Stories of knights loyal to the king, a beautiful lady and military duty have been inspiring men to exploits and people of art to creativity for many centuries.
Ulrich von Liechtenstein (1200-1278)
Ulrich von Liechtenstein did not storm Jerusalem, did not fight the Moors, and did not participate in the Reconquista. He became famous as a knight-poet. In 1227 and 1240 he made travels, which he described in the courtly novel “Serving the Ladies.”
According to him, he walked from Venice to Vienna, challenging every knight he met to battle in the name of Venus. He also created The Ladies' Book, a theoretical work on love poetry.
Lichtenstein's "Serving the Ladies" is a textbook example of a courtly novel. It tells how a knight sought the favor of a beautiful lady. To do this, he had to amputate his little finger and half of his upper lip, defeat three hundred opponents in tournaments, but the lady remained adamant. Already at the end of the novel, Lichtenstein concludes “that only a fool can serve indefinitely where there is nothing to count on for reward.”
Richard the Lionheart (1157-1199)
Richard the Lionheart is the only king knight on our list. In addition to the well-known and heroic nickname, Richard also had a second one - “Yes and No.” It was invented by another knight, Bertrand de Born, who christened the young prince so for his indecisiveness.
Already being king, Richard was not at all involved in governing England. In the memory of his descendants, he remained a fearless warrior who cared about personal glory more than the well-being of his possessions. Richard spent almost the entire time of his reign abroad.
He took part in the Third Crusade, conquered Sicily and Cyprus, besieged and took Acre, but the English king never decided to storm Jerusalem. On the way back, Richard was captured by Duke Leopold of Austria. Only a rich ransom allowed him to return home.
After returning to England, Richard fought with the French king Philip II Augustus for another five years. Richard's only major victory in this war was the capture of Gisors near Paris in 1197.
Raymond VI (1156-1222)
Count Raymond VI of Toulouse was an atypical knight. He became famous for his opposition to the Vatican. One of the largest feudal lords of Languedoc in Southern France, he patronized the Cathars, whose religion was professed by the majority of the population of Languedoc during his reign.
Pope Innocent II excommunicated Raymond twice for refusing to submit, and in 1208 he called for a campaign against his lands, which went down in history as the Albigensian Crusade. Raymond offered no resistance and publicly repented in 1209.
However, in his opinion, the demands on Toulouse that were too cruel led to another rift with the Catholic Church. For two years, from 1211 to 1213, he managed to hold Toulouse, but after the defeat of the crusaders at the Battle of Mur, Raymond IV fled to England, to the court of John the Landless.
In 1214 he again formally submitted to the pope. In 1215, the Fourth Lateran Council, which he attended, deprived him of his rights to all lands, leaving only the Marquisate of Provence to his son, the future Raymond VII.
William Marshal (1146-1219)
William Marshal was one of the few knights whose biography was published almost immediately after his death. In 1219, a poem entitled The History of William Marshal was published.
The marshal became famous not because of his feats of arms in wars (although he also took part in them), but because of his victories in knightly tournaments. He gave them sixteen whole years of his life.
The Archbishop of Canterbury called the Marshal the greatest knight of all time.
Already at the age of 70, Marshal led the royal army in a campaign against France. His signature appears on the Magna Carta as the guarantor of its observance.
Edward the Black Prince (1330-1376)
Eldest son of King Edward III, Prince of Wales. He received his nickname either because of his difficult character, or because of the origin of his mother, or because of the color of his armor.
The “Black Prince” gained his fame in battles. He won two classic battles of the Middle Ages - at Cressy and at Poitiers.
For this, his father especially noted him, making him the first Knight of the new Order of the Garter. His marriage to his cousin, Joanna of Kent, also added to Edward's knighthood. This couple was one of the brightest in Europe.
On June 8, 1376, a year before his father's death, Prince Edward died and was buried in Canterbury Cathedral. The English crown was inherited by his son Richard II.
The Black Prince left his mark on culture. He is one of the heroes of Arthur Conan Doyle's dilogy about the Hundred Years' War, a character in Dumas's novel "The Bastard de Mauleon".
Bertrand de Born (1140-1215)
The knight and troubadour Bertrand de Born was the ruler of Périgord, owner of the castle of Hautefort. Dante Alighieri portrayed Bertrand de Born in his "Divine Comedy": the troubadour is in Hell, and holds his severed head in his hand as punishment for the fact that in life he stirred up quarrels between people and loved wars.
And, according to Dante, Bertrand de Born sang only to sow discord.
De Born, meanwhile, became famous for his courtly poetry. In his poems, he glorified, for example, Duchess Matilda, the eldest daughter of Henry II and Alienora of Aquitaine. De Born was familiar with many troubadours of his time, such as Guilhem de Bergedan, Arnaut Daniel, Folke de Marseglia, Gaucelme Faidit and even the French trouvère Conon of Bethune. Towards the end of his life, Bertrand de Born retired to the Cistercian Abbey of Dalon, where he died in 1215.
Godfrey of Bouillon (1060-1100)
To become one of the leaders of the First Crusade, Godfrey of Bouillon sold everything he had and gave up his lands. The pinnacle of his military career was the storming of Jerusalem.
Godfrey of Bouillon was elected the first king of the Crusader kingdom in the Holy Land, but refused such a title, preferring the title of baron and Defender of the Holy Sepulcher.
He left orders to crown his brother Baldwin king of Jerusalem in the event that Godfrey himself died - this is how an entire dynasty was founded.
As a ruler, Godfrey took care of expanding the boundaries of the state, imposed taxes on the emissaries of Caesarea, Ptolemais, Ascalon and subjugated the Arabians on the left side of the Jordan to his power. On his initiative, a law was introduced that was called the Jerusalem Assisi.
He died, according to Ibn al-Qalanisi, during the siege of Acre. According to another version, he died of cholera.
Jacques de Molay (1244-1314)
De Molay was the last Master of the Knights Templar. In 1291, after the fall of Acre, the Templars moved their headquarters to Cyprus.
Jacques de Molay set himself two ambitious goals: he wanted to reform the order and convince the pope and European monarchs to launch a new Crusade to the Holy Land.
The Templar Order was the richest organization in the history of medieval Europe, and its economic ambitions were beginning to thwart European monarchs.
On October 13, 1307, by order of King Philip IV the Fair of France, all French Templars were arrested. The order was officially banned.
The last Master of the Tramplars remained in history thanks in part to the legend of the so-called “curse of de Molay.” According to Geoffroy of Paris, on March 18, 1314, Jacques de Molay, having mounted the fire, summoned the French king Philip IV, his adviser Guillaume de Nogaret and Pope Clement V to God's court. Already shrouded in clouds of smoke, he promised the king, adviser and pope that they will survive it for no more than a year. He also cursed the royal family to the thirteenth generation.
In addition, there is a legend that Jacques de Molay, before his death, founded the first Masonic lodges, in which the prohibited Order of the Templars was to be preserved underground.
Jean le Maingre Boucicaut (1366-1421)
Boucicault was one of the most famous French knights. At 18 he went to Prussia to help the Teutonic Order, then he fought against the Moors in Spain and became one of the heroes of the Hundred Years' War. During the truce in 1390, Boucicaut competed in a knight's tournament and took first place in it.
Boucicault was a knight errant and wrote poems about his valor.
His was so great that King Philip VI made him Marshal of France.
At the famous Battle of Agincourt, Boucicault was captured and died in England six years later.
Sid Campeador (1041(1057)-1099)
The real name of this famous knight was Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar. He was a Castilian nobleman, a military and political figure, a national hero of Spain, a hero of Spanish folk legends, poems, romances and dramas, as well as the famous tragedy of Corneille.
The Arabs called the knight Sid. Translated from folk Arabic, “sidi” means “my master.” In addition to the nickname "Sid", Rodrigo also earned another nickname - Campeador, which translates as "winner".
Rodrigo's fame was forged under King Alfonso. Under him, El Cid became commander-in-chief of the Castilian army. In 1094, Cid captured Valencia and became its ruler. All attempts by the Almorravids to reconquer Valencia ended in their defeats in the battles of Cuarte (in 1094) and Bairen (in 1097). After his death in 1099, Sid became a folk hero, sung in poems and songs.
It is believed that before the final battle with the Moors, El Cid was mortally wounded by a poisoned arrow. His wife dressed Compeador's body in armor and mounted it on a horse so that his army would maintain its morale.
In 1919, the remains of Cid and his wife Doña Jimena were buried in the Burgos Cathedral. Since 2007, Tisona, a sword that supposedly belonged to Sid, has been located here.
William Wallace (c. 1272-1305)
William Wallace is a national hero of Scotland, one of the most important figures in its wars of independence in 1296-1328. His image was embodied by Mel Gibson in the film “Braveheart”.
