Semantic-stylistic synonyms are words and their equivalents that denote the same phenomenon of objective reality and differ not only in stylistic coloring, but also in shades of common meaning for each of them. Semantic-stylistic synonyms would be, for example, the words: horse - nag .
Wed: “Fed horses They, shaking their cut-off tails, were thrown and splashed with snow scraps” (Sholokhov); « Horse, old broken nag, covered in soap, standing rooted to the spot” (M. Gorky). Word nag means “weak” skinny, sick horse”; as an emotionally charged word nag and stylistically contrasted with the neutral word horse.
The words are also synonyms go - trudge. They mean the same action, just a word go stylistically neutral, word trudge - colloquial and, in addition to the general meaning, contains additional shades: trudge- this means walking with difficulty, slowly, barely moving your legs.
Work And pore over – synonyms, word only pore over how a vernacular is contrasted with a stylistically neutral word work and differs from it in shades of meaning: pore over – it is to work painstakingly and diligently, overcoming difficulties, mainly performing small, labor-intensive work. For example: “And my father got busy, pored over, I drove around, wrote and didn’t want to know anything” (Turgenev).
General meaning of words enemy, foe - one who is in a state of enmity with someone. In a word enemy the meaning of hostility, intransigence is expressed more strongly than in the word foe. Word foe has a stylistic connotation, it is bookish, somewhat outdated; word enemy - interstyle. Compare: “They came to the dead man from all sides enemies and others" (Pushkin); “I was forced to hide from my enemies"(Pushkin); "Friend and foe yours are chilling” (Koltsov); “He and the prince were terrible enemies tried to harm each other at every step” (Pisemsky).
General meaning of words to be afraid, to be cowardly- experience a feeling of fear, apprehension. In a word be a coward, in addition to indicating the feeling of fear and timidity, there is also a shade of contempt for the one who experiences this feeling. Afraid - the word is stylistically neutral, to be a coward - colloquial. Wed: “Don’t you remember that I I'm afraid?"(Pushkin); “The people around him kept silent: they were not were cowardly, or else they laughed” (Turgenev); “He didn’t seem himself. With his usual intelligence, he, of course, guessed that Pugachev was dissatisfied with him. He was a coward in front of him, and looked at me with distrust” (Pushkin).
General meaning of words walk, hobble - move in space by moving your legs, but hobble- this is walking with difficulty, waddling or falling on your leg, limping. Hobble - spoken word, go - stylistically neutral. Wed. examples: " Going revolution is ahead, followed by hobbles and bourgeois democracy" (V.I. Lenin); "Into the room, hobbling on crooked legs, a little old man came in” (Turgenev).
Words thick And full opposite in meaning to the word thin, But full - moderately well-fed thick- well-fed beyond measure, i.e. they differ in the degree of the trait. In addition, these words differ in stylistic coloring: the word thick in this meaning it has a colloquial connotation. See examples: “Laundress Broadsword, thick both the pockmarked girl and the crooked cowshed Akulka somehow agreed to throw themselves at mother’s feet at the same time, blaming themselves for criminal weakness” (Pushkin); “I drove a German engineer with the rank of army major in the Oppel Admiral. Oh and thick he was a fascist! Small, pot-bellied" (Sholokhov); “Imagine, dear readers, a man full, tall, about seventy years old, with a clear and intelligent gaze under an overhanging eyebrow, with an important posture, measured speech, a slow gait: here’s Ovsyanikov for you” (Turgenev).
Synonyms are different from each other. It is accepted, first of all, to divide synonyms into ideographic And stylistic. However, it is possible to differentiate by syntactic features, degree of complexity, etc.
Words that are very close, but not identical in meaning, differing in shades of meaning, are called conceptual(or ideographic) synonyms. An example of conceptual synonyms are adverbs silently And Can not hear. Wed: Past the windows silently cars rushed past the windows Can not hear cars rushed by; or He silently He snuck up on me Can not hear crept up on me. Semantic difference between words silently And Can not hear very small: silently indicates the absence of sound, Can not hear emphasizes the perception of the hearing ear.
The conceptual synonyms are: look - look, beautiful - pretty, think - reflect, suddenly - unexpectedly.
When considering many synonyms, their stylistic difference attracts attention. Synonyms that are identical in meaning but differ in stylistic coloring are called stylistic. Rows of stylistic synonyms are usually formed if one of the synonyms belongs to the so-called neutral vocabulary, the other to colloquial or colloquial, high or official, etc. Quite long rows are possible, consisting of words of different stylistic colors. For example, in the synonymous series steal - kidnap - snatch - steal verb steal neutral in style kidnap- official, steal refers to colloquial vocabulary, steal- to vernacular (this series can be continued mainly by further adding words of lower style). Other examples of synonymous series of this type: get tired - get tired, for nothing - for nothing, strange - wonderful, look - look.
