, stem, leaf, bud, flower, fruit, seed, sorus, sporangium, spore, fronds.
- Answer the questions.
1. What is the main difference between higher plants and lower ones?
2. Which plants are considered higher and which are lower?
3. What are the vegetative and generative organs of a plant?
4. What are their main functions?
II. Studying new material Practical work 1. STRUCTURE OF A FLOWERING PLANT Purpose: to study the external structure of a flowering plant.
Equipment: herbarium of flowering plants in bloom, if possible with fruits (for each student or 22 Section 1. General acquaintance with plants one per desk), magnifying glass (for each student or one per desk), dissecting needle (for each student or one on the desk), ruler (for each student).
General recommendations. It is better to prepare herbariums in advance in larger quantities than necessary. Shepherd's purse and rapeseed are best suited for this work, since in these plants you can simultaneously see both fruits and seeds on one stem. Collecting and drying the required amount of these plants is not difficult.
Progress
1. Look at a plant specimen on your desk. Find his vegetative organs. Which vegetative organs do you see? (Root, stem, leaves, some have visible buds.)
2. Determine the color and size of the root, the color and length of the stem, the color, size and approximate number of leaves.
3. Find the generative organs of the plant. Which generative organs do you see? (Flowers, fruits).
4. Determine the size and color (if possible) of flowers and fruits. Using a dissecting needle, carefully open the fruit and look for the seeds. Determine the size of the seeds of this plant.
5. Draw a plant in a notebook for practical work, indicate all the organs that you were able to see. Don't forget to include the name of the plant being studied.
6. Fill out the table.
Plant organ Color of the organ under study Size and number of organs Root Stem Leaves Flowers Fruits Seeds (For organs of which there are several, the average size and approximate number should be indicated. For organs whose size is less than 1 mm, this should be indicated in the table - less than 1 mm. )
7. Conclude that this plant belongs to higher flowering plants, explain why.
Practical work 2. INTRODUCTION
WITH SPOROUS PLANT
Objectives: to introduce the appearance of a spore plant;consider fern spores and their location on the plant.
Lesson 4. Seed and spore plants 23 Equipment: dried fern leaf with sporangia (one on the desk) or a fern leaf growing in the biology classroom (if available), fern herbarium with rhizomes and adventitious roots; a magnifying glass and a dissecting needle (for each student or one per desk), a sheet of white paper.
Progress
1. Examine a fern herbarium. Find its rhizome and adventitious roots. Find the fronds (leaves). Please note that this is not a stem with leaves, but a separate leaf. The main petiole has pinnate leaves. Draw the external structure of the fern, label all the organs.
2. Examine a fern leaf. On the bottom, “wrong” surface of the leaf, look for brown growths. These are sori - clusters of sporangia. They contain disputes. A spore is a specialized cell that serves for the reproduction and dispersal of a plant. Draw a leaf with sori.
3. Shake the sheet over the white paper. Spores spilled out from the sporangia. Examine the disputes under a magnifying glass. Try to determine their size (in approximately fractions of a millimeter). Sketch them.
4. Conclude that the plant belongs to higher spore plants. Justify your conclusion.
5. Compare the external structure of a flowering plant and a fern. Draw a conclusion indicating the similarities and differences between these two groups of plants.
III. Lesson summary Homework
(Textbook by I.N. Ponomareva § 2; textbook by V.V. Pasechnik § 17.)
2. Finish the preparation of laboratory work.
Creative task. Compose a crossword puzzle on the topic “Plant organs.” Place it on a separate sheet of paper.
An activity for students interested in biology. Find information in additional literature about which spore plants grow in your area. Write down the names and brief descriptions of these plants.
24 Section 2. Cellular structure of plants, plant substances Part I. STRUCTURE
AND LIFE ACTIVITIES
PLANTS
Section 2. CELL STRUCTUREPLANTS, PLANT SUBSTANCES
Lesson 5. Structure of a plant cell Objectives: to develop knowledge about the cell as a living unit of a plant organism; reveal the structural features of a plant cell and the significance of its parts; give the concept of the membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, vacuoles.Equipment and materials: magnifying glasses of various sizes, table “Structure of a plant cell”, table with images of various microscopes, light microscope, model of a plant cell; portraits of scientists: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, Robert Hooke, Theodor Schwann and Matthias Schleiden.
Key words and concepts: cell, structure of a plant cell, cell organelles, cytoplasm, plasma membrane, nucleus, plastids: chloroplasts, chromoplasts, leukoplasts, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus (complex), cell center, ribosomes, lysosomes, mitochondria.
Lesson progress I. Updating knowledge
- Answer the questions.
1. What is the name of the branch of biology that studies the structure of the cell?
2. What are eukaryotes?
3. How are they different from prokaryotes?
4. Which group do plants belong to?
5. What plants are called higher?
6. What is the main difference between lower plants and higher ones?
7. Give examples of lower and higher plants.
8. What parts of the cell did we name in previous lessons?
II. Learning new material
1. A teacher’s story with elements of conversation Probably each of you has repeatedly held a magnifying glass in your hands. (The teacher demonstrates magnifying glasses of various sizes.) Lesson 5. The structure of a plant cell 25
– What else is it called? (Magnifying glass.)
– What can you do with a magnifying glass? (Burn, make fire, read small letters, examine small objects.) You see how many uses can be found for a simple magnifying glass!
– When do you think the magnifying glass was first invented?
(Student answers.) The magnifying glass was known back in Ancient Greece. 400 BC e.
playwright Aristophanes described the properties of a magnifying glass in one of his comedies. But an ordinary magnifying glass does not provide very high magnification.
– How many times can a magnifying glass magnify objects? (Student answers.) An ordinary magnifying glass provides magnification of only 2–30 times. But we know that there is a magnifying device that can magnify much more.
– What kind of device is this? (Microscope.)
– How long ago was the microscope invented? (Students' answers.)
- Do you know who invented it? (Student answers.) The inventor of this device is considered to be the Dutchman Anthony van Leeuwenhoek. Levenguk was a simple merchant, but very curious. He was the first to discover living creatures in a drop of water and for his discoveries he was even elected a member of the Royal Society of London; the Queen of England herself came to visit him. His microscope gave a magnification of almost 300 times! Modern light microscopes provide magnification up to 3500 times, and an electron microscope can magnify images hundreds of thousands of times!
But Leeuwenhoek's microscope looked more like a stack of various magnifying glasses than a modern microscope.
– Who perfected this device? (Student answers.) The English scientist Robert Hooke invented a special illuminator for a microscope. But he is famous not only for this.
– Who knows what brought fame to this scientist? (Student answers.) He was the first to see the cells while examining a section of oak cork. He called these cells “boxes”, “boxes”, and cells.
This is the name we still use today. Then Hooke saw cells on sections of other plants.
But scientists have long believed that only plants are made of cells. Animal cells are much more difficult to see, since the boundary between them is much less visible.
– Why do you think? (Students’ answers.) 26 Section 2. Cellular structure of plants, plant substances We talked about this when we compared the structure of plant and animal cells. The cell wall of plants consists of fiber (cellulose), and the outer layer of animal cells is thin and elastic.
The idea that all living organisms are made of cells was put forward in 1839 by German scientists Theodor Schwann and Matthias Schleiden. This concept is called the "cell theory".
All living organisms are made of cells, like bricks:
both the largest and the smallest. As you know, there are even those that consist of just one cell. The cell is the structural and functional unit of all living organisms. In addition, the cell itself is alive. All living organisms are either one free-living cell or a certain number of united cells.
– Remember what properties all living organisms have.
The cell is actually a self-replicating chemical system. It is physically separated from its environment, but has the ability to exchange with this environment, that is, it is able to absorb substances that it needs as food and remove accumulated waste. Cells are able to reproduce by division.
Let us consider in more detail the structure of a plant cell.
As we have already said, all cells are separated from each other by the plasma membrane - a dense transparent membrane (from lat.
“membrane” – film), the main task of which is to protect the contents of the cell from the influence of the external environment. If you look at it under a microscope, in some places you can see thinner areas - pores.
The membrane on the outside has a dense shell (cell wall) consisting of fiber (cellulose). It is durable and due to this gives the cell strength and protects it from external influences. Between the cell membranes (outside) there is an intercellular substance that connects the cells. When the intercellular substance is destroyed, the cells are separated.
The living contents of the cell are represented by the cytoplasm - a colorless, viscous, translucent substance - in which various chemical processes take place. In a living cell, the cytoplasm is constantly moving. The speed of its movement depends on temperature, lighting and other conditions. The movement of the cytoplasm ensures the transport of nutrients. The cytoplasm of some cells is connected to the cytoplasm of other cells by thin cytoplasmic filaments passing through the pores of the membrane Lesson 5. Structure of a plant cell 27 check. Due to this, constant exchange of substances occurs between cells. In young cells, the cytoplasm fills almost the entire volume.
Numerous cell organelles are located in the cytoplasm. Organelles are differentiated sections of the cytoplasm that have a specific structure and function. Cytoplasm seems to connect the various organelles of the cell with each other. Remember, in the first lesson we talked about prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
– Which group do these plants belong to? (To eukaryotes.)