In 1297, Wallace killed the English Sheriff of Lanark and soon established himself as one of the leaders of the Scottish rebellion against the English. On September 11 of the same year, Wallace's small army defeated a 10,000-strong British army at Stirling Bridge. Most of the country was liberated. Wallace was knighted and declared Guardian of the Realm, ruling on behalf of Balliol.
A year later, the English king Edward I again invaded Scotland. On July 22, 1298, the Battle of Falkirk took place. Wallace's forces were defeated and he was forced into hiding. However, a letter from the French king to his ambassadors in Rome, dated November 7, 1300, survives, in which he demands that they support Wallace.
Guerrilla warfare continued in Scotland at this time, and Wallace returned to his homeland in 1304 and took part in several clashes. However, on August 5, 1305, he was captured near Glasgow by English soldiers.
Wallace rejected accusations of treason at trial, saying: “I cannot be a traitor to Edward, because I was never his subject.”
On August 23, 1305, William Wallace was executed in London. His body was beheaded and cut into pieces, his head was hung on the Great London Bridge, and his body parts were exhibited in Scotland's largest cities - Newcastle, Berwick, Stirling and Perth.
Henry Percy (1364-1403)
For his character, Henry Percy received the nickname "hotspur" (hot spur). Percy is one of the heroes of Shakespeare's historical chronicles. Already at the age of fourteen, under the command of his father, he participated in the siege and capture of Berwick, and ten years later he himself commanded two raids on Boulogne. In the same 1388, he was knighted of the Garter by King Edward III of England and took an active part in the war with France.
For his support of the future king Henry IV, Percy became constable of the castles of Flint, Conwy, Chester, Caernarvon and Denbigh, and was also appointed justiciar of North Wales. At the Battle of Homildon Hill, Hotspur captured Earl Archibald Douglas, who commanded the Scots.
The outstanding military leader of the Hundred Years' War, Bertrand Deguclin, in his childhood bore little resemblance to the future famous knight.
According to the troubadour Cuvelier from Tournai, who compiled Du Guesclin’s biography, Bertrand was “the ugliest child in Rennes and Dinant” - with short legs, too broad shoulders and long arms, an ugly round head and dark “boar” skin.
Deguclin entered the first tournament in 1337, at the age of 17, and later chose a military career - as researcher Jean Favier writes, he made war his craft “as much out of necessity as out of spiritual inclination.”
Bertrand Du Guesclin became most famous for his ability to storm well-fortified castles. His small force, supported by archers and crossbowmen, stormed the walls using ladders. Most castles, which had small garrisons, could not withstand such tactics.
After the death of Du Guesclin during the siege of the city of Chateauneuf-de-Randon, he was given the highest posthumous honor: he was buried in the tomb of the French kings in the Church of Saint-Denis at the feet of Charles V.
John Hawkwood (c. 1320-1323 -1394)
The English condottiere John Hawkwood was the most famous leader of the “White Company” - a detachment of Italian mercenaries of the 14th century, who served as the prototype for the heroes of Conan Doyle’s novel “The White Company”.
Along with Hawkwood, English archers and foot-at-arms appeared in Italy. For his military merits, Hawkwood received the nickname l'acuto, "cool", which later became his name - Giovanni Acuto.
Hawkwood's fame was so great that the English king Richard II asked the Florentines for permission to bury him in his homeland in Hedingham. The Florentines returned the ashes of the great condottiere to their homeland, but ordered a tombstone and a fresco for his empty grave in the Florentine Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore.
Emergence knightly orders, due to the advent of the Crusades in the XII-XIII centuries. Such organizations were communities of military personalities and Catholic monks. The ideology of the orders was associated with the confrontation between infidels, pagans, robbers, heretics, Muslims and other unholy heresies they considered. Knights of such orders were on the side of the Inquisition and fought against witches. The plans of the orders included constant attacks and raids on the Holy Land, the Ottoman Empire, Spain, Lithuania, Estonia, Prussia and even Russia. In these lands, their necessity was to introduce Catholicism to the Orthodox believers, or to overthrow Muslim rule by force.
Many knightly orders, under the influence of constant support from the state, became wealthy and dominant. At their disposal were land plots, peasant labor, economics and politics.
At the head of the knightly order was the Grand Master or Grandmaster. Its leadership was appointed by the Catholic Pope. The master gave instructions to commanders, commanders and marshals. The chiefs had subordinate provincial divisions of the orders. The marshals managed financial affairs. The commanders carried out the orders of castles and fortresses. Volunteers who just joined the orders were called neophytes. Each newcomer underwent a rite of passage. Serving in the knightly order was considered honorable and prestigious. Heroic deeds were greatly appreciated by their fans.
In total there were about 19 orders of knighthood. The most famous of them are the Templar Order, the Hospitaller Order and the Teutonic Order. They are so famous that legends are made about them to this day, books are written, films are made and games are programmed.
Warband
Warband was a German, knightly community with a spiritual ideology, which was formed at the end 12th century.
According to one version, the founder of the order was a noble duke Frederick of Swabia November 19, 1190. During this period, he captured Acre fortress V Israel, where hospital residents found a permanent home for him. According to another version, at the moment when the Teutons captured Acre, a hospital was organized. Ultimately, Frederick transformed it into a spiritual knightly order led by the clergyman Conrad. IN 1198 the community of knights was finally approved under the name of the spiritual knightly order. Many spiritual figures of the Templars and Hospitallers, as well as clergy from Jerusalem, arrived at the solemn event.
The main goal of the Teutonic Order was to protect local knights, heal the sick and fight heretics who, by their actions, contradicted the tenets of the Catholic Church. The most important leaders of the German community were Pope And Holy Roman Emperor.
IN 1212-1220. The Teutonic Order was moved from Israel to Germany
, in town Eschenbach, which belonged to the lands of Bavaria. Such an initiative came to the mind of Count Boppo von Wertheim and he turned his idea into reality with the permission of the church. Now the spiritual knightly order began to rightfully be considered German.
By this time, the success of the knightly order began to bring great enrichment and glory. Such a merit could not have been achieved without the Grand Master Hermann von Salza. In Western countries, many fans of the Teutons are beginning to appear, wanting to take advantage of the mighty strength and military power of the German knights. So, Hungarian King Andras II turned to the Teutonic Order for help in the fight against the Cumans. Thanks to this, German soldiers gained autonomy in the lands of Burzenland, southeastern Transylvania. Here the Teutons built 5 famous castles: Schwarzenburg, Marienburg, Kreuzburg, Kronstadt and Rosenau. With such protective support and support, the cleansing of the Polovtsians was carried out at an accelerated pace. In 1225, the Hungarian nobility and their king became very jealous of the Teutonic Order. This led to numerous evictions from Hungary, with only a small number of Germans remaining, joining the Saxons.
The Teutonic Order was involved in the fight against the Prussian pagans in 1217 who began to seize Polish lands. Prince of Poland, Konrad Mazowiecki, asked for help from the Teutonic Knights, in return, promising the captured lands, as well as the cities of Kulm and Dobryn. Sphere of influence began in 1232
, when the first fortress was built near the Vistula River. This justification marked the beginning of the construction of the city of Thorn. Following this, numerous castles began to be erected in the northern regions of Poland. These included: Velun, Kandau, Durben, Velau, Tilsit, Ragnit, Georgenburg, Marienwerder, Barga and famous Koenigsberg. The Prussian army was larger than the Teutonic one, but the Germans cunningly entered into battles with small detachments and lured many to their side. Thus, the Teutonic Order was able to defeat them, even despite the assistance of the enemy from the Lithuanians and the Pomeranians.
The Teutons also invaded Russian lands, taking advantage of the moment of their weakening from the Mongol oppressors. Gathering a united army Baltic And Danish crusaders, and also inspired by the instructions of the Catholic Pope, the German order attacked Pskov possessions of Rus' and captured village Izborsk. Pskov was under siege for a long time, and later was finally captured. The reason for this was the betrayal of many Russian residents of this region. IN Novgorodskiy lands, the crusaders built a fortress Koporye
. Russian sovereign Alexander Nevskiy, during the battles liberated this fortress. And ultimately, united with Vladimir reinforcements, he returned Pskov to Rus' in a decisive Battle on the Ice April 5, 1242 on Lake Peipsi. The Teutonic troops were defeated. The decisive defeat forced the order to leave the Russian lands.
Ultimately, the Teutonic Order began to weaken and significantly lose its power. The constant influence of the German invaders, aggressive Lithuania And Poland against the order . Polish army And Principality of Lithuania forced the Teutons to suffer defeat at the Battle of Grunwald July 15, 1410. Half of the army of the Teutonic Order was destroyed, captured, and the main commanders were killed.