Synonyms may differ from each other in the degree of modernity: one word is modern, the other (with the same meaning) is outdated: plane - airplane, city - hail, cold - cold, criminal - thief, because - because, Evenk - Tungus.
Synonyms may differ in their scope of use. For example, one word is national, another is dialectal, regional, one word is national, another is professional, etc. .: pot - makhotka(region), very - early(region), eggplants - demyanki(region), swim - swim(region), revolver - cannon(jarg) .), jaundice - hepatitis(honey.), cook - cook(marine) page - strip(prof.).
Synonyms may differ in the degree of compatibility with different words:
Adverbs categorically And flatly identical in meaning, but categorically goes with many words (categorically declare, categorically demand, categorically refuse and etc.), flatly in modern speech - only with a verb refuse. Let us give more examples of synonyms with limited compatibility (the words with which these synonyms are combined are given in brackets ): open - open(mouth), brown - brown(eyes), black - black(horse).
Synonyms may differ from each other in syntactic features. For example: two verbs with the same meaning require different noun cases (i.e. have different controls). These are the verbs begin And start:get started(vin. pad.), but get to work(Dat. fall.); lose And lose: to lose trust (win. fall.), but to lose trust (genus, fall.); have And have: to have self-control (vin. pad.), but to have self-control (tv. pad.), etc.
Synonyms may vary in degree of complexity. In this case, most often one word has a phraseological phrase as a synonym: to be born - to be born; little - the cat cried; keep quiet - keep your mouth shut; often - every now and then; expose - bring to light, etc.
- V.N. Klyueva (see her “Brief Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language, ed. 2, Preface) believes that “you cannot synonymize words with a neutral or positive assessment with words that have a negative assessment. Horse And nag are not synonyms, although they denote the same zoological individual.” Denying the synonymy of words horse–nag, V.N. Klyueva contradicts his definition of synonyms as two words-concepts, “reflecting the essence of one and the same phenomenon of objective reality, differing in additional shades.” Word nag denotes the same thing as the word horse, but only this designation introduces additional shades. True, find the context in which the words horse And horse could be replaced by the word nag, It’s not easy, but this does not contradict V.N. Klyueva’s definition of synonyms as words that “serve not so much to replace each other, but to clarify thoughts and our attitude to what is being expressed.”
- See “Dictionary of the Russian Language” of the USSR Academy of Sciences, in 4 volumes, vol. II” p. 140.
8. Synonymy. Types of synonyms. Synonymous series
Synonyms- these are words that differ in sound and design, but are identical or similar in meaning.
Table 1 - Types of synonyms
Based on their consolidation in the language, they are distinguished into linguistic or usual ones (from Lat. usus- custom), and contextual, or occasional (from lat. occasionalis- random) synonyms.
Language synonyms can be divided into:
1. Full (absolute, doublet)- completely coincidentalhave their meanings and characteristic compatibility. Greatestthe number of such words accounts for the share of scientific terminologygii. Most often these are native Russian and borrowed terms:
alphabet - alphabet, linguistics - linguistics, fricative-fricative, orthography - spelling; goalkeeper - goalkeeper, hippothen - a hippopotamus, an alligator - a crocodile.
However, there may be differences between them. Wed: Morse code, but not Morse alphabet.
2. Partial (relative)- words that are partiallycoincide in meaning and use. By quality of differencespartial synonyms are divided into:
- semantic (ideographic, conceptual)- express a general concept, but at the same time differ in certain elements of their meanings:
narrow("small in width": narrow strip) - cramped ("insufficient, small in space": cramped apartment) -thin ("small in girth, in thickness": thin layer);
key(“a source from which water comes out with pressure, force”) -spring (“a source from which water seeps to the surface of the earth”);
- stylistic- differ in stylistic coloring: eyes, eyes, zenks;steal, snatch, take away, drag away, pull off, smear, steal;run away, get away, scurry, get away;
- semantic-stylistic- differ in both shades of meaning and stylistic coloring:
speak (neutral) - chatter (“speak quickly”, colloquial); quarrel - squabble, squabble ("a noisy quarrel over a trifle", colloquial).