– What is the main difference between eukaryotes? (The cells of these organisms have a nucleus.) The most important organelle of the cell is the nucleus. It is usually large and clearly defined. The nucleus contains one or more nucleoli. Near the nucleus is the cell center. It takes part in cell division.
The entire cytoplasm is penetrated by a network of numerous small tubules. They connect various parts of the cell with the plasma membrane and help in transporting various substances within the cell. This is the endoplasmic reticulum.
A plant cell also contains other organelles, such as the Golgi apparatus, ribosomes, lysosomes, and mitochondria.
In addition, the plant cell contains plastids. There are three types of plastids. They vary in shape, color, size and function. Chloroplasts are green, chromoplasts are red, and leucoplasts are white.
In addition, the cell contains various inclusions - temporary formations, for example, starch or protein grains, as well as drops of fat. These inclusions accumulate as an additional supply of nutrients, which are subsequently used by the body.
In old cells, cavities containing cell sap are clearly visible. These formations are called vacuoles (from the Latin “vacuulus” - empty).
2. Students’ independent work with the textbook
– Using the text of the textbook (textbook by I.N. Ponomareva § 7, textbook by V.V. Pasechnik § 2), fill out the table.
Organelles Description Functions Cytoplasm - Internal semi-liquid medium Unites all the organs of the cell, in which the noids of the cell are located, in it the nucleus, all organelles and include all metabolic processes 28 Section 2. Cellular structure of plants, plant substances
– – –
(Not all textbooks name and characterize all the main cell organelles. The amount of material to be studied is determined by the teacher himself. It is recommended to give children time to fill out the table on their own (about 10 minutes), and then take notebooks from several students to check, and at this time 3 -4 people answer orally and must characterize 2-3 organelles. If necessary, the class corrects and supplements them. Thus, when checking work in a lesson, the largest number of students can be involved with the least amount of time.
After checking the table, the teacher can make adjustments, clarify some wording, and provide additional information. Therefore, it is recommended to warn students in advance that it is necessary to leave space in each cell of the table to enter additional information not indicated in the textbook. In addition, it is possible for the teacher to prepare a table grid on the computer in advance, reproduce it and distribute it to each student. After completing the table, students paste or file it in their notebook. This is done to save time during the lesson.) III. Consolidation of knowledge and skills
- Answer the questions.
2. What is an organoid?
3. What plant cell organelles do you know?
4. What organelles do animal cells lack?
5. What is the difference between the cell membrane of animal and plant cells?
6. What is cytoplasm?
7. What is the main function of the kernel?
1. Repeat the material. (Textbook by I.N. Ponomareva § 7; textbook by V.V. Pasechnik § 1, 2.)
2. Draw the structure of a cell (from the textbook), label the main parts of the cell.
3. Using the material studied earlier, as well as the knowledge gained in the lesson and the text of the textbook, fill out the table “Comparison of animal and plant cells.”
Comparison sign Animal cell Plant cell 30 Section 2. Cellular structure of plants, plant substances Creative task. Make a plant cell from colored plasticine. It can be made both in volume and on a sheet of cardboard (on a plane).
An activity for students interested in biology. Recall literary works in which magnifying devices played an important role. Prepare a report on the history of the invention of the microscope and the history of the discovery of the cell.
Lesson 6. Introducing the structure of a microscope.
The structure of a plant cell Objectives: to introduce the device of a light microscope, teach how to use it, make a temporary preparation; make observations, draw conclusions, record and sketch the results.
Equipment and materials: everything necessary for practical work (see the text of the lesson).
Key words and concepts: see in the lesson text.
Lesson progress I. Teacher's introductory speech In the previous lesson, you learned that all organisms are made of cells, that a cell is the basic unit of living things. Today you will not only get acquainted with the structure of the microscope, learn how to use it, but also make some temporary preparations yourself and examine them.
You should always carry and rearrange the microscope using both hands.
You should hold the microscope by the tripod with one hand and the stand with the other.
The microscope should always be in a vertical position to prevent the eyepiece from falling out.
Place the microscope on the table with the tripod handle facing you at a distance of at least 10 cm from the edge of the table. If you place the microscope close to the edge, you may accidentally hit it and knock it over.
Lesson 6. Introduction to the microscope 31
Never touch the lenses with your fingers, as oil from your skin may attract dust, causing scratches on the lens.
Handle the cover slip and slide very carefully so that they do not break and you do not cut yourself.
II. Carrying out practical work Practical work 3. INTRODUCTION TO THE DEVICE
MICROSCOPE AND MASTERING TECHNIQUES
USING IT
Objectives: to introduce the structure of a light microscope;teach them how to use it, how to make a temporary drug.
Equipment: microscope, soft tissue, slide, cover glass, glass of water, pipette, filter paper, dissecting needle, piece of cotton wool, thread, hair or other objects for examination.
Key words and concepts: microscope, tripod, tube, eyepiece, objectives - small and large, revolving head, adjusting screws, stage, clamps, diaphragm, mirror, stand, microslide.
Progress
1. Examine the microscope. Look at the drawing of the microscope in the textbook (textbook by I.N. Ponomareva § 6; textbook by V.V. Pasechnik § 1) and find its main parts: tripod, tube, eyepiece, objectives - small and large, turret, adjusting screws, stage , clamps, diaphragm, mirror, stand. Familiarize yourself with the functions of each part of the microscope.
2. Find out how many times the object you are considering can be magnified. To do this, look at the numbers engraved on the eyepiece and objective and multiply them. For example, “7” is engraved on the eyepiece and “20” is engraved on the lens. Accordingly, 20 7 = 140. This means that the object under study will be magnified 140 times. What is the minimum and maximum magnification of your microscope? Fill the table.
Eyepiece Lens Magnification Total Minimum Maximum
3. Use a soft cloth to wipe the eyepiece lenses, objective and mirror of your microscope. Using a mirror, direct the light into the opening of the stage. Look through the eyepiece and make sure that the visual field is sufficiently illuminated.
32 Section 2. Cellular structure of plants, plant substances
4. Take a slide and cover glass and wipe them with a soft cloth. Place a drop of water on a glass slide and place a piece of cotton wool in it (you can also consider a piece of thread or human hair). Cover the top of the preparation with a cover slip so that there are no air bubbles left underneath. Blot with filter paper. Place the finished microslide on the stage so that the object under study is above the center of the hole. Use clamps to secure the slide to the stage.
5. Examine the microslide at low magnification. What values should the lens and eyepiece have in this case? Using the adjusting screw, find the position of the stage where your specimen will be most clearly visible. Be careful, as lifting the stage too high may crush the glass.
6. Examine the microslide at maximum magnification.
7. Sketch your microscopic specimen at minimum and maximum magnification. Don't forget to sign the name of the drug and the size of the object's enlargement.
Practical work 4. MANUFACTURING A MICROPREPARATION
THE PULP OF THE TOMATO FRUIT (WATERMELON), STUDYING IT
USING A LONGER
Objectives: consider the general appearance of a plant cell; learn to depict the examined microslide, continue to develop the skill of independently making microslides.Equipment: magnifying glass, soft cloth, slide, cover glass, glass of water, pipette, filter paper, dissecting needle, piece of watermelon or tomato.
Progress
1. Cut a tomato (or watermelon), use a dissecting needle to take a piece of pulp and place it on a glass slide, drop a drop of water with a pipette. Mash the pulp until you obtain a homogeneous paste. Cover the preparation with a coverslip. Remove excess water using filter paper.
2. Examine the preparation you made with a magnifying glass. You see a grainy structure. These are the cells.
3. Draw what you saw in your notebook. Label the drawing.
Don't forget to indicate at what magnification you viewed the drug.
4. Conclude that the pulp of a tomato (watermelon) fruit consists of cells, indicate the shape of these cells.
Practical work 5. STRUCTURE OF A CELL Lesson 6. Introduction to the structure of a microscope 33 Objectives: to consider the structure of a plant cell; learn to depict the examined microslide; continue to develop skills in independently making microspecimens and working with a microscope.
Equipment: microscope, soft tissue, slide, cover glass, glass with a weak iodine solution, pipette, filter paper, dissecting needle, bulb, ready-made preparation of Elodea (or Tradescantia) leaf.
Progress
1. Using a pipette, drop a drop of a weak iodine solution onto a glass slide. Using tweezers, remove a small piece of transparent skin from the lower surface of the onion scales and place it on a drop of iodine solution. Spread the skin with a dissecting needle. Cover the preparation with a coverslip and remove excess moisture.
2. Examine the preparation under a microscope. Find the cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, vacuole with cell sap in the cells.
3. Draw the structure of an onion skin cell in your notebook and label its main parts.
4. Examine the prepared preparation of an Elodea (or Tradescantia) leaf through a microscope. Find chloroplasts in the cell. What shape and color do they have?
5. Draw a cell of an Elodea leaf and label its main parts.
6. Draw a conclusion about the structure of the cells you saw. What organelles did you see in them and what did you not, how tightly do the cells fit together?
(A work option is possible when the class is divided into 2 groups, one of which performs laboratory work 4, and the other - work 5, after which the groups exchange the prepared drugs and do the work that they have not yet done.
This allows you to save lesson time, which is spent on making the drug.) III. Consolidation of knowledge and skills
- Answer the questions.