Order of Calatrava
Order of Calatrava was the very first knightly and Catholic order of Spain since the 12th century. The order was founded by Cistercian monks in Castile in 1157. And in 1164, the order was officially confirmed by the pope Alexander III. The name itself " Calatrava" originates from the name of the Moorish castle, located in the lands of Castile and held in battle by the king Alfonso VII V 1147. The existing castle was constantly attacked by enemies. At first it was defended by the Templars, and later, at the insistence of Abbot Raymond, monastic knights of peasant origin came to the rescue, led by Diego Velazquez. After constant clashes with enemies, Order of Calatrava, received a new birth in 1157 under the leadership of King Alfonso.
Later, after 1163 years The influence of the order expanded significantly, which made it possible to carry out attack raids. Many knights did not like the new militarization and left the community. New rules were included in the disciplinary routine. Warriors had to go to bed in knightly armor and wear white cloth, with a symbol of a cross-shaped flower in the form of a red lily.
The Order of Calatrava organized a number of military campaigns with successful military forays. The king of Castile rewarded the knights, where victorious glory warmed up the warriors to serve Aragon. But after the glorious victories, a streak of defeats followed. Irreconcilable enmity with the Moors from Africa forced the warriors of the order to surrender their positions and the fortress to Calatrava in 1195. After this, the order began to accumulate new forces in a new, built Salvatierre Castle
. New warriors were invited there. But in 1211 and this castle fell miserably to the Moors. The Crusade helped return the lost Calatrava to the knights. 1212. Under such pressure, the Moors weakened and their dominance lost significance. The Order of Calatrava, for security reasons, moved its residence to a new location. The distance from the old location was about 8 miles. Under new influence, 2 new orders were organized: Alcantara and Avisa.
In the 13th century, the Order of Calatrava became strong and powerful. In military participation, the community could field a huge number of knights. But further wealth and power made the royal nobility show envy towards him and give rise to new conflicts.
Order of Avis
The appearance is due community Calatravas when former participants at the time of the crusade 1212, for reliability, organized in the new lands, Portuguese Order of Avis for protection from the Moors. In the interests of the kings, the idea arose to keep crusading knights in the service to fight the infidels. The Templars, who previously lived in Portuguese lands, had a huge influence on the Order of Avis. IN 1166 knightly community, the eastern city was successfully liberated Evora. In honor of such a significant event, the sovereign presented the leadership of the order with existing lands. IN XV century, the Royal Council of Portugal, organized a campaign in North Africa. The very first leader of Avis became Pedro Afonso. The Avis Castle was made the main center of the order. Important decisions and spiritual regulations were made here. Ultimately, the knights of the Order of Avis became full landowners with their own colonies. The Portuguese Order gained financial power, which allowed it to control political and economic decisions.
Order of Santiago
Order of Santiago was a Spanish order of knighthood that was formed around 1160. The word "Santiago" was named after the patron saint of Spain. The main task of the order was to protect the pilgrims' road to the chambers of the Apostle James. The order arose in two cities at once, Leon And Cuenca. These 2 urban lands competed with each other, thereby taking the dominant influence into their hands. But after their unification by the Castilian king Ferdinand III, the problem was successfully resolved. The Order was moved to the city of Cuenca.
Unlike other knightly societies and Calatrava, Santiago's routine was much gentler than others. All members of the order had the right to marry. Thanks to this, the Order of Santiago was much larger in the number of its inhabitants and in its proportionate volume. It had 2 cities, more than a hundred villages and 5 monasteries.
The number of troops was 400 horsemen and 1000 foot knights. The Order of Santiago actively participated in battles with Muslims and the Crusades. The charter required newcomers to serve as rowers for a six-month period before joining the ranks of soldiers. All ancestors of a given crusader had to be noble and of noble blood.
The managing leaders of the order were constantly replaced by others. Over the course of several centuries, 40 masters were replaced. All 15th century, was in the championship for the rightful influence over the order.
Order of Saint Lazarus
Order of Saint Lazarus arose in Palestine under the influence of the Crusaders and Hospitallers in 1098. At first, the community was a hospital for visitors. Knights suffering from leprosy were received in her chambers. Later, it turned into a powerful, paramilitary military order. It contained Greek ideology, which was responsible for spiritual decisions. The symbol of Lazarus was a green cross on a white background. This image was painted on coats of arms and on clothes made of light-colored material. At the very beginning of the historical period, the Order of Lazarus was not recognized by the church leadership and was considered to exist unofficially.
"Saint Lazarus"took part in hostilities against Muslims in Jerusalem. This was the period of the Third Crusade in 1187. And in 1244 The Order of Lazarus lost the battle in Forbia which happened 17 October. Such a defeat ended with the expulsion of the knights from Palestine. The order was moved to France, where it began to engage in medical craft.
IN 1517 there was a unification of the community with the Order of St. Mauritius. Despite this, the Order of Lazarus still continued to exist.
Order of Montegaudio
Order of Montegaudio is a Spanish order of chivalry, which was founded by Count Rodrigo Alvarez in 1172. This founder was a member of the Order of Santiago. The name Montegaudio was given by the participants in honor of one hill from which the crusaders discovered Jerusalem. Thus, a fortress was built on this hill, and soon the order itself was formed. IN 1180 the community officially recognized the church leadership and the Catholic pope Alexander III. The symbol of Montegaudio was a red and white cross, which was half painted over. It was worn on all attributes of equipment, including on clothes made of white cloth. All members of the community led an alienated lifestyle. Their life routine was similar to the Cistercians.
IN 1187 Many members of the Order of Montegaudio took part in the bloody battle of Hattin with the Muslim armies. The outcome of the duel ended in the complete defeat of Montegaudio, where most of the knights were killed. The survivors took refuge in Aragon. Here, in 1188, V Teruel city, members of the former knightly community organized a medical hospital Holy Redeemer.
IN 1196, the Order of Montegaudio was disbanded due to a lack of knights to join the ranks. Its former members united with Templars
and with Order of Calatrava
.
Order of the Sword
Order of the Sword was a German, knightly order with a Catholic ideology, formed in 1202 monk Theodoric. He was also Deputy Bishop Albert Buxhoeveden from Latvia, who preached in Livonia. The order was officially approved by the Catholic Church in 1210. The main symbolizing design was a red cross drawn on top of a scarlet sword on a white background.
The sword-bearers were subject to the leadership of the bishop. All actions were carried out only with his approval. The entire routine was supported by the Templar charter. The community of the order was divided into knights, priests and servants. The knights were descendants of small feudal lords. Servants were recruited from ordinary townspeople, who became squires, servants, messengers and artisans. master stood at the head of the order, and chapter decided his important matters.
As in all other orders, castles were built and fortified in the occupied territories. Most of the captured lands were transferred to the rule of the order. The rest was handed over to the bishop.
The Order of the Swordsmen was at enmity with Lithuania and the Semigallians. Military campaigns were carried out by both sides against each other. Russian princes often participated on the side of the Lithuanians. IN February 1236 took place crusade against Lithuania, which ended in the complete defeat of the order and the murder master's degree Volguina von Namburg. The remnants of the Swordsmen joined the Teutonic Order May 12, 1237.
Dobrinsky Order
Dobrinsky Order Poland, was organized as a defense against Prussian invasions. Its founders are Polish princes and bishops who wanted to create a prototype of the Teutonic Order. 1222, a significant date of its creation. The symbolism of the community was very similar to the sword bearers. The routine and discipline were exactly like them and the Templar Order.
In the images the same red sword was visible, but only in place of the cross was a scarlet star. It characterized Jesus' appeal to the pagans. The drawing could be seen on all the knightly paraphernalia of this community.
The Order was hiring 1500 German knights for his retinue, who gathered in the Polish city of Dobrynya. At the head " dobrinichi" got up Konrad Mazowiecki.
The glory and exploits of the Dobrin Order were unsuccessful. The community existed for about 20 years and only 1233, in the battle of Sirgun the knights distinguished themselves by winning 1000+ Prussians. Further, the order united with the Teutons, with the favor of the pope. Later, in 1237 Konrad Mazowiecki wanted to reassemble the Order of Dobrin in the Polish castle of Dorogiczyn, but Danil Galitsky broke them. The final cessation of existence occurred in XIV century, when absolutely all the leaders of the order died.
Order of Montesa
Order of Montesa was a Spanish knightly order that was formed in XIV century. It was organized in 1317, in Aragon. He continued the ideology of the Templars and roughly followed the tradition of the Crusaders. The Spanish crown was in great need of protection from the Moors from the south, so it was always glad to receive the support of the followers of the Templars. New decree of the Catholic Pope 1312, who oppressed the rights of the Templars, obliged them to transfer to the ranks of this Order of Montesa at the command of King of Sicily Jaime II.
The order was named after the fortress Saint George in Montes. It was here that he was first educated. IN 1400 there was a merger with the order San Jorge de Alfama, doubling the existing force. IN 1587 the kingdom of Spain subjugated Montesa's property and the order began to depend on him. This situation continued until 19th century until all the possessions of the knightly community were confiscated by Spain.