Contextual synonyms are used in the author's speech, are individual, characteristic of literary texts; such synonyms are not in dictionaries. For example: in the sentence A rosy-cheeked girl came out and knocked a samovar (Gorky) on the table, the word knocked is a synonym for the word put, although in common literary language these words are not synonyms.
A synonymous series is a historically established group of words united by systemic synonymous relationships. The synonymous series can include not only words of a literary language, but also vernacular, colloquial and dialect vocabulary. Words in a row are arranged in descending or ascending order. The stylistically colored word follows the neutral one. The main place in the synonymous row is occupied by dominant. The dominant opens the synonymous series; the most important meaning of the entire group is concentrated in it. The dominant is stylistically neutral and has no emotional overtones. For example:
Easy- uncomplicated, simple, elementary, simple, uncomplicated, trifling, empty, careless.
The emergence of synonyms in the language is due to a number of reasons:
The desire of a person to find some new features in an object or phenomenon of reality and designate them with a new word;
Borrowing;
In different styles of speech, the same object, the same phenomenon can be called differently.
One of the sources of synonymy is taboo. Taboo - originally, in primitive society, a system of prohibitions on performing certain actions, using any objects, uttering words, the violation of which is punishable by supernatural forces. For example, when going hunting, they did not name the animal that would be hunted, so that evil spirits would not overhear and deprive them of good luck (instead of elk they said elk, instead of bear - clubfoot, etc.). They didn’t say the word brownie, they said: master. This is how synonyms for words were born, and this is how riddles appeared.
The role of synonyms in speech is exceptionally great: they help to avoid unnecessary repetitions of the same word (tautology), and more accurately convey thoughts.
Euphemisms(substitute words) - a phenomenon associated with the use of synonymy. Euphemisms are used instead of direct names that are unpleasant or indecent in a given speech situation: full V place is thick, to be mistaken instead of to lie, to linger instead of to be late, at a respectable age instead of old, stupid instead of a fool, to use a handkerchief instead of blowing your nose, and also for the purpose of avoiding direct names, censorship ban: repository No. 1(about radioactive waste).
In the modern Russian language there are several types of synonyms, distinguished depending on the nature of the differences between words with their overall semantic similarity.
Words that have the same meaning are called full synonyms, absolute synonyms, or lexical doublets:linguistics=linguistics , throw = throw, look = look, stop = stop, strike = strike, original = original, everywhere = everywhere, spelling = spelling, cavalry = cavalry. These are words that have neither semantic nor stylistic differences. From this point of view, all other types of synonyms are incomplete and relative. There are few complete synonyms in Russian, since the language tries to avoid duplication.
Incomplete synonyms ( quasi-synonyms) .
Semantic (ideographic, conceptual), denoting one and the same phenomenon of reality, they distinguish different sides in it and differ so apart from each other shades of its meaning I.
If the meaning of one of the quasi-synonyms is completely “embedded” in the meaning of the second and at the same time in the meaning of the second there are still some semantic components, then there is a relationship of “inclusion” between them. Words carry = drag, attack = aggression are related in this way: drag- This carry, but with difficulty (you can carry and drag a bag, but you cannot drag a cup of coffee, for example); any aggression is attack, but not every attack can be considered aggression (in combination robbery attack on a passerby word attack cannot be replaced by aggression).
The meanings of two quasi-synonyms may have a common part, and the meaning of each of them differs in some way, in which case their meanings “intersect”. So, greedy Means ‘obsessed with a passion to seize someone else’s’, stingy‑ ‘possessed by a passion not to give one’s own’. Consider the following group of synonymous nouns: calm, quiet, calm. They all mean ‘absence of wind’, but differ from each other in the shades of their lexical meanings: the word calm meaning ‘total absence of wind, calm weather’; word silence– ‘calmness, absence of noise’; word calm– ‘weakening, temporary cessation of wind, noise’.
Stylistic synonyms, denoting the same phenomenon of reality, differ from each other stylistic affiliation. They also have differences in semantic expressiveness and emotional coloring. Examples of stylistic synonyms include the words sleep - rest - take a nap. Verb sleep is stylistically neutral and does not contain emotional overtones. Verb rest is outdated, stylistically bookish; word sleep is colloquial with an emotional assessment of disapproval.
Stylistic or multi-style synonyms also include the following words: face - face - muzzle(neutral – bookish – colloquial), die - pass away - die(neutral – bookish – colloquial), satisfactory - three, get tired - get tired(neutral - colloquial), argument - argument, look - look(neutral – bookish).