1. What is the light source in a microscope?
2. How does an image of an object at high magnification differ from an image at low magnification?
3. What is the minimum and maximum magnification of your microscope?
4. Why must an object viewed under a microscope be thin?
34 Section 2. Cellular structure of plants, plant substances
5. Why should slides and coverslips be held by the edges?
6. Why should a piece of filter paper only be used once?
7. Why do you need to place the microscope at a distance of 10 cm from the edge of the table?
8. What does the pulp of a tomato consist of?
9. What parts of the onion skin cell can be seen under a microscope?
10. What do chloroplasts look like in an Elodea leaf cell?
IV. Lesson summary Homework
1. Repeat the material. (Textbook by I.N. Ponomareva § 6; textbook by V.V. Pasechnik § 1, 2.)
2. Finish the preparation of practical work.
Cell division and growth Objectives: to develop the concept of a cell as a living unit; give an initial idea of the manifestations of cell activity; to form ideas about movement, respiration, nutrition, metabolism, growth and reproduction of plant cells.
Equipment and materials: tables: “Structure of a plant cell”, “Cell division”, excerpts from educational videos “Structure and life of a plant cell”, “Life processes of a cell”.
Key words and concepts: movement of the cytoplasm, response to changes in environmental conditions, nutrition, respiration, metabolism, selective membrane permeability, cell growth and division, mitosis, chromosomes, meiosis.
Lesson progress I. Updating knowledge
1. Testing practical skills Two students are given the task of setting the microscope to low magnification. (At this time, the teacher communicates with the class.) After 2-3 minutes, the teacher checks and evaluates the quality of the setting.
You can ask two other students to evaluate the quality of the setting, and then suggest setting the microscope to high magnification.
Lesson 7. Cell activity.
Cell division and growth 35
2. Testing theoretical knowledge
- Answer the questions.
1. Name the organelles of a plant cell.
2. What are the main differences in the structure of animal and plant cells?
3. What plastids do you know?
4. What is the function of chloroplasts?
5. What is the function of chromoplasts?
6. What is the function of leukoplasts?
7. Due to what properties of the cell membrane is exchange of substances between the cell and the environment, and contact between cells possible?
3. Biological dictation
– Fill in the missing word.
1. ... is the structural and functional unit of all living organisms.
2. All... are separated from each other by a plasmatic... - dense transparent shell. ... has a dense shell on the outer side - ..., consisting of fiber (...).
3. The living contents of the cell are represented by ... - a colorless viscous translucent substance.
4. Numerous... are located in the cytoplasm.
5. The most important organelle of the cell is….
6. It stores hereditary information and regulates metabolic processes inside the cell.
7. The core contains one or more….
8. There are three types of… in a plant cell.
9. ... are green, ... are red, and ... are white.
10. In old cells, cavities containing cell sap are clearly visible. These formations are called...
II. Studying new material Teacher's story with elements of conversation In the last lesson, you became convinced in practice that plants consist of cells by examining some cell organelles.
– Remember what cell organelles you saw.
– Prove that a cell is an independent living system.
– List the characteristics of a cell that are characteristic of living organisms.
All processes characteristic of living organisms occur in the cell. One of the important and most noticeable manifestations of cell life is the movement of the cytoplasm.
– What is the significance of this movement?
36 Section 2. Cellular structure of plants, plant substances Various chemical processes take place in the cytoplasm.
The movement of the cytoplasm ensures the transfer of nutrients to different parts of the cell. In addition, substances produced by the cell are removed into the vacuole.
(Here it is possible to demonstrate a video excerpt showing the movement of the cytoplasm and the dependence of the speed of movement on various factors.) In addition, the movement of the cytoplasm can be observed under a microscope in the cells of an elodea leaf. If you watch the cells for some time, you can notice circular movements of the chloroplasts directed along the cell membrane, allowing you to see the movement of colorless cytoplasm. The speed of cytoplasm movement depends on temperature, illumination, level of oxygen supply and other conditions. If the temperature increases or the drug is exposed to bright light, the speed of movement increases. As the temperature drops, the speed of movement decreases. This manifests the reaction of living cells to changing environmental conditions.
Cells feed, that is, they absorb various substances from the environment, and then, as a result of complex chemical reactions, these substances become part of the body of the cell itself.
The cell respires by taking in oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide.
Respiration is a complex chemical process that, as a result of the oxidation of nutrients, provides the cell with the energy necessary for vital processes.
The transformation of some substances into others inside the cell, the oxidation of nutrients with the release of energy using oxygen absorbed during respiration, the transformation of these substances into others suitable for further use by the cell, and the removal of unnecessary, “waste” substances are called metabolism. Metabolism is the main manifestation of the vital activity of the cell and the entire organism as a whole. During the metabolic process, some products are used by the cell, others are temporarily unnecessary and are deposited in the form of reserve nutrients, and still others are released into the external environment.
The movement of nutrients in the cell is facilitated by the movement of the cytoplasm. The entry of substances into the cell, the exchange of substances between cells and the removal of unnecessary metabolic products from the cell are possible due to one very important property of the cell membrane - selective membrane permeability.
The selective permeability of the cell membrane can be verified experimentally. To do this, you will need a cellophane bag about 5 cm in diameter with starch paste. Lesson 7. Cell activity. Cell division and growth 37 rum and a glass with a weak aqueous solution of iodine. (The material for making the bag can be packaging film from sausages or flowers. For experiments you will need cellophane, not polyethylene, since polyethylene does not allow water to pass through.) Place the bag of colorless starch paste in a glass with an aqueous solution of iodine. After 15–20 minutes, we take the bag out of the glass and see that the contents of the bag have turned purple. A reaction of starch with iodine occurred. Under the influence of iodine, starch turns purple. At the same time, the contents of the glass remained transparent and its color did not change. In this experiment, we clearly saw that the cell membrane (in this case, cellophane acts as a membrane) has the property of allowing water and minerals to pass through and prevents the release of organic substances (in this case, starch) from the cell.
Cells are able to grow. Cell growth occurs due to stretching of the membrane, as well as an increase in the vacuole. As the cell grows, small vacuoles merge into one large one. That is why in an old cell the vacuole occupies almost all the space.
The most important feature of cell life is the ability to divide. This is how cells multiply. Cell division is a complex process consisting of several stages.
– What cell organelle do you think plays the most important role in the process of division? (Student answers.) The nucleus plays an important role in the process of cell division.
– Why does this particular organelle play the most important role? (Because it is in the nucleus that all hereditary information is contained.) The process of cell division is called mitosis (from the Greek “mitos” - thread). During the process of mitosis, two daughter cells are formed from one mother cell. Moreover, all the genetic information of the daughter cells completely coincides with the genetic information of the mother cell, i.e. they are, as it were, a copy of the mother cell.
Mitosis is a complex process consisting of several stages.
1. The cell nucleus increases in size, chromosomes become visible in it. Chromosomes (from the Greek words “chromo” - color and “soma” - body) are special organelles, usually cylindrical in shape. They transmit hereditary characteristics from cell to cell.
2. Each chromosome is divided longitudinally into two equal halves, which diverge to opposite ends of the mother cell.
38 Section 2. Cellular structure of plants, plant substances
3. A nuclear membrane is formed around the separated chromosomes, each chromosome completes the missing half. The result is two daughter nuclei with the same number of chromosomes as in the mother cell.
4. A septum appears in the cytoplasm, and the cell is divided into two, each of which has its own nucleus.
In various plants, mitosis lasts 1–2 hours. As a result, two identical daughter cells are formed with the same set of chromosomes and the same hereditary information as in the mother cell. Young cells have thin cell walls, dense cytoplasm and large nuclei. The vacuoles in them are very small.
Cell division continues throughout the life of the plant. Thanks to cell division and growth, the growth of the plant itself occurs. Multicellular plants have special areas where cell division and growth occur constantly.
Mitosis was discovered and described by the Russian scientist I.D. Chistyakov in 1874 using the example of a plant cell. Animal cells can also reproduce through mitosis.
But there is another way of cell division. It's called meiosis. As a result of meiosis, not two, but four daughter cells are formed, each of which has only half the genetic information of the mother cell. It is through this process that differences between parents and offspring exist.
III. Consolidation of knowledge and skills
- Answer the questions.
1. Prove that the cell is a living organism.
2. What is the significance of the movement of cytoplasm in a cell?
3. What is metabolism?
4. Name one of the most important properties of the cell membrane.
5. What is the external difference between young and old cells?
6. What is mitosis?
7. Describe sequentially all stages of mitosis.
8. What is meiosis?
9. What is its significance?
IV. Lesson summary Homework
2. Draw a diagram of mitosis in a notebook and be able to explain its phases.
Lesson 8. Plant tissues 39 Creative task.
Make a diagram of the main phases of mitosis from plasticine on a sheet of cardboard.
An activity for students interested in biology. Prepare a report on the history of the study of cell division. Which scientists have made the greatest contributions to the study of this topic?
Lesson 8. Plant tissues Objectives: to systematize knowledge about the structure and life of a plant cell, the cellular structure of plants; to form ideas about plant tissues and their diversity, about the structure and functions of plant tissues.