Order of Christ
Order of Christ was a knightly order in Portugal, which continued the craft of the Templars. IN 1318 Portuguese King Danish, officially adopted and established this community. All members of the order received dominant lands and a castle from Pope John Tomar
. This stone defense withstood the formidable onslaught of the warring Moors.
IN 1312 The order turned out to be dissolved and for many noble leaders this situation did not suit them. IN 1318 King Danish gathers all the former knights into a new community called "Christ's Militia". The new castle became the habitat Castro Marim
in the south of the Algarve. After a turbulent time in combat with the Moors, the knights were again in danger of collapse. Prince Henry turned the order against the rulers of Morocco in order to collect taxes from African products for the restoration of the castle of Tomar.
Many members of the order took part in seafaring voyages, including with Vasca da Gama. The ships' sails bore the symbols of the order, in the form of a large scarlet cross. Some members of the order began to contradict the rules and regulations associated with celibacy. Therefore, Pope Alexander Borzhdu had to make significant changes to the internal regulations of the discipline, in favor of its participants.
King Manuel relied on the constant support of the order and ultimately, such dependence led to the seizure of church property in favor of the state. The final transition of the Order of Christ from ecclesiastical influence to the kingdom took place in 1789.
Order of the Holy Sepulcher of Jerusalem
The foundation of this order belongs to Godfrey of Bouillon. This famous leader led First Crusade, and after graduation, created a community in 1113 with blessings Popes. Godfrey had a great opportunity to take the proposed power into his own hands by ruling the Kingdom of Jerusalem. But the noble character of the knight chose the path of renouncing the throne, choosing at the same time the status of the main defender of the Holy Sepulcher.
The main goal of all members of the order was to protect Christian pilgrims from aggressive foreigners and spread the faith in the earthen districts of Palestine. Many of the pilgrims eventually decided to join the knightly community. Replenishment of the ranks of sacred warriors could be carried out by mercenaries from Palestine.
IN 1496 Order of the Holy Sepulcher of the Lord of Jerusalem was moved from Jerusalem V Rome. This position contributed to leading the community Pope Alexander IV as Grand Master.
Order of St. George
Order of St. George- this is a knightly order Hungary created by the king Karl Robert in 1326. The reason for the creation of such an order was to strengthen the position of the king, which was under threat from the Hungarian aristocracy. The whole mess escalated into armed confrontation between the true sovereign and the barons. In this fight Carl Robert I had to steadfastly adhere to my titular position, which was encroached upon by outside nobility. Many nobles supported the king and his views.
The knight's tournament served as a demonstration event marking the official beginning of the opening of the order. The number of knights of St. George did not exceed 50. They took an oath to serve faithfully to their king, protect the church craft from heretics and pagans, and also protect the weak from vile enemies and invaders. New warriors were accepted only with the agreement of all members of the community. The Order, unlike many, did not have a Grand Master. But St. George had a chancellor, as well as a secular and spiritual judge.
The symbol of the order was a red shield with a white double cross on it.
Here we look at knightly armor from the 11th century to the first half of the 12th century, in particular from the Battle of Hastings to the First Crusade. Let us assume that knightly equipment in Central Europe was very similar. Significant regional differences cannot be inferred from the sources, but the pictorial sources presented here do not allow them to be isolated. The limits of applicability of these design features go far to the east, for example, helmet shapes typical of Eastern Europe. We find differences in equipment in the Byzantine Empire and in the regions subordinate to it, and the equipment of the Spanish knights also has its own characteristics.
In the first quarter of the 11th century, it should be noted that the shields are still not almond-shaped, and most of the helmets can only be dated to the second half of the 11th century.
Chainmail
The concepts: chain mail armor, hauberk, chain mail can be used interchangeably, so from now on we will simply call it “chain mail”. The terms presented above describe the most common iron armor in use at the time. Several pieces of chain mail dating back to the 11th century have survived. Almost none survived. To get an idea of the appearance of chain mail, consider artifacts and pictorial sources before and after and naturally during the selected period.
(A) Mail from Gjermundby 10th century
It is very short; according to the restoration, it is only just below the waist (to the hip bones) in a man 1.75 m tall. The restoration is very unreliable, since the chain mail was preserved in the form of many small fragments. The sleeves are short, barely covering the shoulders. Assembled from alternating rows of riveted and completely closed rings.
Riveted rings: wire with a cross-section from 1.09 mm to 1.4 or 1.68 mm, a ring with a diameter of 7.4 mm to 8.3 mm, and 7.7 mm here and there. The wire is round in cross-section. The rivet heads are on only one side of the ring, all the rivet heads are on the same side of the row.
Closed rings: material with a cross-section from 1.1 mm to 2 mm, internal ring diameter from 7.5 to 8.4 mm. The cross section is in the shape of a “rounded square”. These rings were most likely forged.
In total, about 25,000 of the above-mentioned rings were discovered, weighing a total of 5.5 kg. (2, 17)
(B1) Mail prescribed to Saint Wenceslas, exhibition "Europe to 1000 AD." Prague, Czech Republic, early 10th century The weight of chain mail B1 is 10 kg. Long, for a person 1.75 m tall it reaches almost to the knees. Long sleeves cover most of the forearm. This chain mail was apparently repaired and modified in later times. Rings with a cross section from 0.75 mm to 0.8 mm, and 0.9 mm at the collar. All rings are riveted. The inner diameter of the rings varies from 6.5 mm and 8 mm. The cut was probably on the back of the head, that is, in this photo the chain mail is from the back. Obviously, after the chain mail was put on, this very cut was tightened with a leather cord.
(C) Chain mail, State Historical Museum on Red Square, Moscow. Judging by the visual assessment of the chain mail, its length is up to the middle of the thigh. The sleeves are short, covering to the middle of the shoulders. The wire has a cross-section of about 1.5 mm, the inner diameter of the ring is about 7-8 mm. Riveted rings.
When looking at these three shirts, the following impressions emerge: the chainmails are very different in length, they end up somewhere between the waist and the knees. They are short sleeved – a maximum of one third of the forearm is covered. The rings are slightly flattened in cross-section (round, oval, almost square, etc.). But no flat rings are known. The rings of chain mail are often solid, and chain mail was sometimes assembled from alternating rows of riveted and solid rings. Completely closed rings are either stamped (Gjermundby 17) or joined by welding (Coppergate 8). The studs have a circular cross-section and are mainly made of iron, although some presence of non-ferrous metal alloys has been found. (8).
As a pictorial source for modern reconstructions of chain mail, we consider of course the Bayeux Tapestry. The late date of manufacture and the circumstances of its production affect the quality of this source (it was made 20 years after the Battle of Hastins). Chain mail extends to the knee and elbow, well, at least covering the forearms. Other pictorial sources confirm this impression. The long sleeves covering the wrist are shown in figure Q1 from the Apocalypse von St. Sever, Französische Ritter zwischen 1028 und 1072,).
(D1) detail of the Bayeux Tapestry. Here the chain mail is depicted in squares, which is interesting, the sword is “hidden” under the chain mail, pay attention to the square on the chest. Over time, chain mail tends to cover the entire body. It grows beyond the knee and covers the entire forearm, and in the second half of the 12th century the hand was covered with a chain mail glove. This development culminates in the 13th century with the full armor of the knight in chain mail. Among the finds at the site of the Battle of Visby, on the island. Gotland 1361, there are also chainmails which strongly resemble the chainmails of earlier periods. The ring is generally 8-10mm in diameter, with variations from 4-17mm. The rings are mainly round in cross-section, but flattened rings are also present (16). Flat rings on steel mail were probably common in the 14th century and were riveted using a rivet from a small triangular plate. (8)
It is impossible to say definitely about the cut on chain mail: for short chain mail they are not needed; cuts on the sides are very convenient, but the warrior runs the risk of being hit on the hips and pelvis with a sword (and in that early period the predominant technique was chopping with swords), so cuts in the front and back are preferable. Such cuts are very often found in pictorial sources of that period, and besides, such cuts are very useful for horsemen, and knights were horsemen.
An incision occurs in the collar area. A flared skirt was not found on chain mail of the period of interest to us. Also, no scallops were found on the chain mail of the period of interest to us.
The side slot for a sword scabbard appears in the second half of the 11th century and is found until the mid-12th century on chain mail. A sword with its hilt protruding from this gap is visible from it, the tip of the scabbard often peeks out from under the chain mail. On the Bayeux Tapestry, (see fig. D). we see how the sword was worn; also a very interesting figure in the Hildesheim Cathedral (German: Hildesheimer Dom) see fig. K, "Massacre of the Innocents" (see fig. I3) and look at the facade of the cathedral in Angouleme (German: Kathedrale von Angouleme) in fig. U. I don’t know of any earlier data about wearing a sword under chain mail.