Within the framework of stylistic synonyms, the following are also distinguished:
a) Synonyms that differ from each other in the degree of modernity. In such a synonymous series, one word refers to modern vocabulary, the other to obsolete: plane - airplane, minister - people's commissar, this - this, cinema - cinema;
b) Synonyms that differ in the scope of use. This includes, for example, series consisting of a popular word and a term or professionalism : kitchen - galley, cook - cook(marine) jaundice – hepatitis(honey.), page - strip(polygraph.); literary slang rows : parents - ancestors, dining room - feeding trough, knife - pen, search - search;
Semantic-stylistic synonyms differ both in shades of lexical meanings and stylistic coloring. An example of such synonyms are verbs go And trudge, which have a close but not identical meaning: go- “move by stepping on your feet”, and trudge- “move slowly, sluggishly.” Therefore the verb trudge has an additional semantic connotation - “to move with difficulty, barely stepping on one’s feet.” In addition, synonymous verbs go And trudge differ also in stylistic affiliation: verb go is neutral and the verb trudge used in colloquial speech with an emotional assessment of disapproval. So the words go And trudge are semantic-stylistic synonyms. Comp. Also: stock - reserve: stock– a commonly used word meaning “everything that is prepared for future use”; reserve– bookish, special, meaning “what is left for a special, exceptional occasion.” Semantic-stylistic differences are also characteristic of synonyms to be angry - to be angry(colloquial), hasty - hasty(colloquial), eat - eat(simple);
All the synonyms given earlier are general linguistic ones, i.e. they are characteristic of the lexical system of the Russian language and are understandable to all or the vast majority of its speakers. It should be distinguished from common languages contextual, or individual-author synonyms. These include words that enter into synonymous relationships temporarily, only in a given context. For example, between words showered And pasted over There are no synonymous relations in the lexical system of the Russian language. However, in the story “Chelkash” by A.M. Gorky uses the word pasted over as a synonym for showered: He fell asleep with a vague smile on his face, covered with flour dust. Let's compare more examples of the use of contextual synonyms : Ostap was about to take the pound for the starched collar and show him the way(collar– contextual synonym for the word collar); The entire plain is covered with loose and soft lime (lime – snow).
Polysemantic words can be included in several synonymous series, participating in each of them with only one meaning. So, short in meaning ‘small in height’ is synonymous with the word low; quasi-synonymous with words squat, short, undersized(about a human); in the meaning ‘relating to the lower sound register’ is a synonymous series with bassy, bassy(for example, about voice); in the meaning ‘unsatisfactory in quality’ is synonymous with the word bad; when denoting a certain quality of a person short enters into synonymous relationships with words vile, dishonest.
Synonyms may also differ in their compatibility with other words. So, brown has free compatibility with many words: pencil, shoes, coat. Meaning brown is phraseologically related to the word eyes; chestnut can only be hair.
12. Synonym functions
In everyday speech, synonyms perform two new functions for everyone who speaks Russian. Firstly, this substitution function some words by others. It is caused by the desire to avoid unwanted repetitions of the same words in speech: The whole hall applauded. They clapped with their hands up. Secondly, refinement function. A person with a lot of weight can be called complete, And fat, And overweight. Moreover, each of the synonyms has its own peculiarity of meaning, emphasizing the volume (full), form ( thick), weight ( heavy). Such a person can sit down or about let's go I'm on a chair, maybe plop down; he's not always at the door included- he’s in a narrow one squeezes in or squeezes through; his voice can sound, thunder, rumble(if it's bass) hum, hiss etc.
Associated with the clarification function is the technique of stringing together synonyms to emphasize the identity or semantic similarity of words: Intellectually and rationally, she agreed with Sergei in everything.« We’ll close the file cabinet and bury it,” Volodya said. In this case, in one synonymous row there may be words that differ in stylistic affiliation and emotional connotation: They shouted that this was sinful, even vile, that the old man was out of his mind, that the old man had been deceived, cheated, swindled(Adv.). Comp. Also: And soon a crowd gathers near the wood warehouse... Ochumelov makes a half turn to the left and walks towards the gathering(A. Chekhov.) – here in a synonymous pair crowd - gathering the second word in the meaning of “large crowd of people” has the stylistic marks “disapproved.” and “colloquial”, which “reduces” its meaning in the text and serves as an expression of a negative assessment.
The use of synonyms can create a comic effect and be a means of characterizing a character:
-- Died“Klavdia Ivanovna,” said the customer.
“Well, the kingdom of heaven,” agreed Bezenchuk. -- She passed away So, old lady...
Old ladies, they always pretend... Or give your soul to God, - it depends on what kind of old lady. Yours, for example, is small and in the body, which means she has passed away. And, for example, the one who is larger and thinner is considered to give his soul to God...