Equipment and materials: table “Plant tissues”, relief tables: “Cellular structure of the root”, “Cellular structure of the leaf”, multi-colored cards with definitions for the game “Weakest Link”.
Key words and concepts: tissue, educational, integumentary (skin, cork, crust), basic (photosynthetic, storage, pneumatic), mechanical (supporting), conductive and excretory tissue.
Lesson progress I. Updating knowledge
– Define the following concepts.
Cell division, mitosis, meiosis, chromosomes, metabolism, selective permeability of the cell membrane.
– Fill in the missing word.
1. The process of cell division, as a result of which two daughter cells are formed from one mother cell and in which all the genetic information of the daughter cells completely coincides with the genetic information of the mother cell, is called ....
2. ... a complex process consisting of several stages.
3. ... the cell increases in size, and ... special organelles become noticeable, transmitting hereditary characteristics from cell to cell.
4. Each ... is divided longitudinally into two equal halves, which diverge to opposite ends of the mother ....
5. A nuclear shell is formed around the separated ..., each ... completes the missing half.
6. In ... a septum appears, and ... is divided into two daughter cells, with the same number of ... as in the mother cell.
40 Section 2. Cellular structure of plants, plant substances II. Studying new material Teacher's story with elements of conversation In previous lessons, we talked about the cell, its structure, and the functions of various organelles of the cell. You, of course, remember that each cell organelle has its own functions.
– What is the function of the cell nucleus? cell membrane? chloroplasts?
– What is a plant organ?
Each of the plant organs has its own functions.
– What are the functions of the root? plant stem? sheet?
The differentiation of various parts of a plant into organs appeared due to the need for plants to adapt to a terrestrial lifestyle. (Lower plants living in an aquatic environment did not have such a need.) All organs consist of cells of different structures. The cells are not randomly located, but are collected into separate complexes (groups) that perform specific functions. Just as the cell membrane protects the cell from the influence of the external environment, so the thin film on the surface of a leaf or stem performs a protective function. Such homogeneous groups of cells that perform specific tasks are called tissues. Write the definition in your notebook: tissue is a group of cells that are similar in structure, origin and perform certain functions.
(Students write down the definition.) The science that studies tissue is called histology. Its founders were the Italian scientist M. Malpighi and the English scientist N. Grew. It was the last one in 1671.
proposed this term.
There are five main types of tissues: educational, integumentary, basic, mechanical and conductive. Based on the names, it is easy to guess what functions this or that fabric performs.
– What do you think is the function of educational tissue?
(Student answers.) Due to the educational tissue, the growth and formation of new plant organs occurs. Since a plant, unlike animals, grows throughout its life, educational tissues are located in different places of the plant.
– What are the functions of the integumentary tissue? (Student answers.) The main purpose of the covering tissue is to protect the plant from drying out and other adverse environmental influences.
Lesson 8. Plant tissues 41 The main tissues are those that make up the bulk of the various organs of the plant.
– For example, what are the main functions of a green leaf? (Photosynthesis.) The main tissue of the leaf will be photosynthetic.
– What are the main functions of root vegetables such as carrots, beets, and potato tubers? (Storage of nutrients.) The main tissue of these organs will be storage.
Mechanical tissue cells act as the skeleton of the plant. They form the skeleton that supports all the organs of the plant.
– What are the functions of conductive tissue? (Student answers.) Thanks to this tissue, various substances move (conduct) inside the plant, for example, water and minerals absorbed by the roots to the above-ground parts of the plant, as well as organic substances formed in the leaves to other organs of the plant.
III. Consolidation of knowledge and skills
1. Students’ independent work with the textbook
– Using the text of the textbook (textbook by I.N. Ponomareva § 9, textbook by V.V. Pasechnik § 4) and the material studied in the lesson, fill out the table yourself.
Tissue Structure Functions Location Structure - Young cells, non- cell division, Apex - large in size, plant growth, root, stem body - with thin membranes, formation of new ones (cone growing and large nuclei, organs), cambium tightly adjacent to each other, capable of constant division. Performs protective functions. Integument:
Co- Consists of one layer Reducing waste- Stems and lysum tightly adjacent rhenium and regulation of young cells of gas exchange of plants, fruits, seeds, flower parts Sample- Several rows of dense- Protection against loss of Annual can but adjacent to each other moisture, fluctuations shoots trees to each other dead cells, temperature, and bushes filled with air pathogenic bacteria 42 Section 2. Cellular structure of plants, plant substances
– – –
(The table is drawn on the board in advance or distributed in printed form. The teacher fills out only the first column so that students do not forget any of the fabrics. About 10 minutes are allotted to fill out the table.) Fabrics not only perform their functions, but also closely interact with each other friend, ensuring the life and development of the plant.
2. Frontal survey
- Answer the questions.
1. What is fabric?
2. What types of fabrics do you know?
3. Which scientist introduced this term?
4. What are the main functions of mechanical tissue?
5. How does a person use the features of a plant’s excretory tissue?
3. Game “Weak Link”
The teacher prepares cards with definitions of fabrics in advance.
The red card describes the structure of the tissue, the yellow card describes the location, and the green card describes the functions of the tissue.
This set is prepared for each type of fabric. The cards are shuffled and placed in three piles by color.
The class is divided into three teams (for example, in rows). A representative from each team takes turns taking one card of any color and trying to determine what fabric is being talked about. If he succeeds, the team receives one point for answering a green card, two points for answering a yellow card, and three points for answering a red card. The task is read aloud, the student gives the answer independently. Each time the team introduces a new player. The team's task is to have the correct strategy for distributing issues. If a player cannot answer a question, the team whose players raised their hands first answers it. Those who score the most points win.
The game can be complicated by introducing a fourth category of cards (for example, blue), on which there will be not a description, but an image 44 Section 2. Cellular structure of plants, plant tissue substances. Answers to the questions on these cards are worth four points.
Thus, in a playful way, you can evaluate the knowledge of each student, and the number of question cards gives everyone the opportunity to speak.
IV. Summing up the lesson Homework Read the paragraph, know the basic concepts, be able to distinguish different types of fabrics by characteristics and by image. (Textbook by I.N. Ponomareva § 9; textbook by V.V. Pasechnik § 4.) Creative task. Think about in what areas of his activity a person uses substances secreted by plants. Which plant tissues are used by humans?
An activity for students interested in biology. Recall the structure of onion skin and tomato pulp (practical work 3–5). What tissues form these plant structures?
Lesson 9. Chemical composition of a cell Objectives: to form a concept about the chemical composition of a cell;
give an idea of organic and inorganic substances.
Equipment: table D.I. Mendeleev, half a potato, pipette, iodine solution, electronic scales, alcohol lamp, cabbage (lettuce) leaves, oilseeds, a sheet of white paper, cards with biological terms and a chess clock for the game “Explainers”, or “Understand Me”.
Key words and concepts: chemical composition, chemical element, substance, organic and inorganic (mineral) substances, mineral salts, proteins, fats, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, fiber (cellulose), starch, sugar.
– – –
5. The founders of the doctrine of fabrics were the Italian M. Malpighi and the Englishman N. Grew.
6. Each tissue functions independently and does not interact with other tissues.
7. Photosynthetic tissue is located mainly in the roots of plants.
8. Conducting tissue is represented mainly by vessels consisting of dead cells and living sieve cells.
9. Cork protects the plant from moisture loss, temperature changes, and pathogenic bacteria.
10. The skin consists of one layer of cells tightly adjacent to each other.
11. The crust consists of a single layer of living cells with large intercellular spaces.
12. Air-bearing tissue is located mainly in the leaves of green plants.
13. Tissues can consist of both living and dead cells.
14. The main tissue of a green leaf is photosynthetic.
15. Aerial tissue is located in the underwater organs of aquatic and marsh plants, in aerial roots.
- Answer the questions.
1. What is the name of the science that studies tissue?
2. What is fabric? Give a definition.
3. What is the significance of cell specialization for a multicellular organism?
4. What types of tissues are found in plants?
5. Give examples of tissues consisting of living cells.
6. Give examples of tissues consisting of dead cells.
7. In what parts of the plant is the educational tissue located?
8. What tissue provides support for the plant?
II. Studying new material Teacher's story with elements of conversation You and I have repeatedly said that all living organisms consist of cells. In addition, the cell structure of all organisms is similar.
– What organelles make up most living cells?
– And what organelles can only be part of plant cells?
In addition to the similarity in structure, all cells also have a similar chemical composition. You've probably heard more than once that a person is 70% water. In plant cells, water also averages about 50–80%.
46 Section 2. Cellular structure of plants, plant substances The substances that make up a cell are very diverse.
Of the 109 chemical elements found in nature, more than 70 are included in living cells. But most chemical elements are found in a cell (as in nature in general) not in the form of individual atoms (for example, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon), but in the form of substances – compounds of several atoms. Most likely, you are familiar with the chemical formula of water. That's right, H2O, this is the formula for water - the most common substance in a living cell.
All cell substances can be divided into organic and inorganic (mineral).
– Remember from your natural history course which substances are classified as inorganic. (Inorganic substances are water and mineral salts.) Water is necessary for the normal functioning of metabolic reactions in a cell and can account for up to 60–90% of its total mass.