Another feature of knights on pictorial sources is the chainmail squares on the chest. What this could be is debatable. Perhaps this is an additional breastplate flap attached to the chain mail in the chest area, or a chain mail valve that protects the neck and face. The option with a valve is supported by the hooks on the nosepieces of some of the helmets found. Such hooks only make sense if something is mounted on them. Logically, the breastplate should be permanently attached, but images on the Bayeux Tapestry speak against this theory. If this is a breastplate why is it never shown in the fight scenes? Although in combat scenes the chain mail squares are often no longer on the chest, the face is still displayed as completely as before. But since I think that the helmet artifact is more significant than the Tapestry, I believe that it was still a valve covering the face, see also fig. I7. There are also many images without this square.
Chain mail (and any kind of protection in general) on legs and feet was extremely rare in pictorial sources of the 11th and first half of the 12th centuries, and if it did exist, it belonged to the highest-ranking warriors. Bishop Odo depicted in the Bayeux Tapestry very likely wears chain mail stockings; William was depicted several times (though in later sources) wearing chain mail stockings.
Perhaps the chain mail was coated with something to protect against corrosion. From the late Middle Ages and early modern times there are examples of tinning, that is, coating with tin. And there is a silver-plated chainmail from the 10th century, which is kept in the National Archaeological Museum in Sofia, Bulgaria (1). Since there is no evidence for the period and region of interest to us, coverage is unlikely.
The thickness of the wire and the diameter of the rings varies greatly, so we can imagine many variations.
All numbers are in mm. Almost all genuine rings are in the green zone. Some individual rings reach sizes up to 2.9 mm thick and almost 15 mm in outer diameter. Interestingly, the trend shows that the older the chainmail, the thicker the rings (sixth/seventh centuries), while earlier finds are predominantly of smaller diameter (8th-10th centuries).(20)
(E) German foot or dismounted warriors 1130-1140, Andlau abbey in Alsace (eastern France) Abteikirche von Andlau im Elsaß). Even fairly long chain mail, apparently, did not necessarily have slits. The shields, despite the mid-12th century, are round. Chain mail was made in dozens of varieties, sizes and weights and is almost impossible to date accurately. Since they are made of iron wire, they are very susceptible to corrosion. Therefore, it is not at all surprising that the surviving medieval artifacts are fragmentary and of uncertain origin. However, thoroughly cleaned and oiled (...) chain mail has virtually no shelf life. It was not ordinary soldiers who were equipped with ringed armor, especially if it was new and in good condition. Therefore, it is likely that already in the late Middle Ages chain mail made a very long time ago was used (13).
(F) riveted chain mail: two examples of flat rings, round and oval rings
In addition to the chain mail listed below (F2) made from joined rings made of round wire, burials from the 3rd century are found. BC. in Chiumesti, Romania, where fragments of chain mail were discovered. They probably represent the remains of two different chain mail, since one of them consists of alternating rows of stamped and butted rings, while on the second chain mail the rings of the second type are riveted. Also, a fragment of chain mail from the “record” was found in the Sutton Hoo burial of the 6th-7th centuries, this is a burial mound necropolis east of Woodbridge in the English county of Suffolk. At the same time, there are many examples of chain mail made from riveted rings from ancient times and the late Middle Ages.
(F2) Combined chain mail, Augsburg, 1582. Cavalry armor of Elector Christian, in the Zwinger Arsenal in Dresden (18). a piece of chain mail covering the thigh. Chainmail head protection
At the moment, it seems as if the chainmail head protection was presented in the following variants:
- The chain mail hood is integral with the chain mail;
- Chain mail aventail on the helmet;
- Separate chain mail hood;
- The warrior has chain mail on his body, but there is no chain mail protection for the head and neck
A chainmail shirt, which forms a single whole with a chainmail hood, is an undeniable option. Although, of course, not a single such artifact has been found, a lot of relevant pictorial sources indicate that this version of the head protection has no doubt: the Bayeux Tapestry, the Great Seal of Henry I, the Bible of Saint-Etienne, the Apocalypse of Saint Sever, etc. .
(N1) Apocalypse of John the Evangelist (Beatus-Apokalypse), 10th century (975) dated from accompanying artifacts from the cathedral in Gerona (im Besitz der Kathedrale von Gerona), northwestern Spain. But the very high armor class of the depicted warriors casts doubt on the dating. But these are most likely features of Spanish weapons and equipment. Knights in Fig. N1 up to the hand is completely protected by chain mail. The legs and feet are also clad in chain mail. This chainmail protection is more similar to that used at the end of the 12th century. At least one Phrygian helmet is visible, (more details below left). The shields are round without umbos; finds of such shields date back to the 10th century. Nasals are also depicted on some helmets; they are connected at the lower edge to a chainmail hood.
(L) Detail of a holy water vessel from Lorraine (c. 1000) currently kept in Aachen Cathedral. The chain mail covering the ears and neck is clearly visible, as well as two chain mail with short sleeves and oval shields.  |
 |
| (M) Evangeliar von Echternach (Codex aureus Epternacensis)), 1030-1050. Today it is kept in the German National Museum in Nuremberg (Hs 156 142). Good pictorial source. | (F), fresco from the crypt of the Basilica of Aquileia from the province of Udine (Krypta der Basilika von Aquileia) in northern Italy, early 12th century. |
 |
 |
| (J) Two knights from the de Ebulo Liber manuscript. 1196 “Liber ad honorem Augusti sive de rebus Siculis” von Petrus de Ebulo (Code 120 II of the Civil Library in Bern). The complete picture also shows Bishop Conrad von Würzburg. Drawings (F and J) show that the chainmail hood in later times becomes the standard equipment. | (I1) The marked warrior, unlike many others, does not have chain mail on his body. The segmented helmet is equipped with a chain mail aventail at the bottom. Iso. early 11th century, illustration of “The Vision of Avacuum” from northern France, the Bible of the Benedictine monastery of Saint-Vaast, near Arras (“The Vision of Habukuk” aus der nordfranzösischen Bibel des Benediktinerklosters Saint-Vaast in der Nähe von Arras). MS 435, Municipal Library , Arras. |
In addition to chain mail hoods attached to the shirt, a chain mail aventail was common, attached to the helmet (German: Helmbrünne, English: Aventail). The chainmail aventail covered the neck and shoulders, and perhaps sometimes the face.
Pecs Helmet, late 10th Century: "In the lower part of the dome there are still remains of chain mail fastenings." (4),
Helmet from Lake Lednicke (Helm von Ostrow Lednicki), 11th-12th century: “On the edge of the helmet there are holes that served to attach the neck protection.” (4)
Helm of St. Wenceslas (Helm des heiligen Wenzel), 10th century: "An iron strip was riveted to the lower part of the helmet to which (...) the neck protection was attached." (4)
The Gjermundbu helm still has remains of chainmail inserted into holes in the lower part of the helmet. (3)
All these signs together prove that a small piece of chain mail was also attached to the helmet.
Separate chainmail hoods and necklaces that are not even connected to the chainmail shirt or attached to the bottom of the helmet are difficult to confirm. However, most of the visual sources showing knights in chain mail and helmet cannot be interpreted unambiguously. For example, it is possible that Figure M shows a knight in a helmet with a chain mail aventail, and it is possible that a chain mail hood is attached to his chain mail; there is an opinion that he is not wearing chain mail at all. Some knights may also have worn separate hoods. Due to the sketchiness of the visual sources and the scarcity of artifacts, one can make assumptions. That is, suppose that the helmet is put on a chain mail hood, then the chin straps or laces should be visible above the knight’s cheeks covered with chain mail, but the artists of that time (and often of later times) did not bother themselves too much with small details. In the case of using a chain mail aventail, the straps are hidden under the chain mail, but even if a separate chain mail weir or chain mail hood was used, then artists and sculptors in many cases did not bother to remove the joint.
I have found so far only two pictorial sources showing separate chainmail hoods, see below figure K, and in another section figure T.
It would be surprising to assume that the commander-in-chief lacked armor. You will say: why, he should lead the battle? But at that time the commander-in-chief had to attack in the front ranks, so he had to be protected very reliably.
It is also a little strange to imagine at that time a helmet without a chain mail aventail and not wearing a chain mail hood, that is, without chain mail at all. It would seem so simple, but there are very few such images. From chronicle sources it is known that at the height of the Battle of Hastings the news was spread that William had died, and he opened his face and showed his soldiers that he was alive. This means that during the battle his face was covered with something, probably neither a mask nor a visor, but the flap of a chain mail hood.