- So how is it calculated? Who counts?
- That's what we count on. From the masters. Here you are, for example, a prominent man, tall, although thin. You are considered if, God forbid, you'll die, what in box played. And whoever is a merchant, a former merchant guild, means ordered to live long. And if someone is of lesser rank, a janitor, for example, or one of the peasants, they say about him: spread or stretched out his legs. But the most powerful, when they die, are railway conductors or someone from the authorities, it is believed that give oak. So they say about them: “And ours, they heard, gave oak.”
Shocked by this strange classification of human deaths, Ippolit Matveevich asked:
- Well, when you die, what will the masters say about you?
- It’s impossible to give me an oak or play the game: I have a small build...(I. Ilf and E. Petrov. Twelve chairs)
Sometimes we observe the use of synonyms in the so-called antonymous situation. For example : this city is ancient, but not old. Let's compare the following statement by K.S. Stanislavsky: The actors do not have hands, but hands, not fingers, but fingers... They do not walk, but march, do not sit, but sit, do not lie, but recline...
Antonyms(gr. anti - against + onyma - name) words with opposite meanings are called.
Antonymic relations are entered into by words that are correlated with each other in terms of logical connections, common semantics and grammatical meanings (they refer to the same part of speech). For example, ruddy - pale, cheerful - sad, polite - rude, health - illness, joy - sadness. The above pairs contain opposite meanings in the field of quality, state, as well as properties of objects and phenomena. Antonyms can also express contrasting concepts of time (early - late, morning - evening), space (close - distant, south - north), size, volume (small - large, shallow - deep), feelings (love - hate, happiness - grief ), age (old - young), natural phenomena (cold - hot, windy - quiet), contrasting concepts in the field of objects and phenomena related to human social activity (work - idleness, victory - defeat, peace - war), etc.
IN antonymic relations enter far not all words Russian language. Thus, nouns with a specific meaning (house, table, wall) do not have antonyms; numerals and most pronouns and proper names do not have antonyms. As a rule, there are no antonyms among qualitative adjectives denoting the names of colors and their shades (with the exception of a few: black - white, dark - light), although in general antonymous pairs among qualitative adjectives are formed especially actively, and this is precisely what serves as one of the distinctive signs of quality adjectives.
By structure antonyms are divided into different root ones ( day Night) and single-rooted ( come - go, revolution - counter-revolution).
Antonyms, as already mentioned, usually form pairs in a language. However, this does not mean that a particular word can have one antonym. Antonymic relations make it possible to express the opposition of concepts in an “unclosed” polynomial series, cf.: specific – abstract, abstract; funny- sad, sorrowful, dull, dull.
Such a correlation of synonymous and antonymic relations reflects the systemic connections of words in the lexicon. Systematicity is also indicated by the relationship between polysemy and antonymy of lexical units. When choosing antonyms, it is taken into account possibility of word ambiguity. Thus, the word low can be an antonym not only to the word high (low house - high house), but also to the words noble (low deed - noble deed), sublime (low goal - lofty goal).
14. Semantic types of antonyms.
Antonymous pairs (unlike synonyms) differ not in stylistic and emotional-evaluative features, but almost exclusively in conceptual ones. Their logical basis is incompatible concepts, that is, concepts whose scopes do not coincide. Incompatible concepts are of three types - opposite (contrary) and contradictory (contradictory), multidirectional (vector).
1) Contradictorial antonyms presented in pairs whose members are mutually exclusive. In counter-opposition inclusion of a neutral member is unacceptable. Contradictory antonyms are mainly represented by pairs of cognate words, one of which contains a negative word-forming prefix, meaning the absence or deprivation of any attribute, for example, loading - unloading, good faith - dishonesty. This type of opposition shows gradualism in the expression of a generic characteristic.
2) Vector antonyms. They represent the opposite directions: there - here, up - down, sunrise - sunset, rise - fall, enter - exit, descend - rise, light - put out, revolution - counter-revolution.
Synonymy- one of the brightest manifestations of systemic relations in vocabulary. Words that are similar in the associations that arise and the proximity of the designated concepts enter into synonymous connections. This feature is not inherent in all words of the Russian language. Thus, proper names, names of countries, cities, towns and their inhabitants, many specific names of household items, and words-terms do not enter into such relationships (although there are many exceptions in this area).