In order to measure the amount of water in a plant, we will conduct the following experiment. Take fresh cabbage (or lettuce) leaves, weigh them on an electronic scale, then dry them, and then weigh them again. If you calculate the difference and express it as a percentage, it turns out that cabbage leaves contain almost 90% water. Having done the same experiment with lilac or birch branches, we make sure that they contain about 40–50% water.
Mineral salts make up only about 1% of the cell's mass, but their importance is very large. They are necessary for normal metabolism between the cell and the environment and are part of the intercellular substance. Most often found in plant cells are compounds of nitrogen, phosphorus, sodium, potassium, calcium and other elements. Some plants are capable of actively accumulating various minerals. For example, seaweed contains a lot of iodine, so people who are deficient in this element are recommended to eat seaweed. For some plants, it is possible to predict the content of chemical elements in the soil. Such plants are called indicator plants. For example, buttercups grow in places where the soil is rich in lithium, and, accordingly, accumulate this element in their cells.
– What substances are called organic? (Student answers.) Organic substances are compounds of carbon with other chemical elements (most often hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, etc.).
– Where do you think the name “organic” came from? (Student answers.) Lesson 9. Chemical composition of the cell 47 Organic substances are contained or produced by living organisms. Organic substances include glucose, sucrose, starch, rubber, cellulose, acetic acid, etc.
In total there are about 10 million such substances.
– What do you think there are more substances in a cell – organic or mineral? (Students express their guesses.) Let's do an experiment: take dried cabbage leaves, weigh them, and then set them on fire. After combustion, ash remains - these are mineral substances that were contained in the cells of cabbage leaves. Only organic matter burns. If you weigh them, it turns out that minerals make up no more than 15% of the dry matter mass of the cell. When firewood burns in a stove or fire, the mass of ash that remains after its combustion is significantly less than the mass of the firewood itself. This once again confirms that there are much more organic substances in plant cells than inorganic ones.
The most common organic substances are proteins, fats and carbohydrates, as well as nucleic acids.
Proteins can make up up to 50% of the dry mass of a cell.
– What associations do you have when you hear the word “protein”? (Student answers.) Proteins are very complex compounds that participate in the formation of the nucleus, cytoplasm of a cell, and its organelles. Proteins are found in all plant organs, but seeds contain them most. For example, the seeds of some legumes contain almost as much protein as meat, and sometimes even more.
The thing is that proteins are stored in seeds in reserve as food for the future young plant. Plant proteins are very important for adequate human nutrition, especially for young developing organisms, as well as for people who, for some reason, do not eat meat.
Fats in plant cells serve as a reserve source of energy, and are also part of cell membranes and nuclear membranes. You all know the importance of fats for animals. For example, a camel is capable of storing fat in its humps, and then not eating or drinking for a long time, using up these reserves.
What do we mean by the phrase “vegetable oil”? Most often we mean sunflower oil.
– What other plants do you get oil from? (From flax, olives, soybeans, cotton, peanuts, etc.) Remember the fairy tale about Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves: Ali Baba's brother Kasim, locked in the Sim-Sim cave, lists oilseeds. There are quite a lot of such plants.
48 Section 2. Cellular structure of plants, plant substances
– In what parts of plants do fats accumulate? (The seeds contain the most fat.)
– Remember from which parts of the sunflower the oil is squeezed out. (From seeds.)
– Why do you think fats are found in plant seeds? (Student answers.) For the same reason as squirrels: to provide energy to a young plant.
Let's do an experiment: take a sunflower seed, peel it and press it firmly onto a sheet of white paper. A greasy stain forms at this place, therefore, sunflower seeds are rich in fats.
Carbohydrates also play an important role in the structure of the plant. In plants, carbohydrates are most often found in the form of starch, sugar, and fiber. The main role of carbohydrates is energy, but they also perform a construction function: cellulose in the cell wall is nothing more than carbohydrates. Starch is found in large quantities in potato tubers. In old potatoes it can be up to 80%. There is a lot of it in flour. It can also be deposited in the roots, trunks of trees, and in the fruits of some plants, such as bananas.
Let's conduct an experiment: take half a potato and drop a drop of iodine on it. The potato will turn blue - this is a reaction of starch to iodine. When it comes into contact with iodine, starch turns blue, therefore, the potato tuber contains starch.
We can detect sugar in various parts of the plant even without chemical reactions – by taste. Sugar can be found in the roots of plants - for example, the roots of carrots and beets are sweet. But most often we find sugar in various fruits: watermelon, melon, apples, pears, grapes, etc.
– Where does the sugar that we put in tea come from? (Student answers.) It is obtained from sugar beets or sugar cane.
These plants are rich in sugars.
Fiber, or cellulose, gives strength and elasticity to various parts of plants.
– Remember which part of the plant cell contains cellulose. (Student answers.) Indeed, cellulose is found in the walls of plant cells.
– Remember whether there is fiber in animal cells. (Student answers.) Fiber is present only in plant cells. This is one of the differences between plant cells and animal cells. It is the whole Lesson 9. Chemical composition of a cell 49 that we use lulose in wood construction, in the manufacture of paper, cotton and linen fabrics.
Nucleic acids (from the Latin “nucleus” - nucleus) are located in the cell nucleus, are part of chromosomes, are responsible for the transmission of hereditary characteristics from parents to descendants, as well as for storing hereditary information. In addition, they are involved in protein biosynthesis (production).
We talked about how plants are composed mainly of organic matter and water. Organic substances are very important for a plant, but without inorganic substances the plant could not exist.
III. Consolidation of knowledge and skills
1. Frontal survey
- Answer the questions.
1. What is a substance?
2. Why do plant cells need water?
3. Why do plants need organic matter?
4. Why do plant cells need inorganic substances?
5. Which parts of plants most often contain large amounts of sugars?
6. Why do plants need fiber (cellulose)?
7. What parts of the cell contain cellulose?
8. Which parts of plants contain large amounts of fat?
9. Why do plants store proteins and fats in seeds?
10. Which plant seeds are richest in proteins?
2. Game “Explainers”, or “Understand Me”
The game can be carried out both on individual topics and on the entire material studied (at the discretion of the teacher). The teacher prepares cards with biological terms on the chosen topic in advance. To play you will also need a chess clock.
The class is divided into two teams. It is decided by lot which team starts the game first. On a chess clock, both dials are set to the same time (for example, 5 minutes).
A player from one of the teams comes to the table and takes a card. At this moment the teacher presses the clock button. From this moment the countdown begins for the team that started the game.
The player’s task is to explain to the players of his team as quickly and clearly as possible the biological term indicated on the card. The word itself or words with the same root cannot be pronounced.
50 Section 3. Seed The team's task is to understand what the term is as quickly as possible and say it out loud. As soon as the team says the word written on the card, the teacher presses the clock button and gives a signal to the opposing team. From this moment the countdown begins for the second team.
Teams take turns showing the words on the cards. Each time a new player shows the word. The losers are those whose flag on the chess clock falls earlier, i.e., the time scheduled for the game expires faster. It must be remembered that the actual game time is twice as long as the one set on the clock at the beginning of the game, since the time on the two dials is counted alternately.
Instead of a chess clock, you can use two stopwatches, stopping them alternately (but the stopwatches will be difficult for students to see, so the chess clock is more visual).
In this case, the game stops when the time on the stopwatch of one of the teams exceeds the pre-agreed time - 5 minutes.
IV. Lesson summary Homework
1. Read the paragraph, know the basic concepts, answer the questions at the end of the paragraph. (Due to the fact that this topic is not covered in the textbook by I.N. Ponomareva, instead of reading a paragraph, students can be offered work with additional literature; textbook by V.V. Pasechnik § 32.)
2. Find information on the content of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates on the labels of various food products of plant origin. Find out which foods are richest in these substances.
Creative task. Prepare a report on the human use of various oilseeds.
An activity for students interested in biology. Think and list in which branches of his activity a person uses various substances of plant cells.
– – –
Equipment and materials: tables: “Structure and germination of bean seeds”, “Structure and germination of wheat seeds”, herbariums of beans and wheat, collection of seeds of monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants, model of wheat grain; dry and soaked bean seeds (one for each student or per desk), dry and soaked wheat grains, a permanent preparation “Longitudinal section of a wheat grain” (one for each student or per desk), magnifying glasses, tweezers, dissecting needles, scalpels ( one for each student or per desk).
Key words and concepts: seed, monocotyledonous plants, dicotyledonous plants, embryo, scutellum, endosperm, cotyledon, seed coat, hilum, embryonic root, embryonic stalk, bud, spermatic opening.
Lesson progress I. Updating knowledge
- Answer the questions.
1. What substances are classified as inorganic?
2. What substances are classified as organic?
3. What is the function of water in cells?
4. Describe an experiment that reveals the amount of water in plant cells.
5. What substances (organic or inorganic) are contained more in the dry matter of plant cells?
6. Describe an experience that proves this.
7. Which parts of plants contain large amounts of protein and fat?
8. Why do plants store proteins and fats in seeds?
9. Which plant seeds are richest in proteins?
– Define the concepts.
Substance, organic matter, inorganic matter, proteins, fats, carbohydrates, nucleic acids.
II. Learning new material
1. Conversation In this lesson we will begin to study a new section.
In the near future we will talk about the organs of flowering plants.