(G2) Seal of William the Conqueror. It seems that he is without chain mail at all and his neck is bare. The helmet is very unusual - similar to the helmet of antiquity. Norman helmet
Helmets of conical and spheroconic shapes with a nosepiece of the Ausburg type spread throughout Europe from the beginning of the 11th century and maintained their popularity throughout the 12th century. From the end of the 12th century they were gradually replaced by pot-shaped helmets, but were also used in the 13th century. (6)
 |
| (P2) Helmet from the Meuse River, (territory of Belgium), 11-12 centuries. Stored in Mainz, in the Roman-Germanic Central Museum, exhibition "Das Reich Salier" Most helmets of this type are distinguished by the absence of a stiffening rib in the center of the helmet, as for example on the helmet from Olmutz and the like. Also interesting is the presence of a pommel with a ring, which may have served as a place for attaching a yalovets or similar decoration. Also forged from one piece. |
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| (B2 + W1 + CC1) helmet from Lake Lednice (Ostrow lednicki) Gniezno district in the province of Poznan in Poland. 11th/12th century. Forged from a piece of wood. Slightly trapezoidal crown. There is a hook on the nosepiece. |
These helmets are very similar; the St. Wenceslas helmet is also a representative of this type of helmet. Their heights are 27.5 cm, 26.5 cm, 24.2 cm, 24.4 cm, 27.9 19.5 cm, probably measured from the tip to the tip of the nasal. They are all forged from one piece of iron, and with nozzles. Also very interesting to consider is a helmet published at the beginning of the 20th century in the German journal "Historical Expertise" from Awarenwall,
(I2) A helmet found either in the Thames or in northern France. The nosepiece has been restored. Seams on the front right and left and rear right and left. If you look at the helmet from the top of the nose and the face up, the resulting seams form an X. On the forum tax from shares, Pictorial sources show for the most part only one type of helmet: Norman. That is, a helmet of a conical or spheroconic shape, flattened on the sides so that when viewed from above it resembles an oval, most often with a nosepiece. They are solid or welded from segments so that the joints are not visible. In drawings, the helmet often looks as if it was assembled from segments. The segments were riveted to each other directly (for example, from the Thames and a series of Eastern European helmets). Helmets fastened with stripes (Gjermundby, Baldenhem) can be found, but are already outdated - not a single copy has survived in Western and Central Europe dating from the 11th-12th centuries. But many pictorial sources and finds of such helmets from earlier eras speak in favor of this assumption.
A special form of conical helmet is the “Phrygian cap,” so named by analogy with woolen caps from Phrygia (a region in the west of modern Turkey). They are distinguished by the forward curved top of the crown, see Fig. N. Apparently this form of helmet came into fashion after the 11th century and lasted throughout the 12th century.
The Chamoson helmet, very similar to the helmet from Niederrealta Castle, circa 1961, now allows us to initially trace the origins of the Cherepniks in Northern Italy, in the 12th century. They were made in accordance with the tradition of Gjermundby and other segmented helmets, to comply with this, segments were installed on the Chamoson helmet, which do not add defensive properties (9).
Skeleton helmets and “Phrygian caps” were used very limitedly in the 11th - first half of the 12th centuries; they are relevant only for the end of the period we are considering. In principle, chess pieces from Lewes Abbey in Scotland, made in the 12th century, are used for reconstruction of the 11th century (and some of the figures there have skullcaps), but it is still limited.
It is possible that the helmets could have been brightly colored. The illustrations show colorful helmets. But it is impossible to confirm this materially. No paint has been preserved on any helmet from the period of interest to us.
About the nasalizer
In the 10th century, most helmets did not have a nosepiece. But there are some exceptions, and from the end of the 10th century, nasals appear more and more often.
(S1) Helmets from the Saint Gallen manuscript from the University Library of Leiden (St. Gallen um 925. Leiden, Universitätsbibliothek, Ms. Periz. F17, fol. 22r (1.v.l.), 9r (2.v.l.). The top line shows the helmet with nosepieces.The bottom row shows the same helmets without nosepieces. In Fig. S1 clearly distinguishable nasals, sometimes even with a typical hook at the tip. Only those helmets flying off their heads are depicted with nose guards. Perhaps the artist depicted this in such a way as not to cover the faces of the warriors.
(DD) Phillips Middleton, Ryedale, North Yorkshire, England, 10th century (Jellingstil). Viking in a helmet with a bowman with a sword, saxophone, spear and shield. Before and after the period we are studying, there are many examples of helmets with nosepieces. This continuity and the drawings presented here: S1, DD, N1 prove the existence of alluvials in the 10th century and naturally in the 11th and 12th centuries.
Judging by historical sources, the most common type of armor in the 13th century was chain mail, consisting of iron rings connected to each other.
However, despite their widespread use, only a few chain mail dating back to before the 14th century have survived to this day. None of them were made in England.
Therefore, researchers rely mainly on images in manuscripts and sculptures.
To date, the secret of making chain mail has been largely lost, although descriptions of some procedures are known.
First, the iron wire was pulled through a board with holes of different diameters. Then the wire was wound onto a steel rod and the resulting spiral was cut lengthwise, forming separate rings.
The ends of the ring were flattened and a small hole was made in them. The rings were then woven so that each of them covered the other four. The ends of the ring were connected and secured with a small rivet.
To make one chain mail, several thousand rings were required.
The finished chain mail was sometimes cemented, heated in the thickness of burning coals.
In most cases, all chain mail rings were
riveted, sometimes rows alternated
riveted and welded rings.
| 1 |
Among the armor, chain mail occupied |
| 2 |
Bandaged riveted chainmail rings. |
| 3 |
Iron scale armor. |
| 4 |
Helmet with visor. |
| 5 |
Cylindrical helmet with nasal |
| 6 |
Helmet with chin plate. |
| 7 |
Round helmet with nasal plate. |
| 8 |
Conical helmet with lining. |
| 9 |
Quilted balaclava. |
| 10 |
Chain helmet. |
| Source | |
There were also large chain mail, which reached the knees in length and had long sleeves ending in mittens.
The collar of the large chain mail turned into a chain mail hood or balaclava.
To protect the throat and chin there was a valve, which before the battle was raised upward and secured with a ribbon.
Sometimes such a valve was missing, and the sides of the hood could overlap each other. Typically, the inner surface of the chain mail, which was in contact with the warrior’s skin, had a fabric lining.
In the lower part, the large chain mail had slits that made it easier for the warrior to walk and mount a horse.
A quilted cap was worn under the chain mail balaclava, which was held in place with ties under the chin.
| 11 |
Chain mail without surcoat and mittens. |
| 12 |
Surcoat worn over civilian clothing. |
| 13 |
Long shirt with Hungarian sleeves. |
| 14 |
Chainmail gauntlets. |
| 15 |
Chainmail stripe protecting the leg. |
| 16 |
Chain mail shawls tied to a belt. |
| Source : “English knight 1200-1300.” (New Soldier #10) | |
Around 1275, knights began to wear a chain mail balaclava separated from the chain mail, but the previous chain mail combined with a balaclava continued to be widely used until the end of the 13th century.
The chain mail weighed about 30 pounds (14 kg) depending on its length and the thickness of the rings. There were chain mail shirts with short and short sleeves.
Around the middle of the 13th century, Matthew of Paris depicted combat gloves separated from the sleeves of chain mail. However, such mittens were found
infrequently until the end of the century.
By that time, leather mittens with reinforcing linings made of iron or whalebone had appeared.
The pads could be located outside or inside the mitten.
Leg protection was provided by shossa - chain mail stockings. Shos had leather soles and were tied to a belt, like traditional stockings.
Linen underpants were worn under the highway pants.
Sometimes, instead of highways, the legs were protected with chain mail strips, covering only the front side of the leg, and held on by ribbons at the back.
Around 1225, quilted cuisses appeared, which were worn on the hips. Cuisses were also hung from the belt, like chausses.
In the middle of the century, the use of knee pads was noted for the first time, which were attached directly to chain mail chausses or to quilted cuisses.
Initially, the knee pads were small in size, but then they grew sharply, covering the knees not only in front, but also on the sides.
Sometimes knee pads were made of hard leather. The knee pads were held in place by lacing or rivets.
Elbow pads were very rare.
The shins were covered with metal leggings worn over the shins.
| 1 |
Chain mail remains the main type |
| 2 | |
| 3 |
In the middle of the 12th century, a helmet appeared in |
| 4 |
A liner on a figured cap, worn under a large helmet. |
| 5 |
A cap with a shock absorber, worn under a large helmet. |
| 6 |
Internal helmet worn underneath |
| 7 |
Surcoat with sleeves and fringe. |
| 8 |
Quilted cuisses that protect the hips. |
| 9 |
Highway knee brace. |
| 10 |
Knee pad on cuisses. |
| Source : “English knight 1200-1300.” (New Soldier #10) | |
A quilted aketon or gambeson was usually worn under the chain mail.
The aketon itself consisted of two layers of paper fabric, between which was placed a layer of wool, cotton wool and other similar materials.