Lexical synonyms(rp. synonymas - eponymous) - these are words that are close or identical in meaning, which call the same concept differently. Synonyms differ from each other either in the shade of meaning (close), or in the stylistic coloring (unambiguous, i.e. identical), or both characteristics at the same time. For example: ruddy - pink, rosy-cheeked, pink-faced, red-cheeked; neighborhood - circle, district (colloquial); premature - early, untimely (raised, bookish with the words death, demise, death, etc.). The first ones differ mainly in shades of meaning. In the next two synonymous rows, along with semantic differences, there are also stylistic (see the marks colloquial and bookish), as well as stylistic (see the mark raised).
Depending on semantic or functional-stylistic differences, three main types of synonyms are conventionally distinguished:
1) ideographic(gr. idea - concept + graph? - record), or actually semantic, 2) style(by reference to one of the functional styles (see the above labels colloquial and bookish, 3) actually stylistic(i.e. those in the meaning of which there are additional evaluative and expressive shades, see the mark raised). The last two types are usually closely related to each other (cf., for example, synonyms for the interstyle and stylistically neutral word life: decompressed life, everyday life, fam. life-being and everyday life, predominantly neglected being ). Consequently, belonging to a style is often specified by indicating additional value or connotation, i.e. actual stylistic characteristics. Such synonyms are often called semantic-stylistic, since they all have differences in meaning. (Note that this also explains the relative convention in identifying these types of synonyms.)
The emergence of the above types of synonyms in the language is due to a number of reasons. One of them is the desire of a person to find some new features in an object or phenomenon of reality and designate them with a new word, similar in meaning to the already existing name of this object, phenomenon, quality (cf., for example, the use of the words rumor, rumor, news, news, message and others to denote one concept).
Synonyms appear in the language due to the penetration of borrowed words that are close or identical in meaning to Russian (cf., for example: conductor - guide, cicerone; embryo - embryo; introduction - preamble, etc.).
Sometimes words with similar meanings appear in a language due to the fact that in different expressive-stylistic groups of words, in different styles of speech, the same object, the same phenomenon can be called differently. So, the words eyes, hands, goes, this, in vain and others are commonly used. In sublime speech, in poetic speech, their synonyms can be the words ochi, dlani, coming, this, in vain, which are outdated for the modern Russian language. For example, A.S. Pushkin we observe the use of synonyms eye - eyes: No, it’s not agate in her eyes, but all the treasures of the East are not worth the sweet rays of her midday eye...
To reduce the style, some of them in colloquial speech are replaced by synonyms of a colloquial or dialect nature: eyes - peepers, eyes, balls, etc.; hands - paws; goes - stomps. For example, F.I. We find Panferov: Markel pointed to his eyes with his finger: “He himself has a peeper.”
Individual commonly used words may have combinations of words as synonyms that convey their meaning phraseologically, for example: died - ordered to live long, departed to another world, left this vale, etc. See A.S. Pushkin:
- Is your bear healthy, Father Kirila Petrovich?
“Misha ordered me to live long,” answered Kirila Petrovich.
- Died a glorious death.
Synonyms also arise in the case when an object, sign or phenomenon of reality is given a different emotional assessment (cf. cruel - merciless, heartless, inhuman, fierce, ferocious, etc.)
In the modern Russian language, not only individual words are synonymous, but also individual phraseological units.
Synonymy is closely related to the phenomenon of polysemy. For example, the word quiet has several meanings, and each of them can have its own synonyms. So, in the phrase quiet sleep, its synonyms are calm, serene, but these words cannot replace the word quiet in combination with the word man. Synonyms for it in the phrase quiet person are - inconspicuous, modest; in the phrase a quiet voice is weak, barely audible; in the phrase quiet driving the adjective quiet is synonymous - slow, calm, etc. The word profit also has several synonyms: benefit, gain, profit. However, this word cannot always be replaced by any of the indicated synonyms. So, in the phrase, Prokhor Petrovich meanwhile carried out a six-month calculation of turnover. The balance sheet showed profit (Shishk.) The word profit cannot be replaced, for example, with the words profit, gain or benefit, since the meaning of the entire phrase will be distorted; the word profit in this context is stylistically the most appropriate and accurate.
In context, words can be interchangeable with synonyms (for example, gaze - gaze; pedestal - pedestal; calm - calm; giant - giant, colossus, giant, titan, etc.). However, words grouped into a common synonymous series cannot always be interchangeable (see the example with the words profit - benefit, profit, etc.). Synonymous words have one, as a rule, stylistically neutral core (main) word in the synonymous series, which is usually called dominant (lat. dominans - dominant). This is, for example, the verb to speak in relation to words that are stylistically colored - to say, to utter, to mutter, etc.