– Remember what an organ is.
– What organs of flowering plants do you know?
– Which organs are classified as vegetative?
– Which organs are classified as generative?
52 Section 3: Seed In this lesson we begin to study the seed.
– Remember what the main function of seeds is.
– Which plants have seeds?
– Which higher plants do not have seeds?
– How do they reproduce?
– First, let’s try to define a seed.
A seed is an organ designed for the reproduction and distribution of seed plants. In fact, this is the embryo of the future plant. If conditions for growth are unfavorable, this embryo may remain dormant for a long time, that is, it will not germinate. We use this property when we store the seeds of any plants for several years. But when we place seeds in the ground, they find favorable conditions for development and germinate.
But plant seeds are so different! Remember what pea and bean seeds look like.
– What size are they?
– Which seeds are smaller?
- Well, what about very small seeds?
– Remember the well-established expression about poppy seeds, when we say that we haven’t eaten anything today. (There was no poppy dew in my mouth.) The seeds of some plants, such as the lady's slipper orchid, can weigh only millionths of a gram.
– Do you have any idea what this number is? Who can write it on the board?
And some can weigh up to two kilograms, such as Seychelles palm seeds. Seeds can also be used as a weight standard for, for example, jewelry.
– What units of measurement are we talking about? (About carats.) And what different shapes the seeds can have!
(The teacher accompanies his story with a demonstration of seeds from the collections).
– Remember what shape the seeds of apples and pears have.
– Which plant seeds have a similar shape?
– What is the shape of the ball? (Peas, cherries.)
– Some seeds have special hooks, like those of string and burdock. What do they need them for? (To attach to animals and thus move to new habitats.) Some plants have downy growths on their seeds.
– Which plants have hairy seeds? (In dandelion, cotton.) Lesson 10. Structure of seeds 53
– Why do the seeds of these plants need such specific adaptations? (The seeds of these plants are dispersed by the wind.) The seeds of some plants have special wings, such as the seeds of maple and ash.
– Why do seeds need them? (To be spread by wind.) Consider a bean seed. It is most suitable for our purposes because of its size, and also because it is familiar to everyone.
2. Carrying out practical work Practical work 6. EXTERNAL BUILDING
BEAN SEEDS
Objectives: to consider the external structure of a bean seed; find the main elements of the external structure of a bean seed; continue to develop the skill of performing biological drawings.Equipment: dry and soaked bean seeds of different colors (one for each student or on the desk), magnifying glass, dissecting needle, tweezers (one for each student or on the desk).
Progress
1. Examine the seeds with the naked eye and with a magnifying glass. Find the hilum - the place where the seed is attached to the wall of the fruit. Nearby, find the spermatic opening - the hole through which water and air penetrate into the seed (the spermatic entrance is best viewed through a magnifying glass). Find the outline of the embryonic root emerging through the seed coat.
2. Draw the external structure of the seed from the hilum side and label its main parts.
3. What color are the bean seeds lying on your table? What part of the seed is colored? Do you think the color of the bean seed coat has any biological significance?
4. Try removing the seed coat from an unsoaked bean seed. Did you succeed? Now take the soaked bean seeds. How does the seed coat of soaked seeds differ from that of dry seeds? Try removing the seed coat from a soaked bean seed. How easy did you make it?
5. Draw a conclusion about the functions of the seed coat. What features of the seed coat did you discover and what is the significance of these features?
(The teacher makes a conclusion.) 54 Section 3. Seed Despite external differences, the seeds of all plants have similarities in their internal structure, which is explained by the functions of the seeds. Inside the seed, under the skin, is the embryo of a new plant. In some plants the embryo is large and can be easily seen by removing the seed skin, for example, beans, peas, melon, and apples. If we remove the seed coat from the seeds of these plants, we will see that the seed has split into two halves. These are two cotyledons - the future first leaves of a new plant. Plants whose seeds have two cotyledons are called dicotyledons.
Now let's look at the internal structure of a bean seed.
Practical work 7. STRUCTURE OF SEEDS
DICOTOUS PLANTS
Objectives: to show the structural features of seeds of dicotyledonous plants; continue to develop the skill of performing biological drawings.Equipment: soaked bean seeds (one for each student or per desk), magnifying glasses, tweezers, dissecting needles, scalpels (one for each student or per desk).
Progress
1. Take a soaked bean seed. Carefully remove the seed coat. You see an embryo consisting of two cotyledons - the first embryonic leaves. How many cotyledons do you see? The cotyledons of a bean seed are so massive because they contain a supply of nutrients for the future plant. Find the embryonic root and the embryonic stalk. Examine them with a magnifying glass.
2. Gently push the cotyledons apart. Find the bud, which is located at the top of the embryonic stalk. Find the rudimentary leaves on the bud.
3. Draw the embryo and label its parts.
4. Conclude that the embryo has the same vegetative organs as an adult plant, as well as that beans belong to dicotyledonous plants, prove this.
(The teacher draws a conclusion.) But not all dicotyledonous plants have the same structure. For example, pepper or tomato seeds have a special storage tissue - endosperm (from the Greek words “endo” - inside and “sperm” - seed). It occupies most of the seed and surrounds the thin cotyledons. In the seeds of pepper, tomato, eggplant, linden, carrot, violet, poppy, lilac, the endosperm occupies most of the seed, which is why the cotyledons of these plants are so large. In sunflower, pumpkin, melon, oak, peas, beans, reserve substances are located directly in the cotyledons, and endosperm is practically absent.
Their cotyledons are large, fleshy, and therefore clearly visible.
We got acquainted with plants whose seeds contain two cotyledons, but there are also those whose seeds have one cotyledon.
Such plants are called monocots. Monocots include: rye, wheat, corn, onion, iris, lily of the valley, chastukha.
Let us consider the structure of the seed of a monocot using the example of a wheat seed.
Practical work 8. STRUCTURE OF SEEDS
MONOCOT PLANTS
Objectives: to show the structural features of seeds of monocots; compare the structure of seeds of monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants; continue to develop the skill of performing biological drawings.Equipment: dry and soaked wheat grains (one for each student or per desk), a permanent preparation “Longitudinal section of a wheat grain,” dry and soaked bean seeds (one for each student or per desk), magnifying glasses, tweezers, dissecting needles, scalpels (one for each student or per desk).
Progress
1. Study and sketch the external structure of a wheat grain. What common features have you discovered in the external structure of a wheat grain and the external structure of a bean seed?
2. Try removing the cover from a wheat seed. Did you succeed? Why?
3. Carefully cut the soaked grain with a scalpel (you can distribute already cut seeds to avoid the risk associated with working with sharp objects). Consider the internal structure of a wheat grain.
4. Using a magnifying glass, examine the preparation “Longitudinal section of a wheat grain.” Find the endosperm on the preparation and on the cut grain (it occupies most of the seed); identify the embryo, consider the embryonic root, embryonic stalk, bud and cotyledon (scutellum). Draw the internal structure of a grain of wheat and label its main parts.
5. Draw a conclusion about the similarities and differences in the external and internal structure of dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous plants using the example of a bean seed and a grain of wheat.
III. Consolidation of knowledge and skills
- Answer the questions.
1. What is a seed?
56 Section 3. Seed
2. What organs does the seed belong to - vegetative or generative?
3. What adaptations do seeds have for spreading?
4. Which plant seeds are dispersed by the wind?
5. What devices do they have for this?
6. What adaptations might seeds have for dispersal by animals?
7. Why do bean seeds need a thick seed coat?
8. Which plants are called monocotyledons and which ones are called dicots? Give examples of these plants.
9. What common structural features can be identified in monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants?
10. What is endosperm?
11. Which plant seeds have it and which do not? Give examples.
12. Why is the cotyledon of wheat called a scutellum?
– Fill in the missing word.
1. Seed... plant organ.
2. ... serves for the propagation and distribution of plants.
3. The hole through which water and air enter the seed is called....
4. The mark from the place of attachment of the seed to the wall of the fruit is called....
5. The root of the future plant develops from..., and the stem from....
6. At the top of the embryonic stalk you can see….
7. Sometimes you can see rudimentary...
8. The kidney is represented by... tissue.
9. The seeds of some plants contain special educational tissue....
IV. Lesson summary Homework
2. Using the material studied in class and additional information from various sources, fill out the table.
What parts does the seed consist of? Type of seeds Examples: Dicotyledons with endosperm Dicotyledons without endosperm Monocots Lesson 11. Conditions for seed germination 57 Creative task. Remember in which fairy tales there is a mention of seeds. What kind of seeds are these - monocotyledons or dicotyledons?
Assignments for students interested in biology.
1. Prepare a short report on various methods of seed dispersal, give examples, sketch the most interesting seeds.
2. Prepare reports on the topics: “Seed germination after exposure to low temperatures”, “Seed germination after exposure to high temperatures (fires)”, “Seed germination after passing through the digestive system of animals and birds”.
Lesson 11. Conditions for seed germination Objectives: to give an idea of the conditions for seed germination, the dependence of germination on environmental factors (temperature, humidity, air), the correct sowing of seeds, the growth and nutrition of seedlings, the dependence of the depth of seeding on their size and soil properties; show the practical importance of knowledge about the conditions of seed germination.