Both layers, together with the interlining, were stitched with longitudinal or sometimes diagonal stitches. Later, aketons made of several layers of linen fabric appeared.
According to some descriptions, it is known that gambesons were worn over aketons. Gambesons could be made of silk and other expensive fabrics.
Sometimes they were worn on chain mail or plate armor.
Sometimes a long, loose shirt was worn over the chain mail. Shirt
was too mobile to be quilted.
Although chain mail, due to its flexibility, did not hinder the warrior’s movements, for the same reason, a missed blow could cause serious damage from bruise and contusion to a broken bone.
If the chain mail was pierced, fragments of links could get into the wound, which caused additional pain and threatened infection.
In some manuscripts of the 13th century you can find images of foot soldiers in leather armor, reinforced with metal plates.
In some illustrations in the Maciejowski Bible you can see warriors whose surcoats have a characteristic curve on their shoulders. It can be assumed that in this case a shell was worn under the surcoat.
There is another explanation.
Fawkes de Breaute's list (1224) mentions an "epaulier" made of black silk. Perhaps this meant a shoulder-shock absorber or a collar extending over the shoulders.
There were indeed special collars; they can be seen in several drawings depicting warriors with open vests or removed balaclavas. The outside of such a collar was lined with fabric, but the inside could be made of iron or whalebone. Individual collars were quilted.
It is unknown whether the collars were a separate part or were part of the aketon. It is also unknown how the collar was put on.
It could equally well have been in two pieces joined at the sides, or had a joint on one side and a clasp on the other.
| 1 |
By the end of the century, many knights |
| 2 |
Italian helmet. |
| 4 |
The helmet is a bowler hat. |
| 5 |
Balaclava with lacing at the back of the head. |
| 6 |
Elbow pad. |
| 7 | |
| 8 |
Lamellar shell. |
| 9 |
A combat gauntlet with whalebone scales. |
| 10 | |
| 11 | Waist belt with sword sheath. |
| 12 | Great sword. |
| 13 | Sword. |
| 14 | Sword. |
| 15 |
Garnache with hood. |
| Source : “English knight 1200-1300.” (New Soldier #10) | |
At the end of the century, gorgets, which came to England from France, began to be used to protect the neck.
A surcoat was a cape worn over armor.
The first surcoats appeared in the second quarter of the 12th century and spread everywhere by the beginning of the 13th century, although until the middle of the 13th century there were knights who did not have a surcoat. The main purpose of the surcoat is unknown.
Perhaps it protected the armor from water and prevented it from heating up in the sun.
You could wear your own coat of arms on a surcoat, although most often surcoats were one-color.
The lining of the surcoat usually contrasted with the color of the outer layer.
At the waist, the surcoat was usually intercepted with a cord or belt, which at the same time intercepted the chain mail, shifting part of its mass from the shoulders to the hips.
There were surcoats reinforced with metal plates.
In the middle of the 13th century, a new type of armor appeared - plate armor, which was worn over the head like a poncho, and then wrapped around the sides and fastened with ties or straps.
The front and sides of the shell were reinforced with a plate of iron or whalebone.
Scaly shells were rare. Scaled armor is sometimes found on book miniatures, but they are almost always worn by Saracens or
any other opponents of the Christian knights.
The scales were made of iron, copper alloy, whalebone or leather.
Each scale was attached to a cloth or leather shirt in such a way that the top row of scales overlapped the bottom.
There were several main types of helmets.
The conical helmet could be forged from a single piece of iron with or without the addition of reinforcing linings, or could consist of four segments connected by rivets, like the old German spangen helmet.
Such segmented helmets were also used in the middle of the 13th century, but even then they were considered obsolete.
By 1200, hemispherical and cylindrical helmets were found. All helmets had a nose plate and sometimes a visor.
At the end of the 12th century, the first primitive large helmets appeared. Originally, great helmets were shorter at the back than at the front, but already on the seal of Richard I there is an image of a great helmet equally deep both at the front and at the back.
Closed large helmets became increasingly popular throughout the 13th century. In front there was a narrow horizontal slit for the eyes, reinforced with metal plates.
The flat bottom of the helmet was attached to it with rivets. Although the bottom of the helmet should have been made conical or hemispherical for reasons of strength, this form of helmet took root and became widespread quite late.
| 1 |
This illustration is based on a miniature in a 13th-century Spanish manuscript. |
| 9 — 11 |
Bridle with mouthpiece. |
| Source : “English knight 1200-1300.” (New Soldier #10) | |
In the second half of the 13th century, the upper part of the walls of the helmet began to be made slightly conical, but the bottom remained flat. Only in 1275 did large helmets appear, in which the upper part was a full rather than a truncated cone.
By the end of the century, helmets with a hemispherical bottom appeared.
By 1300, helmets with a visor appeared.
In the middle of the 13th century, a bascinet helmet or cervelier appeared, having a spherical shape. The bascinet could be worn both over a chain mail balaclava and under it.
In the latter case, a shock absorber was put on the head.
All helmets had shock absorbers on the inside, although not a single example has survived to this day. The earliest surviving ones are shock absorbers
XIV century - represent two layers of canvas, between which horsehair, wool, hay or other similar substances are laid.
The shock absorber was either glued to the inside of the helmet, or laced through a series of holes, or secured with rivets.
The upper part of the shock absorber was adjustable in depth, allowing the helmet to be adjusted to the wearer's head so that the slots were at eye level.
For a large helmet, the lining did not go down to the level of the face, as there were ventilation holes there.
The helmet was held on the head by a chin strap.
At the end of the 12th century, a crest appeared on helmets. For example, such a helmet can be seen on the second seal of Richard I.
The crest was sometimes made from a thin sheet of iron, although wood and fabric were also used, especially on tournament helmets.
Sometimes there were voluminous combs made of whalebone, wood, fabric and leather.
Knights
The knights considered themselves the best in everything: in social position, in the art of war, in rights, in manners and even in love. They looked at the rest of the world with extreme disdain, considering townspeople and peasants "uncouth louts." And they even considered priests to be people devoid of “noble manners.” The world, in their understanding, is eternal and unchanging, and in it the dominance of the knightly class is eternal and unchanging. Only that which relates to the life and activities of knights is beautiful and moral; everything else is ugly and immoral.
The origin of knighthood dates back to the era of the Great Migration of Peoples - VI - VII centuries. During this era, the power of the kings strengthened: conquests and the enormous booty associated with them sharply increased their authority. Along with the king, the members of his squad also grew stronger. At first, their elevation above their fellow tribesmen was relative: they remained free and full-fledged people. Like the ancient Germans, they were both landowners and warriors, participating in tribal governance and legal proceedings. True, large land holdings of the nobility grew next to their relatively small plots. Feeling their impunity, tycoons often forcibly took away land and property from weaker neighbors, who were forced to admit that they were dependent people.
Number and role
in medieval society
The number of knights in Europe was small. On average, knights made up no more than 3% of the population of a given country. Due to the peculiarities of the historical development of Poland and Spain, the number of knights there was slightly higher, but also no more than 10%. However, the role of chivalry in Medieval Europe was enormous. The Middle Ages were a time when power decided everything, and power was in the hands of chivalry. It was the knights (if this term is considered as a synonym for the word feudal lord) who owned the main means of production - land, and it was they who concentrated all the power in medieval society. The number of knights who were vassals of the lord determined his nobility.
In addition, it is very important to note that it was the knightly environment that gave rise to a special type of culture, which became one of the most striking aspects of the culture of the Middle Ages. The ideals of chivalry permeated all court life, as well as military conflicts and diplomatic relations. Therefore, the study of the features of knightly ideology seems absolutely necessary for understanding all aspects of the life of medieval society.
Knights | Dedication
Becoming a knight, the young man underwent an initiation procedure: his lord hit him on the shoulder with the flat of his sword, they exchanged a kiss, which symbolized their reciprocity.
Armor
- Helmet 1450
- Helmet 1400
- Helmet 1410
- Helmet Germany 1450
- Milanese helmet 1450
- Italy 1451
- - 9. Italy (Tlmmaso Negroni) 1430
Knight's weapons
The medieval feudal lord was armed with heavy cold steel weapons: a long sword with a meter-long cross-shaped handle, a heavy spear, and a thin dagger. In addition, clubs and battle axes (axes) were used, but they fell out of use quite early. But the knight paid more and more attention to means of protection. He put on chain mail or armor, replacing the previous leather armor.The first armor made of iron plates began to be used in the 13th century. They protected the chest, back, neck, arms and legs. Additional plates were placed over the shoulder, elbow and knee joints.
An indispensable part of knightly weapons was a triangular wooden shield, on which iron plates were stuffed.
An iron helmet with a visor was placed on the head, which could be raised and lowered to protect the face. Helmet designs were constantly changing, providing better and better protection, and sometimes just for the sake of beauty. Covered with all this metal, leather and clothing, the knight suffered from intense heat and thirst during a long battle, especially in the summer.