The synonymous possibilities of the Russian language are varied; synonyms can be words with different roots (greatness - grandeur; blizzard - blizzard, blizzard) and single-root words (greatness - majesty, majesty; blizzard - blizzard; unprincipled - unprincipled). In the synonymous row, along with individual words, combinations of service and significant words (out of spite - in defiance; anonymous - without signature), words and terminological combinations of words (aviation - air fleet; dentist - dentist), etc. can be combined.
The role of synonyms in speech is exceptionally great: they help to avoid unnecessary repetitions of the same word, convey thoughts more accurately, more clearly, and allow one to express the variety of shades of a particular phenomenon, quality, etc.
Along with general literary, accepted, usual(Latin usus - custom) synonyms in the process of use in speech (especially in the language of fiction) the role of synonyms are words that in ordinary use have nothing in common in their meaning. For example, in the sentence: A rosy-cheeked girl came out and knocked the samovar on the table (M. G.), the word knocked is synonymous with the word put, although in common literary language they are not synonyms. This kind of usage is called occasional(lat. occasional - random), due to individual selection of words only for a given context. There is no stable consolidation of synonymous meanings in the language system for such words. They are not reflected in dictionaries.
In terms of the number of words, the synonymous series are not the same: some contain two or three words (marriage - matrimony; authority - weight, prestige), others include a large number of words and phrases (win - overcome, break, destroy, overcome, break, overcome, triumph, overpower, cope, gain the upper hand, win, etc.).
Synonyms are divided into absolute (full) and relative (partial).
Absolute (full) synonyms are called lexical and phraseological units that have identical meaning and stylistic coloring. Absolute synonyms have neither semantic nor stylistic differences.
For example: abstract - abstract, spelling - spelling, linguistics - linguistics, bucks - greens - green. Such synonyms are most often completely interchangeable .
For example, absolute PU synonyms are PU when the crayfish whistles on the mountain, after the rain on Thursday. All these phraseological units have the meaning ‘unknown when in the indefinite future, never’, a colloquial stylistic connotation.
As the language develops, one of the options may become obsolete, while the other remains in the active stock, for example: airplane - airplane‘(obsolete) heavier-than-air aircraft with a power plant and a wing that creates lift’ . Sometimes the options begin to diverge in meaning, for example: lover 1. ‘a man in relation to a woman having an extramarital affair with him’, 2. outdated man in love – in love 1. ‘a person experiencing a feeling of love, attraction to someone.’
Relative (partial) synonyms (quasi-synonyms) These are lexical and phraseological units that have semantic and stylistic differences.
There are three types of relative synonyms:
semantic (ideographic) synonyms differ in shades of meaning. For example: Key - spring: key‘a source where water flows with pressure’, spring‘water seeps through’. Phraseologisms differ in shades of meaning: on knives(colloquial) ‘in sharply hostile relations’ and like a cat and a dog(colloquial) ‘in constant quarrel, hostility’.
Semantic synonyms can
1) differ in shades of meaning in the characteristics of a characteristic or action. For example, synonyms catch fire, engage, flare up, blaze. All these verbs are used to indicate the initial moment of combustion. catch fire'start to burn' , do used mainly in cases where combustion begins very intensely, when the flame engulfs an object, structure, etc.’ , flash indicates how fast the flame appears , blaze‘to immediately burn with a strong fire’
2) differ in the degree of manifestation of a sign or action.
For example, synonyms run And rush in the following example: The clouds were running through our village... So they flew to the pine forest, crossed the ravine and rushed on(V. Kozlov). It is clear that the verb rush compared to its synonymous verb run indicates greater intensity of action, greater speed of movement. Therefore, we can say that the verbs used in the text run And rush allowed the author to clarify the nature of the action and emphasize the intensity of its manifestation. Among the synonyms there are many such examples: (bonfire) was burning– (bonfire) blazing, fast(step) – swift(step), fear, fear, horror, confusion, hot(air) - sultry(air), etc.
Sometimes phraseological synonyms differ in the degree of intensity of action. For example: pour tears, shed tears, drown in tears, cry your eyes out- each subsequent synonym conveys a stronger manifestation of the action.
Semantic synonyms can also have different amounts of meaning. For example, among the synonyms bend - bend the word is broad in meaning bend‘rounded turn’: the bend of a river, the bend of a road, the bend of a branch, the bend of a hand etc. Word bend used only when talking about river bends, for example: Lena flows in meanders(I.A. Goncharov).
stylistic synonyms differ in their style, i.e. used in different functional styles of speech. For example, synonyms eyes - eyes, beauty - beauty differ from each other only stylistically: the first words are stylistically neutral, the second are bookish. In a synonymous series run away - run away, get away the first word is stylistically neutral, the last ones are colloquial.