Equipment and materials: collections of seeds, dry and sprouted seeds, plant sprouts, results of experiments indicating the need for water, air, a certain temperature for seed germination; tables depicting experiments revealing the significance of various conditions for seed germination.
Key words and concepts: conditions for seed germination, need for water, oxygen, a certain temperature; dormant period, seed germination, seedling; cold-resistant and heat-loving plants; seed placement depth, aboveground seed germination, underground seed germination.
– – –
6. The spermatic opening is a small hole in the seed coat through which gas exchange occurs.
7. Endosperm is a special storage tissue of the plant.
8. Endosperm is present in the seeds of all plants.
9. Seeds of dicotyledonous plants do not have endosperm.
10. Beans are dicotyledonous plants.
11. Most of the seed of a wheat grain is occupied by the embryo.
12. The cotyledons of a bean seed are the first embryonic leaves of the future plant.
II. Learning new material
1. Teacher’s story with elements of conversation
– Remember what the main function of seeds is. (Distribution and propagation of plants.)
– What are the main ways of seed dispersal? (Students' answers.)
– Who found information about the original methods of plant propagation? (Students answer and give examples.) A seed is, first of all, the embryo of a future plant. In order to give life to a new plant, the seed must germinate, and the young sprout that appears is called a seedling.
– What needs to be done for the seed to germinate? (To do this, you need to place the seeds in a moist environment.)
– Remember how dry seeds differ from each other and those that have lain for some time in a humid environment. (Seeds swell in a humid environment.)
– What allows moisture to penetrate inside the seeds? (Thanks to a special hole - the spermatic opening.) But any seeds swell - both living and non-living. Remember, for example, how buckwheat or rice swells when you cook them. It is recommended to soak peas, beans or lentils before cooking. But most of these seeds will never germinate even if you plant them in soil, because for a seed to germinate, the embryo inside the seed must be alive. The embryo can die from overheating, hypothermia, mechanical processing, insect activity, as well as from long-term storage.
The ability of seeds to germinate is called germination.
Seeds with a dead embryo lose their viability. Seed germination can be calculated. To do this, take 100 pea seeds and place them in conditions favorable for germination. After 3-4 days, we’ll see how many seeds have sprouted and write down the result.
After 10 days, let's look at our seeds again, count the number of sprouted seeds and express this number as a percentage Lesson 11. Conditions for seed germination 59 of the total number of seeds. The resulting percentage will be an indicator of seed germination. Try this experiment at home. (The teacher can prepare this experiment 8–10 days in advance, and demonstrate its results and give an explanation during the lesson.) Before germination, the embryo in the seed is at rest.
The seeds can remain in this state from several days to several years. The embryos in lemon seeds remain viable for 9 months after ripening, coffee - 1.5 years, pumpkin and cucumber - 10 years, some weeds - 50-80 years.
There are cases where seeds germinate after hundreds of years, having lain in conditions that did not lead to the death of the embryo. Lotus seeds discovered in peat bogs sprouted after two thousand years!
And the seeds of the arctic lupine legume plant found in permafrost in Alaska sprouted after 10,000 years! During the dormant period, the embryo is protected from adverse effects.
– What protects the embryo during this period? (Student answers.) Seed dormancy is a device that protects them from germination during unfavorable seasons of the year.
– What conditions are necessary for seed germination? (Students make guesses.) To germinate, seeds need water, air and a certain temperature.
2. Students’ independent work with the textbook
– Using the text of the textbook (textbook by I.N. Ponomareva § 11; textbook by V.V. Pasechnik § 38), list the conditions necessary for seed germination and explain the meaning of each. Describe the experiments that prove the need for them.
(If possible, it is better to conduct experiments in class.
If the experiment is designed for several days, then during the lesson it is better to demonstrate its results and explain the conditions orally.)
EXPERIENCE PROVING THE NECESSITY OF WATER
AND AIR FOR SEED GERMINATION
Equipment: three wide test tubes (or other convenient containers), pea or bean seeds (you can take wheat or corn grains), water.Progress of the experiment
1. Place pea or bean seeds in three wide test tubes.
60 Section 3. Seed
2. Leave the seeds in one of the test tubes dry (there is air, but no moisture), pour a little water into another test tube so that it partially covers the seeds (there is air and moisture), fill the third with water to the brim (there is enough moisture, but not air).
3. Cover the test tubes with glass and place them in a warm place.
4. After 5-6 days we will evaluate the result.
Bottom line. The seeds in the dry test tube did not germinate (remained unchanged); in a test tube filled to the top with water, they swelled, but did not germinate; partially flooded with water swelled and sprouted.
Conclusion. Seeds need water and air to germinate.
Water is necessary because the embryo can only consume dissolved nutrients. Due to the water penetrating the seed, the nutrients found in the endosperm and cotyledons become soluble and become available to the embryo.
– Taste dry and sprouted grains of wheat.
What difference did you notice?
Dry grains will be starchy, while sprouted grains will be sweet. It is under the influence of water that the insoluble nutrients of the seed (starch) become soluble (sugar). Sugar dissolves well in water and can penetrate into all growing parts. Accordingly, seeds germinate better in moist soil. But when the soil is overly wet, water occupies all the pores and displaces air, so the seeds will rot because they will not have the opportunity to breathe.
EXPERIENCE PROVING THAT SEEDS GERMINATE
ACTIVELY CONSUME OXYGEN (BREATHE)
Equipment: two glass jars with lids, sprouted pea seeds (or beans, wheat, oats).Progress of the experiment
1. Take two glass jars. We will put sprouted seeds in one of them, and leave the other empty.
2. Close both jars tightly with lids and place in a dark, warm place.
3. In a day we will evaluate the result.
Bottom line. Let's first open an empty jar and put a lit candle in it - the candle continues to burn. Let's open a jar of sprouted seeds and put a burning candle in there - the candle goes out.
Conclusion. In an empty can, the composition of the air has remained virtually unchanged; it contains enough oxygen necessary for the combustion process. In a jar with sprouted seeds, the candle does not burn, since the germinating seeds have used up all the oxygen in the air for respiration, releasing carbon dioxide.
(It is necessary to remind that oxygen supports combustion, but carbon dioxide does not, and also to draw students’ attention to the fact that not only germinating, but also any living seeds breathe, their breathing is just less pronounced at rest.) But besides water and air , germinating seeds need a certain temperature, and it differs for different plants.
For example, wheat and rye are able to germinate at +1...+3 °C, so these plants are sown in early spring after the snow melts, and carrots and corn germinate at +7...+9 °C. Plants whose seeds germinate at low temperatures are called cold-resistant. For most plants in the middle zone, the optimal temperature for germination is +10…+15 °C. But there are also those that germinate at temperatures not lower than +20...+25 °C. Plants that require higher temperatures to germinate are called thermophilic.
EXPERIENCE TO PROVE THE NEED
CERTAIN TEMPERATURE
FOR SEED GERMINATION
Equipment: two test tubes or Petri dishes, pea seeds or other large seeds, refrigerator.Progress of the experiment
1. Place pea seeds in two test tubes and pour in a small amount of water (so that it slightly covers the seeds, but leaves access to air).
2. Place one test tube in a dark, warm (+18...+20 °C) place, and the other in the refrigerator.
3. After 5-6 days we will evaluate the result.
Bottom line. Seeds that were kept warm sprouted, but those kept in the refrigerator did not.
Conclusion. A certain temperature is required for seeds to germinate.
Some plant seeds require special conditions to germinate.
(Here you can involve students in the work. To do this, in the previous lesson, several students (optional) are given the task of preparing a report on the special conditions of seed germination. During the lesson, for 2-3 minutes they present the information that they managed to find. After this, the teacher adds student story.) 62 Section 3. Seed The seed embryos of many plants in the middle zone, for example, some varieties of barley and wheat, are able to germinate only after exposure to low temperatures.
– What do you think is the reason for this property of seeds?
(Student responses.) This feature protects temperate climate plants from germinating in the fall, otherwise they might die in winter.
But plants such as blueberries, lingonberries, strawberries, and rowan require passage through the digestive system of birds or animals, where, under the action of gastric juice, the seed coat becomes thinner and is able to allow moisture to pass into the seed.
– Why do you think plants need such a complex adaptation? (Student answers.) This is a device for dispersing seeds.
– What should be the fruits of plants whose seeds are distributed in this way? (Student answers.) Of course, they must be attractive to the taste of animals. But there are even more interesting adaptations for seed germination under certain conditions. For example, in North America, there are entire communities of plants that germinate only after being exposed to high temperatures.
Fires occur quite often in these areas, as a result of which the seed coat disintegrates. During a fire, living space is also freed up, which can be occupied by young plants.
Knowing what exactly is needed for the germination of certain plants, a person creates all the necessary conditions for the successful development of seeds and, accordingly, obtaining a larger harvest.
– How deep should seeds be immersed in the soil?
(Student answers.) If they are placed shallowly, they will dry out, and if they are buried too deeply, then they (especially small ones) will not have enough strength to break through a thick layer of soil. In general, the following rule can be derived: larger seeds must be placed at a greater depth, and small ones – shallowly, so that they have enough strength to push apart the lumps of earth and release the young shoot to the surface.