The knight's war horse began to be covered with a metal blanket. In the end, the knight with his horse, to which he seemed to grow, became a kind of iron fortress.
Such heavy and clumsy weapons made the knight less vulnerable to arrows and blows from the enemy’s spear or sword. But it also led to the knight’s low mobility. The knight, knocked out of the saddle, could no longer mount without the help of a squire.
Nevertheless, for a peasant army on foot, the knight remained for a long time a terrible force against which the peasants were defenseless.
The townspeople soon found a means of defeating the detachments of knights, using their greater mobility and simultaneous cohesion, on the one hand, and better (compared to the peasant) weapons, on the other. In the 11th - 13th centuries, knights were beaten more than once by townspeople in different countries of Western Europe.
But it was the invention and improvement of gunpowder and firearms in the 14th century onwards that brought an end to chivalry as the exemplary military force of the Middle Ages.
Feudal castles and their structure
After the cathedral, the most important type of building in the Middle Ages was undoubtedly the castle. In Germany, following the formation of the type of dynastic fortress in the 11th century, an idea developed about the practical and symbolic advantages of a significant building height: the higher the castle, the better it is. Dukes and princes competed with each other for the right to be called the owner of the highest castle. In the medieval worldview, the height of a castle was directly correlated with the power and wealth of its owner.Taking as an example the southwestern part of Germany, where castles were built especially actively, we will briefly consider some political, social and legal aspects of the development of fortification architecture.
Representatives of the Hohenberg dynasty, descendants of the Counts of Pollern, followed a tradition that ordered a major lord to build a castle on top of a cliff as a sign of his power and authority. In the mid-12th century, this branch of the Zollerns chose a rocky mountain peak above a mountain meadow, now known as Hummelsberg (near Rottweil), as the site of a family fortress. Having thus found itself at an altitude of about a kilometer, the Hohenberg castle “overtook” the Zollern-Hohenzollern castle by approximately 150 meters. To emphasize this advantage, the count owners of the castle took their surname in honor of this mountain peak: "Hohenberg" means "high mountain" in German ("hohen Berg"). Conical outcrops of rocks similar to Hummelsberg, steep on all sides, are typical of the Swabian highlands. They were ideal geographical symbols of power and greatness.
The medieval castle was the center of life of the feudal court. Documentary evidence has been preserved that castles performed many ceremonial functions of the palace: it is known, for example, that in the castle of Count Albrecht 2 Hohenberg on Christmas Day 1286, long and extremely magnificent celebrations were organized in honor of the German Emperor Rudolf 1, who was visiting the count's court. It is also known that in the castles there were many officials typical of the administrative structure of the palace, such as butlers, seneschals and marshals, and this is another evidence of the frequency with which all kinds of holidays were held in the castles.
What did a typical medieval castle look like? Despite the differences between local types of castles, all medieval German castles were generally built according to approximately the same pattern. They had to satisfy two main requirements: to provide reliable protection in the event of an enemy attack and conditions for the social life of the community in general and the feudal court in particular.
As a rule, the castle was surrounded by a fence, the walls of which rested on massive buttresses. A covered patrol path usually ran along the top of the wall; the remaining parts of the wall were protected by battlements alternating with embrasures. You could get inside the castle through a gate with a gate tower. Towers were also erected in the corners of the wall and along it at certain intervals. Outbuildings and the castle chapel were usually located in close proximity to such towers: this ensured greater security. The main building, where there were living quarters and reception rooms for guests, was the palace - the German analogue of the great hall, which performed the same functions in the castles of other countries. It was adjacent to cattle stalls. In the center of the courtyard stood a donjon (sometimes it was placed closer to the palace, and sometimes close to it). Lichtenberg Castle, north of Stuttgart, is one of the few medieval German castles that have been completely preserved to this day. According to masons' marks, its construction dates back to approximately 1220.
Returning to the Hohenbergs, it should be noted that they, along with the Counts Palatine of Tübingen, belonged to the most powerful aristocratic families of Southwestern Germany in the 12th and 13th centuries. They owned extensive estates in the upper reaches of the Neckar River, as well as, in addition to the main castle of Hohenburg, castles in Rothenburg, Horb and other places.
It was in Horb, a city built on a hill above the Neckar, that the Hohenberg dream of an ideal residence, completely dotted with towers reaching into the heavens, came close to being realized. The former owner of Horb, Count Palatine of Tübingen Rudolf II, conceived, but did not have time to complete, a project to build a grandiose castle on a rocky ledge hanging over the city market. At the end of the 13th century, Horb, as part of the dowry of a bride from the Tübingen family, passed to the Hohenbergs, who completed the construction work, uniting the castle with the city in such a way that the city church was also protected by the castle walls. Built between 1260 and 1280, this former collegiate church of the Holy Cross is now dedicated to the Virgin Mary.
As a result, the castle and the town in Horb merged into a single whole in a unique way. It is almost certain that Horb was the first German town to serve as the basis for a lord's residence. Thanks to this, many buildings that belonged to the count appeared in the city itself, which stimulated the development of the functions of the count's court as a social institution.
Further development of this process took place in Rothenburg. In 1291, Count Albrecht 2 Hohenberg, who had previously lived in seclusion on the Weilerburg peak, founded a residence for himself above Rothenburg; The castle and the city also formed a single whole here. The secluded Weilerburg castle on a rock, cut off from public life, was, of course, not completely abandoned, but basically lost its role as a residence. Rothenburg turned into the capital of the Hohenbergs and remained a residence city even after this count's family died out.
Thus, the development of medieval residence towns in the 13th and 14th centuries was determined mainly by the process of transferring the castle to the city. This process, which formed a new type of urban culture and entailed important political and social consequences, can be considered in the context of frequent changes of rulers.
The increasing political power of the lords created the need to maintain more lavish courts and finance expensive building projects - castle towns and castle palaces. Of course, such a blatant display of force brought danger to the new castles. The castle and the surrounding area had to be carefully fortified. Defense required heavily fortified castle walls and well-armed knights; however, open conflict was usually preceded by intense diplomatic negotiations. And only if all possibilities for non-violent resolution of the conflict were exhausted, war was declared and the opponents locked themselves in their castles to prepare for hostilities.
Then the lord either marched out of the castle with his army or took defensive measures. Not only the castle, but also the city took part in preparing for the defense. At the end of the war, a peace treaty was signed, the sole purpose of which was to prevent further strife. The agreement established new boundaries, which were sometimes described down to the smallest detail, listing pastures and fiefs. Descendants, however, often did not want to recognize the legality of such a redistribution of land, and if such a conflict, which dragged on for generations, could not be resolved, it could ultimately lead to the destruction of the castle or a change of ruler. In the Middle Ages, formally declared civil wars were often considered a completely legal means of restoring inheritance rights.
Some medieval castles, and subsequently residential towns, developed into cultural centers. If the lord turned out to be a lover of fine arts, he tried to attract scientists and artists to the court, founded a university and ordered work on the construction or decoration of temples and palaces.
Leisure
TournamentsThe purpose of the tournament is to demonstrate the fighting qualities of the knights who made up the main military. the power of the Middle Ages. Tournaments were usually organized by the king, or barons, major lords on especially solemn occasions: in honor of the marriages of kings, princes of the blood, in connection with the birth of heirs, the conclusion of peace, etc. Knights from all over Europe gathered for the tournament; it took place publicly, with a wide gathering of feudal people. nobility and common people.
Over time, coats of arms began to be checked at the tournament, and special tournament books and tournament lists were introduced. Usually the tournament began with a duel between knights, usually those who had just been knighted, the so-called. "jute". Such a duel was called "tiost" - a duel with spears. Then the main competition was held - an imitation of a battle between two detachments, formed by “nations” or regions. The victors took their opponents prisoner, took away weapons and horses, and forced the vanquished to pay a ransom.
From the 13th century the tournament was often accompanied by severe injuries and even death of participants. The church prohibited tournaments and the burial of the dead, but the custom turned out to be ineradicable. At the end of the tournament, the names of the winners were announced and awards were distributed. The winner of the tournament had the right to choose the queen of the tournament. Tournaments stopped in the 16th century, when the knightly cavalry lost its importance and was supplanted by infantry riflemen recruited from townspeople and peasants.
Knightly mottos
An important attribute of the knight was his motto. This is a short saying that expresses the most important side of the knight’s character, his life principles and aspirations. Mottos were often depicted on the coats of arms of knights, their seals, and armor. Many knights had mottos that emphasized their courage, determination, and especially complete self-sufficiency and independence from anyone. The characteristic knightly mottos were the following: “I will go my own way,” “I will not become anyone else,” “Remember me often,” “I will overcome,” “I am not a king or a prince, I am the Count de Coucy.”