For example, phraseological units get under one's skin And put yourself in your place have the same meaning ‘to imagine oneself in the position of someone’, but at the same time they differ in stylistic coloring: phraseological unit get under one's skin has a colloquial stylistic overtones, and phraseological units put yourself in your place has no stylistic coloring and is neutral.
The differences between the shades of bookishness and colloquialism in synonymous words become obvious if you use a bookish word in a colloquial style or a colloquial word in a bookish style.
semantic-stylistic synonyms differ in shades of meaning and stylistic affiliation. For example, synonymous adjectives interesting And amusing differ in shades of meaning: word interesting used in the sense of ‘stimulating attention with something significant’, and amusing– ‘exciting only external interest’. Besides, interesting– the word is stylistically neutral, and amusing- colloquial. ( ANDdti - drag, cough - thump, die).
For example, phraseological units dense forest(colloquial) ‘complete ambiguity, unknown. About something unfamiliar or incomprehensible’, gibberish letter(simple) ‘something inaccessible to understanding, which is difficult to understand’, sealed book(book) ‘something completely incomprehensible, inaccessible to understanding’.
It must be said that synonyms relatively rarely appear in their “pure form”, in one strictly defined role: most often in their use various “roles” are combined.
According to A.P. Evgenieva, it is impossible to draw a line between stylistic and “ideographic” synonyms, “classifying some as stylistic, and others only as ideographic. The main, overwhelming mass of synonyms serves both stylistic and semantic (shading, clarification) purposes, often performing both functions simultaneously. For example, words to wander, to weave(colloquial) , trudge(colloquial) , stretch(colloquial) , crawl(colloquial) differ from each other in shades of action characteristics, expressiveness and stylistic function.”
By structure lexical synonyms are divided into
single-rooted (deaf‘not sonorous, not sharp, the word is used. advantage In relation to low sounds, regardless of their duration’, muted‘weakened by something (distance, obstacle)’) and multi-rooted.
The structure of phraseological synonyms are divided into single-structure and multi-structure.
Single-structure Phenomenon synonyms have the same construction model. For example, phraseological units: in no time - in one step, even climb into a noose - even lie in a coffin, touch a nerve - grab the heart.
Multi-structured phraseological synonyms are built according to different models. For example: Grandma said in two - it’s written on the water with a pitchfork, for nothing about anything - you live a great life.
Between these two clearly distinguishable structural types of PU synonyms, single-structural and multi-structural, there are the so-called similar structural phraseological units. Similar structural PU synonyms have the same basic component, expressed by a certain part of speech (verb, noun, etc.), and all other components differ in form. For example, send to the next world, send to another world, send to the forefathers, put in place, knock out the soul -‘kill, put to death’.
Synonyms are divided into occasional and general linguistic ones.
Common linguistic (usual) synonyms synonyms are called, which are characterized by relative independence from the context and sufficient frequency of use. Such synonyms are reflected in modern dictionaries and, as a rule, can be translated literally into another language (if they do not denote special, nationally limited concepts, phenomena, realities, etc.). For example, cheerful - joyful.
Occasional (usual, contextual-speech, contextual, situational, individual, author's ) synonyms These are synonymous words that, taken individually, are not synonyms, but, lined up by the speaker in a certain context, seem to be closer in common meaning, because become exponents of the author's intention.
For example, " They're tired ofdual power , plurality of power , or rather -anarchy "(Ros. newspaper. 1994). Dual power and plural power are equated to anarchy only in this context.
Contextual synonyms become closer in their meanings only under contextual conditions.
The distinctive features of such synonyms are clearly expressed contextual conditioning and fixation, the single (usually individual) nature of semantics (and often word formation), non-reproducibility, i.e. obvious limited use, absence in dictionaries and difficulty of literal translation into another language.
internal when phraseological units enter into synonymous relationships only with phraseological units. For example, darkness, darkness, countless numbers, a dime a dozen, thatthe sand of the sea, like uncut dogs.
Phraseological synonyms can be external when phraseological units enter into synonymous relationships with words. External phraseological synonyms form mixed synonymic series. For example, thin, skinny, skin and bones like a pole; leave in the cold, leave with a nose, fool around the finger, plumbyou eyes(to whom), rub the glasses(to whom), take advantage of, deceive, foolcheat, deceive, bypass, deceive, deceive, mystify).