Small seeds, such as onions, carrots, poppy seeds, lettuce, celery, should be sown at a depth of 1–2 cm; larger ones - cucumbers, radishes, tomatoes, beets - are planted to a depth of 2–4 cm; large ones - seeds of peas, beans, beans, pumpkin - must be placed at a depth of 4-5 cm, otherwise they will not have enough moisture.
Lesson 11. Conditions for seed germination 63
EXPERIENCE SHOWING THE POWER OF SEED Swelling,
I.E. THE FORCE WITH WHICH THEY SPREAD THE PARTICLES
SOILS DURING GERMINATION
Equipment: pea or bean seeds, a glass jar, a plastic or metal circle whose diameter is equal to the inner diameter of the jar, water, a weight weighing about 1 kg, a marker that writes on the glass.Progress of the experiment
1. Put the pea seeds in a jar and pour some water into it. So that the seeds receive enough moisture and air.
2. Place a plastic circle on top of the soaked seeds, and place a weight on it. Mark with a marker on the outside of the glass the level (height) at which the plastic circle is located before the seeds swell.
3. Place the jar in a warm place and evaluate the result after 4-5 days.
Bottom line. The seeds swelled and began to occupy more volume, lifting the plastic circle along with the weight.
Conclusion. The swelling force of the seeds is such that they lift the plastic circle together with the weight standing on it, which is several times larger than them in mass.
So, we found out that for the successful development of seeds, three main conditions are necessary: water, humidity and a certain temperature. But how do seeds germinate? There are two types of seed germination. In the first case, as, for example, in beans, pumpkins, cucumbers, maples, beets, the cotyledons are brought to the surface of the soil - above-ground germination. In the second case, as, for example, in peas, chin, oak, chestnut, the cotyledons remain in the soil - underground germination.
III. Consolidation of knowledge and skills
- Answer the questions.
1. What conditions are necessary for seed germination?
2. What happens to non-living seeds when they are soaked?
3. Why don’t all swollen seeds germinate?
4. Why do germinating seeds need water?
5. Why do seeds need to be sown in loose soil?
6. Describe an experiment proving that germinating seeds actively respire.
7. Why don’t seeds germinate in waterlogged soil?
9. Which seeds germinate at the lowest temperatures?
10. Why do seeds need a dormant period?
11. Why are seeds of different plants sown at different times?
64 Section 3. Seed IV. Lesson summary Homework
2. Using the materials studied in the lesson, as well as the text of the textbook, describe the most favorable conditions for storing seeds.
Creative task. Make a picture from seeds. To do this, draw the outlines of the image on a sheet of cardboard, select seeds of different sizes and colors, and glue them with glue so that they match the drawing.
An activity for students interested in biology. Conduct an experiment proving the need for the presence of nutrients contained in the cotyledons or endosperm for the full development of the seedling. To do this, take a few sprouted bean seeds. Remove all cotyledons from three seedlings, leave half a cotyledon from three seedlings, one cotyledon from three, and leave three whole. Plant the seedlings in moist, loose soil and place in a warm place. Don't forget to water the seedlings. After 7–10 days, try to explain the result obtained. If possible, prepare a report on your experience.
Lesson 12. Composition of seeds Lesson objectives: to study the chemical composition of seeds of various plants; give an idea of the need for mineral and organic substances for the formation and growth of a plant.
Equipment and materials: sunflower seeds, wheat grains (dry but alive), lumps of dough, iodine solution, two sheets of white paper, test tube with holder, alcohol lamp.
Key concepts: seed composition, vegetable protein (gluten), vegetable fats, starch.
– – –
3. Describe an experiment proving the need for air for seed germination.
4. Describe an experiment proving the need for a certain temperature for seed germination.
5. Do all seeds germinate at the same temperatures?
6. At what depth should seeds of various plants be planted? What does this depend on?
7. What two types of seed germination do you know?
8. What is the peculiarity of both types of seed germination?
II. Learning new material
1. Teacher's story with elements of conversation In this lesson you will learn what substances are included in the composition of seeds.
– Remember what substances are part of plant cells. (Organic and mineral.)
– What substances are classified as organic?
– What substances are considered minerals?
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Diagnostic work in biology includes 10 tasks. Answers to assignments must be written in the answer fields in the text of the work.
The archive contains a file with the text of the diagnostic work in four versions. There is a file with a diagnostic work evaluation system.
Target audience: for 10th grade
Published in the archive:
Published in the archive:
- description of the VPR in biology, including the Codifier of content elements and requirements for the level of training of graduates of educational organizations for conducting the VPR. The codifier is compiled on the basis of the Federal component of state standards of basic general and secondary (complete) general education for studying the subject at a basic level. The description of the VPR contains information about the distribution of tasks in the work according to content blocks and tested methods of action, about the evaluation system for individual tasks and work as a whole.
- a sample of the All-Russian test work, which gives an idea of the structure of the All-Russian test work, the number and form of tasks, and their level of complexity.
- answers and assessment criteria to the test sample.
Published in the archive:
- description of the VPR in biology, including the Codifier of content elements and requirements for the level of training of graduates of educational organizations for conducting the VPR. The codifier is compiled on the basis of the Federal component of state standards of basic general and secondary (complete) general education for studying the subject at a basic level. The description of the VPR contains information about the distribution of tasks in the work according to content blocks and tested methods of action, about the evaluation system for individual tasks and work as a whole.
- a sample of the All-Russian test work, which gives an idea of the structure of the All-Russian test work, the number and form of tasks, and their level of complexity.
- answers and assessment criteria to the test sample.
Published in the archive:
- description of the VPR in biology, including the Codifier of content elements and requirements for the level of training of graduates of educational organizations for conducting the VPR. The codifier is compiled on the basis of the Federal component of state standards of basic general and secondary (complete) general education for studying the subject at a basic level. The description of the VPR contains information about the distribution of tasks in the work according to content blocks and tested methods of action, about the evaluation system for individual tasks and work as a whole.
- a sample of the All-Russian test work, which gives an idea of the structure of the All-Russian test work, the number and form of tasks, and their level of complexity.
- answers and assessment criteria to the test sample.
The interactive test task can be used both while learning new material and to consolidate previously learned material. It is also appropriate to use it in extracurricular classes with special education students. classes with in-depth study of biology. Perfect for independent homework in a comprehensive manner (online + notes in notebooks)
Target audience: for 5th grade
When completing the task, you need to select pairs: photo - text, text-text, photo-photo, video-photo, video-text.
The development is intended to work in classes or with individual students with in-depth study of biology.
Target audience: for 5th grade
The final work for the intermediate certification of 7th grade students in biology contains 4 options. Educational and methodological set in biology Sonin, N.I. Biology: Diversity of living organisms. 7th grade M.: Bustard, 2017.
Based on the specification, a codifier has been developed that determines, in accordance with the requirements of the Federal State Educational Standard for secondary general education, the planned results of mastering the main educational program of secondary general education in the subject “Biology” for the final monitoring of individual achievements of students. The work presents tasks of basic, advanced and high level. The work presents tasks of basic, advanced and high level.
Target audience: for 7th grade
Test and measurement material for biology grade 5. The collection contains tests of varying difficulty levels. The tests are grouped by topic in accordance with the V.V. program. Beekeeper. Testing and measuring materials are intended to check the level of mastery of educational material based on the educational minimum of educational content and requirements for the level of training of school graduates.
Target audience: for 5th grade
These tasks of various types are developed in accordance with program requirements (Pasechnik V.V. program, Vertical) and are intended to test and systematize students’ knowledge on the topics “Plant life (reproduction)”, “Classification of plants”. Presented in 4 versions, each with 14 questions. The rating system is attached. At the end of the test for teachers, the correct answer options are given to facilitate testing. The test can be used in preparing 9th grade students for the Unified State Examination in order to review relevant topics.
Target audience: for 6th grade
The presentation was prepared for a biology game in grades 5-6. Any educational complex.
Target: Expanding students' horizons about early flowering plants.
Tasks: promote the development of cognitive activity of students; develop intellectual abilities and logical thinking; introduce students to primroses using riddles as an example.
The presentation contains riddles, answers to them and illustrations about early flowering plants. Changing slides and objects on them is done by clicking. First, the text of the riddle comes out, then the name of the plant and an illustration. For each correct answer - 1 point.
Target audience: for 5th grade
16 options
Options have been created for high-quality preparation for the Unified State Exam 2018 in biology. Can be used to conduct independent test exams in schools. At the end of the tests there are answers to all tasks, as well as criteria for checking the difficult second part of the test.
Target audience: for 11th grade
This presentation is relevant for preparing for the All-Russian test in biology for 6th grade students. The work is based on the material of the sample of the Federal Service for Supervision in Education and Science of the Russian Federation "Biology. 6th grade". Sample 2018.
Two versions of the presentation are presented: one with answers, the other without answers. This is done for the convenience of the teacher; if it involves preliminary control with subsequent analysis of mistakes made, then you can use the version of the presentation without answers.
If the teacher is planning simultaneous question-and-answer sessions, then you can use a version of the presentation with answers, where the question first appears on the slide and students are given the opportunity to answer the question, and then the answers appear on a click.
There are links to specific questions and a return to the slide with question numbers.
Sincerely, Feoktistova T.I.